Industrial Training Report

on
Computer Networking

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

Bachelor of Technology

in

Computer Science and Engineering

Submitted By

Himangshu Borah

Student ID: ET14BT0148

School of Engineering and Technology

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
The Assam Kaziranga University, Koraikhowa
Jorhat-785006, Assam
July 2017
 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEEING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
THE ASSAM KAZIRANGA UNIVERSITY
JORHAT-785006 :: ASSAM :: INDIA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Industrial Training entitled Computer

Networks has been successfully completed by Himangshu Borah, Student ID
ET14BT0148, 7th semester student of B.Tech. (Computer Science and
Engineering) programme under The Assam Kaziranga University.
This report is recommended in the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering for the partial fulfillment of the paper ET1359: Industrial
Training in the 7th semester final examination.

.. ...

HOD, Dept. of CSE Faculty Mentor

Faculty_Name

Date: Designation
Dept. of CSE

1
CERTIFICATE FROM EXTERNAL GUIDE
(If Any)

2
 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
THE ASSAM KAZIRANGA UNIVERSITY, JORHAT-785006
Evaluation Sheet
(Industrial Training/ Seminar/ Minor Project/ Major Project)

Name of the Student: ________________________________________________________________

Roll Number: ______________________Title of the
Report:____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Paper Code:
_________________________________________________________________________
Academic Programme:
________________________________________________________________
School:____________________________________________________________________________
_

Date: Time:

This report is a bonafide work carried out by Mr/Mrs

and submitted for the award of the degree
Bachelor of Technology in It is evaluated and
recommended by the following expert panel.

Panel members:
Supervisor(S)/Mentor(s):
Name Signature

Internal Members:
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Approved by:
Head of the Department

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 ABSTRACT
The purpose of this industrial training project was to know practically about how an ISP
company provides their Internet Service to the door-to-door of user.

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DECLARATION

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 CONTENTS

Abstract iv

List of Figures vii

1. Introduction 01

2. Types of Network Topology 02

3. Types of Networks 04

4. Models of Networking 08

5. Categories of Network 09

6. Networking Components 14

7. IP Addressing 27

8. Routing 32

9. Protocols 33

10. Conclusion 36

Bibliography 37

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Computer Network 01

Figure 2.1: Bus Topology 02

Figure 2.2: Ring Topology 02

Figure 2.3: Star Topology 03

Figure 2.4: Mesh Topology 03

Figure 3.1: Wired Network 04

Figure 3.2: Wireless Network 06

Figure 5.1: Local Area Network 09

Figure 5.2: Campus Area Network 10

Figure 5.3: Metropolitan Area Network 11

Figure 5.4: Wide Area Network 12

Figure 6.1: Twisted pair wire 13

Figure 6.2: Coaxial cable 13

Figure 6.3: Fiber-optic cable 14

Figure 6.4: Registered Jack 45 (RJ45) 15
Figure 6.5: SXT 15
Figure 6.6: AirGrid 16

Figure 6.7.1: PoE 17

Figure 6.7.2: PoE+ 17
Figure 6.8.3: Edge Router 18

Figure 6.8.4: Subscriber Edge Router 19

Figure 6.8.6: Core Router 19

Figure 6.8.7: Wired and Wireless Router 20

Figure 6.9.1: Copper-to-Fiber Media Converter 21

Figure 6.9.2: Fiber-to-Fiber Media Converter 21

Figure 6.10: Switch 22

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Figure 6.11: Repeater 23

Figure 6.12: Modem 23

Figure 6.13: Bridge 24

Figure 6.14: Server 24

Figure 6.15: Access Point 25

Figure 7.01: IP address 28

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 Chapter - 1

Introduction
Networking is a practice of linking of two or more computing devices such as PCs, printers, faxes
etc., with each other Connection between two devices is through physical media or logical media
to share information, data and resources. Networks are made with the hardware and software.

Cable/media

Figure 1.1: Computer Network

There are many different ways to connect your computer to another computer or
an. Using Windows 2000, you can connect your computer to:

Another computer using a direct cable connection.

A private network using a modem or an integrated service digital network

(ISDN) adapter or a network adopter card.

A network using a virtual private network (VPN) connection.

Another computer by having another computer call your computer.

The interconnected collection of autonomous computers is called computer network. Two

computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information. The
connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves and communication
satellites can be used.

1
 Chapter 2

Types of Network Topology

1. Bus Topology

A bus topology is another type of design where a single cable connects all computers and
the information intended for the last node on the network must run through each connected
computer. If a cable is broken, all computers connected down the line cannot reach the
network. The benefit of a bus topology is a minimal use of cabling.

Figure 2.1: Bus Topology

2
2. Ring Topology

In this design, computers are connected via a single cable, but the end nodes also are
connected to each other. In this design, the signal circulates through the network until it
finds the intended recipient. If a network node is not configured properly, or it is down
temporarily for another reason, the signal will make a number of attempts to find its
destination. It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is
connected to another computer, with the last one connected to the first.

Figure 2.2: Ring Topology

3. Star Topology

A star topology is a design of a network where a central node extends a cable to each
computer on the network. On a star network, computers are connected independently to
the center of the network. If a cable is broken, the other computers can operate without
problems. A star topology requires a lot of cabling.

