Beruflich Dokumente
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OIL ASSOCIATION
SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 97803
PS2005-371
Copyright 2005, SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA International Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil Symposium
established, this can be compared with fluid expansion during
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2005 SPE International Thermal Operations pressure depletion in a sand pack.
and Heavy Oil Symposium held in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 13 November 2005.
Computer Assisted Tomography (CT) scanning is useful
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA Program Committee
following review of information contained in a proposal submitted by the author(s). Contents of
in studying high-pressure PVT relationships. Images of a
the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers, pressure vessel filled with live oil can be taken as the volume
Petroleum SocietyCanadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy & Petroleum, or the Canadian
Heavy Oil Association and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as of the vessel is expanded and used to calculate bulk densities
presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA, its officers, or
members. Papers presented at SPE and PS-CIM/CHOA meetings are subject to publication
and free gas saturation. Also, CT images allow us to visually
review by Editorial Committees of the SPE and PS-CIM/CHOA. Electronic reproduction, see how the gas comes out of solution and where it is located
distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written
consent of the SPE or PS-CIM/CHOA is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is in the vessel. For example, CT scanning can be used to
restricted to a proposal of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The
proposal must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was
provide an indication of whether or not small bubbles nucleate
presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax within the oil and then slowly coalesce into a gas cap, or if
01-972-952-9435.
free gas forms straight away.
CT scanning provides much more information than
Abstract conventional PVT cells. Uncertainties about where gas is
In this paper, we propose the combined utilization of x-ray forming in the oil, its effect on oil properties and transient
tomography and magnetic resonance techniques for behavior cannot be solved in conventional PVT cells.
quantification of heavy oil fluid properties. The design of However, from CT images the formation of micro bubbles
these systems is presented along with preliminary results could be inferred based on the density of the oil with the
combined with conventional measurements. The objective is dissolved gas. If the oil density decreases as the pressure
to understand the PVT behavior of a viscous heavy oil from a drops, then it is likely that gas has come out of solution but
reservoir that has undergone primary production. Methane is remains within the oil, hence the resulting mixture is less
dissolved into the oil at ambient temperature and elevated dense than the original live oil. However, if oil density
pressure. The pressure is later slowly depleted and the oil increases as the gas evolves then the oil does not contain small
PVT properties are recorded. Specifically, this paper details gas bubbles, and gas has separated from the oil.
measurements of oil density, formation value factor, and Also, the free gas saturation growth with time, and
solution gas-oil-ratio as a function of pressure. The comparison of images at equilibrium vs. immediately after the
incremental benefit of the proposed nucleonic techniques is expansion of the vessel, will provide mass transfer information
that they provide more detailed information about that oil, about gas bubble growth, supersaturation and gravity
compared to conventional PVT measurements. This improves separation.
our understanding of the foamy oil response. When characterizing heavy oil and bitumen fluid
properties, oil viscosity is one of the most important pieces of
Introduction information that has to be obtained. The high viscosities of
Understanding fluid behavior of heavy oils is important for heavy oil and bitumen present a significant obstacle to the
reservoir simulation and production response predictions. In technical and economic success of a given EOR option. As a
heavy oil reservoirs, the oil viscosity and density are result, in-situ oil viscosity measurement techniques would be
commonly reported, but there is little experimental data in the of considerable benefit to the industry.
literature reporting how oil properties change with pressure. In heavy oil reservoirs that are undergoing primary
This information would be especially useful for production production, this problem is further complicated by the
companies seeking to understand and improve their primary presence of the gas leaving solution with the oil. Above the
(cold production) response. bubble point the gas is fully dissolved into the oil, thus the live
It is already widely known that foamy oil behavior is a oil exists as a single-phase fluid. Once the pressure drops
major cause for increased production in cold heavy oil below the bubble point and gas begins to leave solution,
reservoirs along with sand production. Therefore it would be however, oil viscosity behavior is no longer well understood.
valuable to first study the bulk fluid properties of live heavy In addition to our CT analysis, this work also presents the use
oil prior to sand pack depletion experiments. If the response of of low field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) as a tool for
these properties to incremental pressure reduction can be
2 SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 97803
making in-situ viscosity estimates of live and foamy oil. calculated as a function of pressure, to understand the oil PVT
NMR spectra change significantly as pressure drops and gas response.