Figure 2.3: Star Topology

4. Mesh Topology

3
A network setup where each computer and network device is interconnected with one
another, allowing for most transmissions to be distributed, even if one of the connections
go down. It is a topology commonly used for wireless networks.

Figure 2.4: Mesh Topology

Chapter 3

Types of Networks
1. Wired Networks:
Wired networks are almost always faster and less expensive than wireless networks. Once
connected, there is little that can disrupt a good-wired connection. Wired networks come
in many forms, but the most popular are HomePNA and Ethernet. HomePNA uses the
existing phone line wires in your home and Ethernet needs special network cabling.

4
 Figure 3.1: Wired Network

Advantages of Wired Technology

i) Security
As wired networks are connected by physically plugging in a cable from one device to
another, it is much more difficult to access them without authorization. There is no
opportunity for someone wandering past your office windows to hack into your wireless
network.

ii) Reliability
Wired networks bring with them a reliable, constant download and upload speed
unaffected by the environment. As these networks are closed off and don't travel through
the air, they aren't susceptible to fluctuations in speed or interference from other wireless
devices. While the most recent 802.11ac Wi-Fi standard can theoretically achieve speeds
of 1,000MB per second, older hardware isn't up to this standard -- 802.11n maxes out at
600MB/s. Gigabit Ethernet provides a stable, constant 1,000MB/s connection.

iii) Ease of Use

The details depend on the computers and devices on your network, but broadly speaking,
plugging an Ethernet cable into a laptop or printer is enough for it to recognize the
network and get connected. There's no playing around with scanning for available
networks, inputting security keys or trying to locate an area with a strong

Wi-Fi signal. Ultimately how convenient this wired networking method is for your
company depends on how well equipped your office is and the extent of the existing
network cabling.

Disadvantages of Wired Technology

i) Equipment Portability

Wired technology is not portable. The units must be plugged into power outlets and
network ports in order to function. Moving units takes time, energy and, potentially,
information- technology personnel. These hard-wired requirements can make arranging
personnel, furniture and equipment difficult. Moves of equipment or employees may
require running additional network cabling, installing new electrical outlets and
reconfiguring network-port structures. Network configuration may limit the options for
employee and equipment placement.

5
 ii) Space

Wired-technology products, such as desktop computers, take up more space than

equivalent wireless options. Wires, cables and multiple components require more desktop
space than their wireless counterparts. Office-furniture decisions and employee-space
allocation must account for the added space needs of wired computer and technology
products.

iii) Safety
The physical requirements of a wired-technology product present some opportunities for
damage not noted in wireless products. Cables can be damaged by cleaning crews and
mislaid wires can cause tripping hazards. Additionally, always-on technology systems may
be more prone to electrical surges and damage than wireless units that can be unplugged
during storms or power outages.

2. Wireless Networks:

Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs) are
the fastest- growing segment of the computer industry. Many of the owner of these
computers have desktop machines on LANs and WANs back at the office and want to be
connected to their home base even when away from home or en route. Since having a
wired connection is impossible in cars and airplanes, there is a lot of interest in wireless
networks.

6
 Figure 3.2: Wireless Network

Advantages of Wireless Technology

i) The main advantage of a wireless network over a wired one is that users can move
around freely within the area of the network with their laptops, handheld devices etc and
get an internet connection.

ii) Users are also able to share files and other resources with other devices that are
connected to the network without having to be cabled to a port.
iii) Not having to lay lots of cables and put them through walls etc. can be a considerable
advantage in terms of time and expense. It also makes it easier to add extra devices to the
network, as no new cabling is needed.
iv) Wireless networks can sometimes handle a larger amount of users because they are not
limited by a specific number of connection ports.

Disadvantages of Wireless Technology

i) It can require extra costs and equipment to set up, although increasingly routers have
built-in wireless capability, as do devices such as laptops, handheld devices, modern DVD
players, and TVs.
ii) File-sharing transfer speeds are normally slower with wireless networks than they are
with cabled. The speeds can also vary considerably according to your location in relation
to the network.
iii) The general speed of a wireless connection is also usually much slower than a wired
one. The connection also gets worse the farther you are from the router, which can be a
problem in a large building or space.
iv) Wireless networks are generally less secure. There can also be problems with neighbors
stealing bandwidth, if the network hasnt been set up to be password protected.
Information is also less secure too and can be easier to hack into.

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 Chapter 4

Models of Networking
Model means the connectivity of two computers. We have three types of networking
models.

(i) Client Server Model

(ii) Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model)

(iii) Domain Model

(i) Client Server Model

In a Client server model we have one server and many clients. A Client can share the
resources of server, but a server cannot share the resources on clients.

8
On the point of view of administrator its very easy to control the network because we
combine with the server also at security point of view. It is very useful because it uses user
level security in which users have to remember only one password to share the resources.

(ii) Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model)

In Peer to Peer networking model all computers are in equal status, that is we cannot
manage centralization, administration security. In Peer to Peer networking client use
operating system like Window 98, Window XP, Window 2000, Windows Vista.

(iii) Domain Model

It is a mixture of client server and peer-to-peer model. In this clients can share their
resources as peer-to-peer but with the permission of the server as in client server model
therefore it is commonly used model because in this security is more as we can put
restriction on both server and clients.

Chapter-5

Categories of Networks

5.1 Local Area Network (LAN):

A Local Area Network is a privately owned computer network covering a small Networks
geographical area, like a home, office, or groups of buildings e.g. a school Network. A
LAN is used to connect the computers and other network devices so that the devices can
communicate with each other to share the resources. The resources to be shared can be a
hardware device like printer, software like an application program or data. The size of
LAN is usually small. The various devices in LAN are connected to central devices called
Hub or Switch using a cable.

9
Now-a-days LANs are being installed using wireless technologies. Such a system makes
use of access point or APs to transmit and receive data. One of the computers in a network
can become a server serving all the remaining computers called Clients.

For example, a library will have a wired or wireless LAN Network for users to
interconnect local networking devices e.g., printers and servers to connect to the internet.

LAN offers high speed communication of data rates of 4 to 16 megabits per second
(Mbps). IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly 40
Gbit/s. LANs Network may have connections with other LANs Network via leased lines,
leased services.

Types of LAN:

There are basically two types of Local Area Networks namely: ARCnet and Ethernet.

i) ARCNET (Attached Resource Computer Network):

ARCNET is one of the oldest, simplest, and least expensive types of Local-Area Network
protocol, similar in purpose to Ethernet or Token Ring. ARCNET was the first widely
available networking system for microcomputers and became popular in the 1980s for
office automation tasks. ARCnet was introduced by Datapoint Corporation in 1977.

A special advantage of ARCNET is that it permits various types of transmission media -

twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable - to be mixed on the same network.
The specification is ANSI 878.1. It can have up to 255 nodes per network.

A new specification, called ARCnet Plus, will support data rates of 20 Mbps

ii) Ethernet:

Ethernet is a family of computer networking technologies for local area networks

commercially introduced in 1980. Standardized in IEEE 802.3, Ethernet has largely

replaced competing wired local area network technologies. Ethernet uses a bus or star
topology Network and supports data transfer rates of 10 Mbps.

Ethernet Network uses the CSMA/CD access method to handle simultaneous demands. It
is one of the most widely implemented LAN standards. A newer version of Ethernet
Network, called 100Base-T (or Fast Ethernet), supports data transfer rates of 100 Mbps.

And the newest version, Gigabit Ethernet supports data rates of 1 gigabit (1,000 megabits)
per second. Ethernet is a physical and data link layer technology for local area networks
(LANs). Ethernet Network was invented by engineer Robert Metcalfe.

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 Figure 5.1: Local Area Network

5.2 Campus Area Network (CAN)

A campus area network known as (CAN) is used to inter-connect networks in limited
geographical locality like university campus, military bases, or organizational campuses
etc. It can be taken as the metropolitan network that has the specific settings at the small
area just like a computer lab in the university. CAN (Campus Area Network) area is no
doubt larger than a local area network but it is still smaller then a wide area network.
These networks are designed for the particular place that hits the highest point level. For
example, multiple labs, multiple offices in the buildings etc. most of the time, this term is
referred as the university campus but when it is used at organizational level, we call it
corporate campus network.

As we have discussed above it is smaller than a wide area network and multiple Local
Area Network (LAN) combines in one organization or regions to make a Campus Area
Network (CAN). Therefore, whenever someone tells you about the networks within the
specific area, we can easily guess that it is campus network.

In this kind of networking, the same technology along with the hardware is used in
different buildings of one campus or one corporation. They follow the same terminologies
like the local area networks but the difference is that they are interconnected between the
multiple buildings at the particular location. For e.g. Just imagine a university campus in
which you have multiple departments such as information technology, electronics, mass
communication and fine arts etc and in all these departments computer labs, they have
implemented the same infra -structure of hardware and other technologies using the Local
area network as the main tool, and one message sent by one department can be accessed
by the other department, then we say that the network is the techniques of Campus Area
Network (CAN).

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 Figure 5.2 Campus Area Network

5.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Networks is one of a number of types of networks. A
MAN is a relatively new class of network. MAN is larger than a local area network and as
its name implies, covers the area of a single city. MANs rarely extend beyond 100 KM and
frequently comprise a combination of different hardware and transmission media. It can be
single network such as a cable TV network, or it is a means of connecting a number of
LANs into a larger network so that resources can be shared LAN to LAN as well as device
to device.
A MAN can be created as a single network such as Cable TV Network, covering the
entire city or a group of several Local Area Networks (LANs). It this way resource can be
shared from LAN to LAN and from computer to computer also. MANs are usually owned
by large organizations to interconnect its various branches across a city.
MAN is based on IEEE 802.6 standard known as DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus).
DQDB uses two unidirectional cables (buses) and all the computers are connected to these
two buses. Each bus has a specialized device that initiates the transmission activity. This
device is called head end. Data that is to be sent to the computer on the right hand side of
the sender is transmitted on upper bus. Data that is to be sent to the left hand side of the
sender is transmitted on lower bus.
The two most important components of MANs are security and standardization. Security
is important because information is being shared between dissimilar systems.
Standardization is necessary to ensure reliable data communication.
A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks using a high-capacity
backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide
area networks and the Internet.
The Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) protocols are mostly at the data link level (layer
2 in the OSI model), which are defined by IEEE, ITU-T, etc.