leaves solution, and these changes can be correlated to
physical changes in the oil viscosity. NMR Theory. Low field NMR monitors the response of
The novelty of the NMR and CT work is that hydrogen protons in the presence of an external magnetic
measurements are non-intrusive and have the potential to field. Protons are found in hydrocarbons and water, thus
provide a wealth of information about heavy oil and bitumen NMR signals come only from these fluids, and not from the
PVT properties that cannot be easily determined in surrounding rock or, in the case of PVT experiments, core
conventional measurements. In this manner, the use of these holder (so long as these do not contain paramagnetic
tomographic imaging tools allows for an improved elements). In an NMR experiment, the protons are initially
understanding of how heavy oil properties change with aligned in the direction of the external magnetic field lines.
pressure, which is useful for interpreting and modeling foamy Additional energy is then supplied to the protons in the form
oil response in the reservoir. of radio-frequency (RF) pulses, causing them to tip onto a
perpendicular plane. The protons exchange energy with other
X-ray Computed Tomography Theory. X-rays are produced protons and with the surface of the medium surrounding the
from a source in a narrow fan, pass through the scanned object liquids, and as they give off energy they return to their
and are received by detectors. As the x-rays pass through the equilibrium alignment. Inversion software converts the
object being scanned they attenuate and the detector measures measured decay data into a spectrum of amplitudes and their
the photons that are not absorbed. The source and the detector associated relaxation time constants, and all NMR analysis is
rotate around the object being scanned providing a cross- performed on these spectra.
sectional image of the object 1,2. Mechanisms by which NMR relaxation occurs have been
The CT image itself is comprised of normalized values well documented in the literature 8, 9. In the case of bulk
of the linear attenuation coefficient for each volume element liquids not constricted by rock pores, relaxation occurs
called CT numbers. Measured CT numbers may be negative or through a process known as bulk relaxation. In the case of
positive. In order to interpret them, they are normalized to oil, which contains many components, the geometric mean
water, which has a value of zero, and air, which has a value of relaxation time (T2gm) of the oil is used to represent its average
-1000. CT images are 512 by 512 pixels and the resolution is relaxation time. It has been experimentally determined8, 10 that
dependent on the slice thickness and the scanned field size. as fluid viscosity increases, bulk relaxation rate increases as
There are many papers that discuss CT scanning fundamentals well, and T2gm decreases. In this manner, bulk fluids with
and equations used to develop the images1-7. short T2gm values correlate with higher fluid viscosity.
A correlation was developed to relate CT numbers to
densities by using the CT numbers of various oils, water and NMR and liquid viscosity. The mechanism by which
solvents with known densities. This relationship is system NMR can be related to fluid viscosity can be explained
dependant; it is also reliant upon the vessel in which the through Eyrings Theory of Liquid Viscosity11. This theory
sample is scanned as well as the scanner voltage and current states that liquid molecules are in a cage-like structure, and
settings. that the free space between the molecules is not large enough
for the molecules to move freely by one another. For any one
bulk = 0.967 CTnumber 1019.14 ....................... (1) molecule to move, other surrounding molecules must first give
way and move into vacant lattice sites or holes, thus creating
a space for the molecule to enter. Highly viscous fluids
where, bulk is the bulk density (kg/m) and CTnumber is the consist of molecules that cannot move easily by one another,
normalized CT number. meaning that higher shear stresses must be applied to the
Using the CT images of the live oil mixture at a cross- liquids in order to initiate flow.