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 Figure 5.3 Metropolitan Area network

5.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunication network. A wide area network is
simply a LAN of LANs or Network of Networks. WANs connect LANs that may be on
opposite sides of a building, across the country or around the world. WANS are
characterized by the slowest data communication rates and the largest distances. WANs
can be of two types: an enterprise WAN and Global WAN.

Computers connected to a Wide Area Networks are often connected through public
networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines
or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is the Internet. Some segments of the Internet,
like VPN based extranets, are also WANs in themselves. Finally, many WANs are
corporate or research networks that utilize leased lines.
Numerous WANs have been constructed, including public packet networks, large
corporate networks, military networks, banking networks, stock brokerage networks, and
airline reservation networks.
Organizations supporting WANs using the Internet Protocol are known as Network
Service Providers (NSPs). These form the core of the Internet.
By connecting the NSP WANs together using links at Internet Packet Interchanges
(sometimes called "peering points") a global communication infrastructure is formed.
WANs (wide area networks) generally utilize different and much more expensive
networking equipment than do LANs (Local Area Networks). Key technologies often
found in WANs (wide area networks) include SONET, Frame Relay, and ATM.

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 Figure 5.4: Wide Area Network

Chapter-6

Networking Components
When a computer or device A is requesting a resource from another computer or device B,
the item A is referred to as a client. Because all or most items that are part of a network
live in association or cooperation, almost any one of them can be referred to as a client.
Based on this, there can be different types of clients. The most regularly used of them is
referred to as a workstation.

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If you already have one or more computers that you plan to use as workstations, you can
start by checking the hardware parts installed in the computer. The computer must meet
the following requirements:

Network Cables and connectors:

Twisted pair wire - It is classified as Category 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5E, 6 and 7. Category 5E, 6

and 7 are high-speed cables that can transmit 1Gbps or more.

Figure 6.1: Twisted pair wire

Applications of Twisted pair wire

i) This is used for voice transmission, but it is equally preferred for data
transmission of upto 4 mbps.
ii) This is used for data transmission because it provides high bandwidth to
achieve high data transfer rates.
iii) It is used for both analog and digital transmission.

Coaxial cable - Coaxial cable more resembles like TV installation cable. It is more
expensive than twisted-pair cable but provide high data transmission speed.

Figure 6.2: Coaxial cable

Applications of Coaxial cable
i) This cable is used primarily for CCTV, security, surveillance, and other non-
critical video applications video for consumption that will not be
manipulated, saved, or used for other purposes.
ii) One of the broadest uses of coaxial cable is for video distribution. From CATV
signals around the neighborhood to precision digital signals in a post-
production studio.

15
 iii) Cables used in outdoor environments typically utilize a polyethylene jacket
material.

Fiber-optic cable - It is a high-speed cable which transmits data using light beams
through a glass bound fibers. Fiber-optic cable is high data transmission cable comparing
to the other cable types. But the cost of fiber optics is very expensive which can only be
purchased and installed on governmental level.

Figure 6.3: Fiber-optic cable

Applications of Fiber-optic cable
i) Internet : Fiber optic cables transmit large amounts of data at very high speeds.
This technology is therefore widely used in internet cables. As compared to
traditional copper wires, fiber optic cables are less bulky, lighter, more flexible
and carry more data.
ii) Computer Networking : Networking between computers in a single building or
across nearby structures is made easier and faster with the use of fiber optic
cables. Users can see a marked decrease in the time it takes to transfer files and
information across networks.
iii) Military and Space Applications : With the high level of data security required
in military and aerospace applications, fiber optic cables offer the ideal solution
for data transmission in these areas.

Registered Jack 45 (RJ45) - The cable connector that is found on almost all UTP and
STP cables is a Registered Jack 45 which is mostly commonly referred to as RJ45.

Figure 6.4: Registered Jack 45 (RJ45)

Applications of Registered Jack 45 (RJ45)

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 i) Registered Jack 45 (RJ45) is commonly used to connect computers onto
Ethernet-based local area networks (LAN).
ii) High-speed modem or other computer network applications are supported by
Registered Jack 45 (RJ45).
SXT:
It's powerful 60 degrees 2x2 MIMO 10dbi sector antenna with 1600mW wireless on-
board- you can use it as a Sector AP.

Figure 6.5: SXT

Applications of SXT
i) It is used to make wireless links.

Airgrid:
AirGrid represents the evolution of outdoor broadband wireless devices. Complete antenna
and radio system integration provides revolutionary cost/performance solutions to the
Worldwide Broadband Industry. Can be oriented to use either vertical or horizontal
polarization. Mechanical design provides complete weatherproof performance. Acitivity
and signal strength LED's provided for installers. Enhanced RF and Ethernet ESD/Surge
protection enables prolonged operation in harshest environments. 100+Mbps of real
outdoor throughput and up to 30km+ range.

AirGrid products utilize Ubiquiti's revolutionary AirMax TDMA protocol enabling

scalable, carrier-class PtMP network performance. Additionally, AirControl application
allows operators to centrally manage 100's of devices.

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 Figure 6.6: AirGrid

Applications of AirGrid
i) It is used to make wireless point-to-point links.
ii) It is also used in hi-performance outdoor multipoint networking.

Power over Ethernet (PoE):

Power over Ethernet (PoE) is a technology for wired Ethernet LANs (local area networks)
that allows the electrical current necessary for the operation of each device to be carried by
the data cables rather than by power cords. Doing so minimizes the number of wires that
must be strung in order to install the network. The result is lower cost, less downtime,
easier maintenance, and greater installation flexibility than with traditional wiring.

Types

i) PoE or also known as 2-pair PoE

ii) PoE+ or also known as PoE Plus

Figure 6.7.1: PoE

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 Figure 6.7.2: PoE+
Applications of PoE or PoE Plus (Basically applications of both the PoEs are same)

i) It is used to provide power over a data cabling channel.

ii) It is used to provide power in high-volume applications such as wireless access
points (AP).
iii) It is also used to provide power in security cameras.

Routers:
Routers are networking devices that forward data packets between networks using headers
and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. Routers work at
the network layer of the TCP/IP model or layer 3 of the OSI model. Routers also provide
interconnectivity between like and unlike media.

Types of Routers

There are several types of routers in the market.

i) Broadband Routers
Broadband routers can do different types of things. Broadband routers can be used to
connect computers or to connect to the Internet.
If you connect to the internet through phone and using Voice over IP technology (VOIP)
then you need broadband router. These are often a special type of modem (ADSL) that
will have both Ethernet and phone jacks.

ii) Wireless Routers

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Wireless routers create a wireless signal in your home or office. So, any PC within range
of Wireless routers can connect it and use your Internet.
In order to secure your Wireless routers, you simply need to come secure it with password
or get your IP address. Then, you'll log on into your router with the user ID and passwords
will that come with your router.

Other Type of Router

iii) Edge Router

This type of router are placed at the edge of the ISP network, the are normally configured
to external protocol like BGP (Border gateway protocol) to another BGP of other ISP or
large organization.

Figure 6.8.3: Edge Router

iv) Subscriber Edge Router

This type of router belongs to an end user (enterprise) organization. Its configured
to broadcast external BGP to its providers AS(s)

Figure 6.8.4: Subscriber Edge Router

v) Inter-provider Border Router

This type of router is for Interconnecting ISPs, this is a BGP speaking router that
maintains BGP sessions with other BGP speaking routers in other providers' ASes.

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 vi) Core Router
A router that resides within the middle or backbone of the LAN network rather than at its
periphery. In some instances , a core router provides a step down backbone ,
interconnecting the distribution routers from multiple building of a campus ( LAN), or Large
enterprise Location (WAN). They tend to be optimized for a high brandwidth.

Figure 6.8.6: Core Router

vii) Wired and Wireless Routers.

Home and small office networking is becoming popular by day by the use of IP wired and
wireless router. Wired and wireless router are able to maintain routing and configuration
information in their routing table. They also provide the service of filtering traffic of
incoming and outgoing packets based on IP addresses.
Some wireless routers combines the functions of router with those of a network switch and
that of a firewall in one.

Figure 6.8.7: Wired and Wireless Router

Applications of Router

i) When multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers can
exchange information about destination addresses using a dynamic routing
protocol. Each router builds up a routing table listing the preferred routes
between any two systems on the interconnected networks.

21
 ii) It is easy to get internet access for all your computers without using a single
wire by using wireless routers.
iii) A router may have interfaces for different physical types of network
connections, such as copper cables, fiber optic, or wireless transmission.
Its firmware can also support different networking communication
protocol standards. Each network interface is used by this specialized computer
software to enable data packets to be forwarded from one protocol transmission
system to another.
iv) Routers may also be used to connect two or more logical groups of computer
devices known as subnets, each with a different network prefix. The network
prefixes recorded in the routing table do not necessarily map directly to the
physical interface connections

Media Converter:
A fiber media converter is a simple networking device that makes it possible to connect
two dissimilar media types such as twisted pair with fiber optic cabling.

Types

i) Copper-to-Fiber Media Converter

ii) Fiber-to-Fiber Media Converter

Figure 6.9.1: Copper-to-Fiber Media Converter

Figure 6.9.2: Fiber-to-Fiber Media Converter

Application of Media Converter -

22
It is used to convert one type of media to another media. For example from twisted pair to
coax or from twisted pair to optical fiber.

Switch:
A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that connects network
segments. A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers
together within one local area network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at
layer two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model.

Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch generally contains
more intelligence (and a slightly higher price tag) than a hub. Unlike hubs, network
switches are capable of inspecting data packets as they are received, determining the
source and destination device of each packet, and forwarding them appropriately. By
delivering messages only to the connected device intended, a network switch conserves
network bandwidth and offers generally better performance than a hub.