sectional slice, the free gas fraction can be found. The image is
NMR bulk relaxation occurs as protons transfer energy
first cropped to only contain the fluid mixture, and then the to neighbouring protons, and in doing so return to the
free gas saturation is calculated by dividing the number of equilibrium direction. If liquid molecules cannot easily flow
pixels containing free gas by the total number of image pixel
by one another, energy from the NMR experiment can be
that contains gas and oil. The remaining portion of the image transferred very quickly between protons, and relaxation
is the oil phase, along with dissolved or dispersed gas. The occurs quickly. Additionally, high viscosity fluids contain
density of this portion can be obtained from its CT numbers
less measurable signal per unit mass of fluid12. A parameter
using Eq. 1, thus oil density can be monitored as gas comes was therefore defined13, 14 called the relative hydrogen index,
out of solution. RHI. This is simply the normalized oil amplitude per unit
The remaining volume of solution gas at any pressure is
mass, referenced to the amplitude per unit mass of water at the
calculated by subtracting the free gas saturation, obtained from same temperature. Based upon a mechanistic understanding
the scanned images, from the original volume of dissolved gas of how both of these NMR parameters relate to oil viscosity,
in the oil. This volume of solution gas is divided by the dead
an NMR viscosity model was developed for making NMR
oil volume to obtain the solution gas oil ratio. viscosity predictions13, 14. Previous work has shown that with
The single-phase oil formation volume factor is tuning for a specific oil, viscosity predictions can be made
calculated as the oil volume occupied in the image, divided by
fairly accurately as a function of temperature14.
the initial dead oil volume. All of these properties can be
SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 97803 3
NMR and foamy oil viscosity. At pressures above the The end caps and the piston were made out of aluminum. The
bubble point, gas is fully dissolved into the oil. In this manner, vessel was pressurized with water on one side of the piston to
live oil behaves as a single-phase fluid, and its viscosity can a value greater than the bubblepoint, and then a known volume
be measured using a capillary viscometer. Once gas leaves of live oil was transferred to the piston. The waterside of the
solution, however, oil and gas now flow as a two-phase, piston cylinder was connected to a pressure transducer and a
highly compressible mixture, meaning that the viscosity Jefri pump, and then the piston cylinder was placed on the
predicted using a capillary viscometer is no longer accurate. scanning bed. In the experiments, a known volume of water
Thus, a new method for inferring foamy oil viscosity is was withdrawn daily, using the precision Jefri pump. The
required. system was scanned before and after the water volume was
Theoretical explanations of the effect of this dispersed removed.
gas are contradictory. Normal emulsion theory15 states that
the dispersed gas bubbles act as barriers to flow in the liquid,
thus the foamy oil viscosity should be higher than that of the
dead heavy oil. Alternatively, theories have been put forth in
the literature explaining the high production rates associated
with cold production as the effect of the dispersed gas bubbles
somehow leading to reduced viscosity. Wall et al.16 found that Jefri Pump water live oil CT
Scanner
gas mobility decreases with increasing oil viscosity. Smith17 Pressure
was the first to develop an apparent in situ oil viscosity Transducer
move to scan
that this technique is valid for both dead and live oil analysis.
In this manner, NMR can be used to determine the viscosity of Figure 2. Experimental apparatus for NMR expansion experiment.
this compressible, two-phase, foamy oil. This, along with the
other measurements of oil properties we obtain using CT The oil measured in this study is a produced crude oil from a
analysis, allow for improved understanding of live and foamy field that has undergone primary production. This oil is
oil properties. recombined with methane using a magnetic drive-mixing
vessel. The same oil has been used for both the CT scanning
Experimental Setup and Procedure and NMR expansion vessels. The GOR of the oil was also
Two pressure vessels were designed out of TECAPEAK determined before the oil was transferred to the expansion
PVX, a high performance plastic that can withstand high- vessels.
pressure applications. This material is x-ray transparent and This work uses a third generation general electric CT/i
also does not interfere with the magnet in the NMR. scanner; meaning the source and the detectors rotate together
The pressure vessel designed for CT scanning was around the object. The technique used for the imaging is 120
designed as a piston cylinder with a 4.45 cm inner diameter. kV and 80 mA. The resolution of measurement or the volume
4 SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 97803
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Volume Redrawn (ml)
Figure 5. Pressure as a function of volume withdrawn.