Figure 6.10: Switch

Types

i) LAN Switch
ii) Unmanaged Network Switches.
iii) Managed Switches

Application of Switch -

The network switch plays an integral role in most modern Ethernet local area
networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of
linked managed switches. Small office/home office (SOHO) applications typically

23
use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged device such as a residential
gateway to access small office/home broadband services such as DSL or cable
Internet. In most of these cases, the end-user device contains a router and
components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User
devices may also include a telephone interface for Voice over IP (VoIP) protocol.

Repeater:
A repeater is a network device that is used to regenerate or replicate signals that are
weakened or distorted by transmission over long distances and through areas with high
levels of electromagnetic interference (EMI). The purpose of a repeater is to extend the
LAN segment beyond its physical limits.

Figure 6.11: Repeater

Applications of Repeater

i) To cover areas of weak signal from the server.

ii) To further the signal from the server.
iii) To facilitate access from server Wi-Fi signal.

Modem:
Modem is a device which converts the computer-generated digital signals of a computer
into analog signals to enable their travelling via phone lines. The modulator-demodulator
or modem can be used as a dial up for LAN or to connect to an ISP. Modems can be both
external, as in the device which connects to the USB or the serial port of a computer, or
proprietary devices for handheld gadgets and other devices, as well as internal.

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 Figure 6.12: Modem

Applications of Modem

i) Basically, modem is used to connect the analog world to the digital world.
ii) It is used to convert the analog signal to digital signal.

Bridge:
A bridge is a computer networking device that builds the connection with the other bridge
networks which use the same protocol. It works at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model
and connects the different networks together and develops communication between them.
It connects two local-area networks; two physical LANs into larger logical LAN or
two segments of the same LAN that use the same protocol.

Figure 6.13: Bridge

Application of Bridge

Bridge serves to divides a network into network up. Bridge set of information between the
edge of the network to run regularly.

Server:
A network server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other
(client) computers over a local network or the Internet. Examples include Web servers,
proxy servers, and FTP servers. Not only should you learn about servers on the Internet,
private network servers for business and personal use are also becoming more common.

25
 Figure 6.14: Server

Access Point:
In computer networking, a wireless access point (WAP) is a device that allows wireless
devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or related standards. The
WAP usually connects to a router (via a wired network), and can relay data between the
wireless devices (such as computers or printers) and wired devices on the network.

Figure 6.15: Access Point

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 Chapter - 7
IP Addressing
4.1 IP Addressing:
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an
IP network. An IP address is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal
values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by
decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation. Example: 140.179.220.200 It
is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form. 140 .179 .220 .200
10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000 Every IP address consists of two parts, one
identifying the network and one identifying the node. The Class of the address and the
subnet mask determine which part belongs to the network address and which part belongs
to the node address. The four numbers in an IP address are called octets, because they each
have eight positions when viewed in binary form. If you add all the positions together, you
get 32, which is why IP addresses are considered 32-bit numbers. Since each of the eight
positions can have two different states (1 or 0) the total number of possible combinations
per octet is 28 or 256. So each octet can contain any value between 0 and 255. Combine
the four octets and you get 232 or a possible 4,294,967,296 unique values. Out of the
almost 4.3 billion possible combinations, certain values are restricted from use as typical
IP addresses. For example, the IP address 0.0.0.0 is reserved for the default network and
the address 255.255.255.255 is used for broadcasts. Understanding IP Addresses
An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely identify a device on an IP network.
The address is made up of 32 binary bits, which can be divisible into a network portion
and host portion with the help of a subnet mask. The 32 binary bits are broken into four
octets (1 octet = 8 bits). Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by a period (dot).
For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal format (for
example, 172.16.81.100).

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The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or 00000000 - 11111111 binary.
Here is how binary octets convert to decimal: The right most bit, or least significant bit, of
an octet holds a value of 20. The bit just to the left of that holds a value of 21. This
continues until the left-most bit, or most significant bit, which holds a value of 27. So if all
binary bits are a one, the decimal equivalent would be 255 as shown here: 1 1 1 11 1 1 128
64 32 16 8 4 2 1 (128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1=255) Here is a sample octet conversion when
not all of the bits are set to 1. 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 64 0 0 0 0 0 1 (0+64+0+0+0+0+0+1=65)
And this is sample shows an IP address represented in both binary and decimal. 10. 1. 23.
19 (decimal) 00001010.00000001.00010111.00010011 (binary). There are five IP classes
plus certain special addresses:

Class A:
This class is for very large networks, such as a major international company might have.
IP addresses with a first octet from 1 to 126 are part of this class. The other three octets are
used to identify each host. This means that there are 126 Class A networks each with

16,777,214 (224 -2) possible hosts for a total of 2,147,483,648 (231) unique IP addresses.
Class A networks account for half of the total available IP addresses. In Class A networks,
the high order bit value (the very first binary number) in the first octet is always 0.

Loopback:
The IP address 127.0.0.1 is used as the loopback address. This means that it is used by the
host computer to send a message back to itself. It is commonly used for troubleshooting
and network testing.