Figure 3. Scout (top view) scans of live oil as gas comes out of
solution. The density of the oil and dissolved gas is averaged; since this
is the density of bulk fluids, the standard deviation for the oil
Figure 4 shows axial scanned images taken at a single cross- portion is low. The average density is plotted as a function of
section at different times during the experiment. The images pressure in Figure 6.
are: (a) before the bubble point at time zero, (b) just after the
gas becomes continuous, (c) the free gas grows with 978
expansion of the vessel and (d) at end of experiment at high 977 Before
depletion rate not at equilibrium. After
976
Density (kg/m)
point the density of the mixture decreases. This is caused by The two-phase formation volume factor shows the same
the expansion of the live oil before the gas comes out of behavior: below the bubble point the two-phase formation
solution. There is an inflection point at a pressure of 4275 kPa volume factor increases as the free gas is produced. Figures 7
in which the density begins to increase with decreasing and 8 both illustrate the unique nature of foamy oil PVT. In
pressure. This implies that free gas is being generated and the conventional oil, where gas easily leaves solution with the oil,
resulting density of the oil with the remaining gas in solution BO decreases significantly as pressure drops below the bubble
increases towards that of dead oil. point27. In Figure 7, however, the single phase FVF changes
The expansion vessel was CT scanned immediately much more slowly with pressure. After the initial abrupt drop
before and after the pressure was dropped. The goal was to see at the bubble point, BO barely decreases even when the
where the gas was coming out of solution, but unfortunately pressure has dropped by an additional 1000 kPa below the
this was not visible. The images taken directly after the bubble point. Figure 8, which plots BT with pressure, does not
pressure was dropped show the density was slightly lower than show this trend as distinctly because below the bubble point
the density of the images taken 24 hours later. This indicates BT is masked by the free gas. However, when comparing this
that the oil was liberating gas, reducing the density, but the gas plot again to that expected in a conventional oil reservoir, it
still remains within the oil. Gas was liberated within the oil, can be seen that the gas does not leave solution as easily in
just not as free gas. this heavy oil.
The oil formation volume factor, BO, and the two-phase The solution gas-oil-ratio, RS, is plotted in Figure 9 with
oil formation volume factor, BT, are shown as a function of pressure. Above the bubble point, the CT images show that the
pressure in Figures 7 and 8. gas in solution remains constant, while the gas in solution
steadily declines below the bubble point.
1.06
14
Oil Formation Volume Factor
1.05
1.04 12
1.03
Rs (cm/cm)
10
1.02
8
1.01
6
1.00
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 4
Pre ssure (kPa) 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Pre ssure (kPa)
Figure 7. Oil formation volume factor with declining pressure.
Figure 9. Solution gas oil ratio as a function pressure.
As pressure decreases above the bubble point the single-phase
oil formation volume factor increases. This indicates that the The shape of the curve in Figure 9 is also indicative of the
oil volume is expanding, but the gas remains dissolved. Below unique nature of foamy oil. At the bubble point there is
the bubble point there is initially a sharp decline in the oil initially a drop in RS, but as pressure continues to drop, the gas
formation volume factor as the oil becomes less compressible does not leave solution as quickly as it would in conventional
and the free gas is formed. oil.
These measurements, obtained through CT scanning,
1.25 indicate that the oil phase imaged in the cross-sectional slices
contains a significant amount of entrained gas, which was not
Two Phase Oil Formation
1.20 able to form its own phase separate from the oil. These results
are not in themselves totally unexpected, although it should be
Volume Factor
1.15 noted that there is very little data regarding actual heavy oil
PVT studies in the literature. Rather, what is unique about the
1.10
results presented in this paper is that they have been measured
in-situ and in 3D, along the entire length of the piston
1.05
cylinder. This data was all gathered during the same CT
experiment, and the numbers presented are averaged over the
1.00
entire length of the cylinder. This should therefore be more
2000 4000 6000 8000
statistically valid than measurements obtained only at the
Pre ssure (kPa) window of a PVT cell. Additionally, CT imaging has yielded
information that cannot be readily obtained in conventional
Figure 8. Two phase oil formation volume factor as pressure
decreases for gas coming out of solution.
PVT studies. For example, below the bubble point, dispersed
free gas is present throughout the oil, not just in the upper
6 SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 97803
regions of the cylinder. This is seen in the fact that the oil For the oil sample measured in this study, measurements
phase CT numbers (and hence density) are fairly constant of live and dead oil viscosity were performed in order to tune
throughout the oil phase in any given slice the NMR viscosity model. The values of and were found
to be 13632 and 1.46, respectively, which are very different
NMR Experiment. For the heavy oil sample tested in this from the general values, and illustrate the importance of
study, measurements of dead oil viscosity were first made tuning in order to improve the viscosity estimates.
using a Brookfield cone and plate viscometer, and live oil There are two parameters that must be determined in
viscosity above the bubble point using a capillary viscometer. order to predict viscosity using the NMR model: the oil RHI
These measurements were performed at the measurement and its T2gm. The geometric mean oil relaxation time can be
temperature (23C). Several repeat measurements of dead oil determined from the peak locations in the NMR spectra, and
viscosity were also made at 30C in order to test the T2gm values are plotted against pressure in Figure 10.
homogeneity of this oil. It was observed that different oil
samples measured at 30C had slightly different measured
viscosity and NMR values, meaning that this oil is not totally 3
homogeneous.
For dead oils, viscosity has been observed to vary 2.5
inversely with the oil T2gm8, 9. However, for higher viscosity 2
T2gm (ms)
oils the relationship between viscosity and T2gm is less clear.
In order to accurately predict higher viscosities, a different 1.5
form for the NMR viscosity model has been shown to be23 ,24: 1
= ........................................................... (2) 0.5
(RHI ) T2gm
0
where is the oil viscosity, RHI is the oil relative hydrogen 6000 4000 2000 0
index and T2gm is the oil geometric mean relaxation time. The Pressure (kPa)
parameters and are empirical constants. The general
Figure 10. Oil T2gm changes with pressure.
values and are 1150 and 4.55, respectively. Using these
general values can allow for order of magnitude viscosity
predictions over a wide range of oil viscosity values13, 23. In Since oil viscosity is known to be inversely related in
order to improve the viscosity predictions for a single some fashion to the oil T2gm, the results of Figure 10 are
extremely important, because they provide an indication of the
reservoir, these values have to be tuned for the oil under
investigation. oil viscosity behavior with pressure both above and below the
In the development of this viscosity model, it was bubble point. At pressures above the bubble point, the oil T2gm
values are relatively constant, indicating that live oil viscosity
observed that oil samples measured at different temperatures
behave the same way as independent oil samples of different is not a function of pressure. This observation has also been
viscosity, all measured at the same temperature23. This experimentally determined using capillary viscometry.
At the bubble point pressure, there is a drop in the oil
observation can be explained through Eyrings theory of liquid
viscosity11. At low temperatures, the molecules of high T2gm as gas begins to leave solution and the oil becomes more
viscosity heavy oil are complex and interwoven, meaning that viscous. The very important observation that can be made
it is not easy for molecules to separate and generate holes from Figure 10, however, is that the T2gm values do not
into which other molecules can move, which is the decrease significantly, even as the pressure drops by several
prerequisite to flow. At elevated temperatures, the molecules thousand kPa below the bubble point pressure. The oil
now have much more energy and are moving more, meaning relaxation times below the bubble point are certainly lower
that the spaces between molecules are larger and flow occurs than the live oil values, indicating that the oil is more viscous
with less required shear input. once some gas has left solution, however the T2gm values do
The assumption made in using this same form of the oil not begin to approach those of the dead oil until pressures
viscosity model to predict live oil viscosity is that the effect of went well below the bubble point.
In order to convert the NMR findings into actual
dissolved gas on the oil viscosity is the same as that of
temperature (i.e. oil containing solution gas at elevated viscosity values using the tuned expression for Eq. 2, both
pressures behaves similarly to less viscous oil at ambient NMR parameters of RHI and T2gm must be determined at each
experimental pressure. The T2gm values were measured and are
pressures). Once more, this assumption can be validated using
Eyrings theory of liquid viscosity. When gas is dissolved into shown in Figure 10, but the RHI values are more problematic.
the oil, the gas effectively causes the oil molecules to separate RHI is the oil amplitude per unit mass, referenced to that of
water. In the foamy oil NMR experiment, fluid was slowly
further from one another, giving the same effect as increased
temperature. This was proven previously through the CT withdrawn from the system in order to reduce the pressure.