Class B:
Class B is used for medium-sized networks. A good example is a large college campus. IP
addresses with a first octet from 128 to 191 are part of this class. Class B addresses also
includes the second octet as part of the Net identifier. The other two octets are used to
identify each host. This means that there are 16,384 (214) Class B networks each with
65,534 (216 -2) possible hosts for a total of 1,073,741,824 (230) unique IP addresses.
Class B networks make up a quarter of the total available IP addresses. Class B networks
have a first bit value of 1 and a second bit value of 0 in the first octet.

Class C:
Class C addresses are commonly used for small to mid-size businesses. IP addresses with
a first octet from 192 to 223 are part of this class. Class C addresses also include the
second and third octets as part of the Net identifier. The last octet is used to identify each
host. This means that there are 2,097,152 (221) Class C networks each with 254 (28 -2)
possible hosts for a total of 536,870,912 (229) unique IP addresses. Class C networks
make up an eighth of the total available IP addresses. Class C networks have a first bit
value of 1, second bit value of 1 and a third bit value of 0 in the first octet.

28
Class D:
Used for multicasts, Class D is slightly different from the first three classes. It has a first
bit value of 1, second bit value of 1, third bit value of 1 and fourth bit value of 0. The other
28 bits are used to identify the group of computers the multicast message is intended for.
Class D accounts for 1/16th (268,435,456 or 228) of the available IP addresses.

Class E:
Class E is used for experimental purposes only. Like Class D, it is different from the first
three classes. It has a first bit value of 1, second bit value of 1, third bit value of 1 and
fourth bit value of 1. The other 28 bits are used to identify the group of computers the
multicast message is intended for. Class E accounts for 1/16th (268,435,456 or 228) of the
available IP addresses.

Classless:
Classless addressing system is also known as CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain
Routing).Classless addressing is a way to allocate and specify the Internet addresses used
in inter-domain routing more flexibly than with the original system of Internet Protocol
(IP) address classes. What happened in classful addressing is that if any company needs
more than 254 host machines but far fewer than the 65,533 host addresses then the only
option for the company is to take the class B address. Now suppose company needs only
1000 IP addresses for its host computers then in this (65533-1000=64533) IP addresses get
wasted. For this reason, the Internet was, until the arrival of CIDR, running out of address
space much more quickly than necessary. CIDR effectively solved the problem by
providing a new and more flexible way to specify network addresses in routers.

A CIDR network address looks like this: 192.30.250.00/15

29
 Figure 7.1 IP address

Address:
The unique number ID assigned to one host or interface in a network.

Public addresses:
Public addresses are assigned by ICANN and consist of either historically allocated class-
based network IDs or, more recently, CIDR-based address prefixes that are guaranteed to
be globally unique on the Internet. For CIDR-based address prefixes, the value of w (the
first octet) is in the ranges of 1 through 126 and 128 through 223, with the exception of the
private address prefixes described in Private Addresses.

When the public addresses are assigned, routes are added to the routers of the Internet so
that traffic sent to an address that matches the assigned public address prefix can reach the
assigned organization. For example, when an organization is assigned an address prefix in
the form of a network ID and prefix length, that address prefix also exists as a route in the
routers of the Internet. IPv4 packets destined to an address within the assigned address
prefix are routed to the proper destination.

Private addresses:
Each IPv4 interface requires an IPv4 address that is globally unique to the IPv4 network.
In the case of the Internet, each IPv4 interface on a subnet connected to the Internet
requires an IPv4 address that is globally unique to the Internet. As the Internet grew,
organizations connecting to the Internet required a public address for each interface on
their intranets. This requirement placed a huge demand on the pool of available public
addresses.

30
When analyzing the addressing needs of organizations, the designers of the Internet noted
that for many organizations, most of the hosts on an organizations intranet did not require
direct connectivity to the Internet.
Those hosts that did require a specific set of Internet services, such as Web access and e-
mail, typically access
the Internet services through Application layer gateways such as proxy servers and e-mail
servers. The result is that most organizations only required a small number of public
addresses for those nodes (such as proxies, servers, routers, firewalls, and translators) that
were directly connected to the Internet.
For the hosts within the organization that do not require direct access to the Internet, IPv4
addresses that do not duplicate already-assigned public addresses are required. To solve
this addressing problem, the Internet designers reserved a portion of the IPv4 address
space and named this space the private address space. An IPv4 address in the private
address space is never assigned as a public address. IPv4 addresses within the private
address space are known as private addresses. Because the public and private address
spaces do not overlap, private addresses never duplicate public addresses.

Broadcast:
Messages that are intended for all computers on a network are sent as broadcasts. These
messages always use the IP address 255.255.255.255.

Subnet:
A portion of a network sharing a particular subnet address.

Subnet mask:
A 32-bit combination used to describe which portion of an address refers to the subnet and
which part refers to the host.