analysis of BO. In this manner, oils containing dissolved As a result, the mass of oil present is not known at any given
pressure, and RHI cannot be determined directly. This
methane behave similarly on a molecular level to lower
viscosity oils at ambient pressures, and the dead oil NMR problem has been solved by observing that RHI and T2gm are
viscosity model can also be used to predict live oil viscosity. not independent, but rather they are related to one another
SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 97803 7
through the oil viscosity. This means that RHI can be constant at the measured live oil value, while below the bubble
predicted for a single oil at different temperatures, based on point (dark diamonds) viscosity increases.
the oil T2gm. This has previously been demonstrated in our A trend line has been fitted through the data below the
work determining in-situ oil viscosity14, 24 and in-situ fluid bubble point in order to illustrate the nature of foamy oil
saturation25, 26. Figure 11 shows the relationship between T2gm viscosity changes with pressure. The surprising result of
and RHI for this particular oil. This plot was obtained by Figure 12 is that at pressures well below the bubble point, the
measuring the NMR spectra of a known mass of this oil at NMR viscosity is not significantly higher than the live oil
different temperatures. The relationship is non-linear, which value. At pressures approaching ambient pressure, when most
has also been observed in previous work. Based on the of the gas has finally left solution (according to Figure 10), the
measured oil T2gm, therefore, the oil RHI can also be inferred, oil viscosity then increases much more rapidly towards the
and viscosity estimated using Eq. 2. As was also noted in dead oil value.
previous work25, this means that in-situ viscosity calculated The surprising result shown in Figure 12 indicates a
using Equation 2 is in reality a non-linear function of the oil foamy oil viscosity response that cannot be measured with
relaxation time, and the RHI term exists to tune the non- conventional laboratory apparatuses. Repeat measurements
linearity for different oils. should be run, both with this oil and with other heavy oils
from reservoirs that can undergo primary production, in order
to verify the results shown in this figure. However, at this
0.95 point, the data seems to indicate that during the foamy oil
period of primary production in heavy oil reservoirs, the slow
0.90
gas liberation from the oil keeps the oil viscosity close to that
0.85 of its live oil value. This means that the improved response
seen in many of these heavy oil reservoirs can at least in part
Oil RHI
0.80
be due to the oil viscosity staying low until the reservoir
0.75 pressure has declined well below the bubble point. This, along
0.70 y = -0.016x 2 + 0.143x + 0.6475 with the poor gas mobility observed in the CT experiments, is
R2 = 0.83 consistent with the improved rates and recoveries seen during
0.65
primary production of heavy oil.
0.60 One last set of data that was extracted from these
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 experiments is the comparison of NMR spectra properties,
Oil T2gm (ms) immediately before and after a volume depletion step. Figure
13 shows the T2gm vs. pressure response for the data collected
Figure 11. Oil RHI T2gm relationship based on dead oil. right before (Pbef) and right after (Paft) a volume depletion.
At this point, both NMR parameters are known at the
experimental pressures, and oil viscosity can be calculated
3
using the tuned form of Eq. 2. The NMR viscosity estimations
are plotted against pressure in Figure 12. 2.8
T2gm (ms)
2.6
12000
8000
6000 2
4000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000
Pressure (kPa)
2000
Figure 13. NMR response of measurements taken before and after
0 pressure depletion steps.
8000 6000 4000 2000 0
Pressure (kPa) Figure 13 shows that although the data measured before
and after the volume depletions appear to follow similar-
Figure 12. NMR viscosity variations with pressure. shaped trends, the data taken immediately after the pressure
depletion is skewed such that the change in NMR response is
It is important to note that the actual viscosity values may not not seen until lower pressures. Data taken before a depletion
be perfectly accurate, since the NMR viscosity model was step are equilibrium data, meaning that the system has
tuned using only two points (dead oil and live oil above the remained at constant volume for many hours. Conversely, the
bubble point). However, Figure 12 demonstrates that above data taken immediately after a volume depletion are not at
the bubble point (the white squares) the viscosity is essentially equilibrium. The delayed pressure response seen in this data
8 SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 97803