Subnetting:
By extending the mask to be 255.255.255.224, you have taken three bits (indicated by
"sub") from the original host portion of the address and used them to make subnets. With
these three bits, it is possible to create eight subnets. With the remaining five host ID bits,
each subnet can have up to 32 host addresses, 30 of which can actually be assigned to a
device since host ids of all zeros or all ones are not allowed (it is very important to
remember this). So, with this in mind, these subnets have been created. 204.17.5.0
255.255.255.224 host address range 1 to 30

204.17.5.32 255.255.255.224 host address range 33 to 62

31
204.17.5.64 255.255.255.224 host address range 65 to 94

204.17.5.96255.255.255.224 host address range 97 to 126

204.17.5.128 255.255.255.224 host address range 129 to 158

204.17.5.160255.255.255.224 host address range 161 to 190

204.17.5.192 255.255.255.224 host address range 193 to 222

204.17.5.224 255.255.255.224 host address range 225 to 254

Types of Subnetting:
Fixed Length Subnet Mask (FLSM)
Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)

Chapter 8

Routing
Routing is the process of directing packets from a source node to a destination node on a
different network. It is of two types:

Static routing:

The process of manually adding routes in each router's routing table. The administrator
configures the destination network, next hop, and appropriate metrics. The route doesn't
change until the network administrator changes it.

Dynamic routing:

32
Dynamic routes adjust to changes within the internetwork environment automatically.
When network changes occur, routers begin to converge by recalculating routes and
distributing route updates. The route update messages spread through the network, which
causes other routers to recalculate their routes. The process continues until all routes have
converged. Uses protocols to find and update routes on a routing table. It uses CPU time
and consumes bandwidth between links. The routing protocol defines the rules used by the
routers when they communicate with each other. There are two types of routing protocols
on internetworks, Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) and Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP).
IGP is used in networks in the same administrative domain. EGPs are used to
communicate between the domains.

Chapter 9
Protocols
Routed protocols:
Routed protocols are nothing more than data being transported across the networks.
Routed protocols include:
Internet Protocol

Telnet

Remote Procedure Call (RPC)

SNMP

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 SMTP

Novell IPX

Open Standards Institute networking protocol

DECnet

Appletalk

Banyan Vines

Xerox Network System (XNS)

Routing protocols:
Routing Protocols are the software that allow routers to dynamically advertise and learn
routes, determine which routes are available and which are the most efficient routes to a
destination. Routing protocols used by the Internet Protocol suite include:
Routing Information Protocol (RIP and RIP II)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS)

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

RIP (Routing Information Protocol):

RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a widely-used protocol for managing router
information within a self-contained network such as a corporate local area network (LAN)
or an interconnected group of such LANs. RIP is classified by the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF) as one of several internal gateway protocols (Interior Gateway
Protocol).
Using RIP, a gateway host (with a router) sends its entire routing table (which lists all the
other hosts it knows about) to its closest neighbor host every 30 seconds. The neighbor
host in turn will pass the information on to its next neighbor and so on until all hosts
within the network have the same knowledge of routing paths, a state known as network
convergence.

34
RIP uses a hop count as a way to determine network distance. (Other protocols use more
sophisticated algorithms that include timing as well.) Each host with a router in the
network uses the routing table information to determine the next host to route a packet to
for a specified destination. RIP is considered an effective solution for small homogeneous
networks. For larger, more complicated networks, RIP's transmission of the entire routing
table every 30 seconds may put a heavy amount of extra traffic in the network.
The major alternative to RIP is the Open Shortest Path First Protocol (OSPF).

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First):

Open Shortest Path First is a true link state protocol developed as an open standard for
routing IP across large multi-vendor networks. A link state protocol will send link state
advertisements to all connected neighbors of the same area to communicate route
information. Each OSPF enabled router, when started, will send hello packets to all
directly connected OSPF routers. The hello packets contain information such as router
timers, router ID and subnet mask. If the routers agree on the information they become
OSPF neighbors. Once routers become neighbors they establish adjacencies by
exchanging link state databases. Routers on point-to-point and point-to-multipoint links
(as specified with the OSPF interface typesetting) automatically establish adjacencies.

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol):

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol is a hybrid routing protocol developed by
Cisco systems for routing many protocols across an enterprise Cisco network. It has
characteristics of both distance vector routing protocols and link state routing protocols. It
is proprietary which requires that you use Cisco routers. EIGRP will route the same
protocols that IGRP routes (IP, IPX) and use the same composite metrics as IGRP to select
a best path destination. As well there is the option to load balance traffic across equal or
unequal metric cost paths. Summarization is automatic at a network class address however
it can be configured to summarize at subnet boundaries as well. Redistribution between
IGRP and EIGRP is automatic as well. There is support for a hop count of 255 and
variable length subnet masks.
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TELNET
Telnet is a protocol which is part of the TCP/IP suite. It is quite similar to the UNIX rlogin
program. Telnet allows you to control a remote computer from your own one. It is terminal
emulation software. In the old days hard drives were humongous and expensive and there
were no personal computers. To make use of existing computers you had to lease hard
drive space and use terminals to operate the system. For developers this was great because
computing became lots cheaper. You needed a server and many connections could be
made. With telnet u can emulate this type of distributed computing and for example
operate a supercomputer from a distance.

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a communications protocol that lets
network administrators centrally manage and automate the assignment of Internet Protocol
(IP) addresses in an organization's network. Using the Internet Protocol, each machine that
can connect to the Internet needs a unique IP address, which is assigned when an Internet
connection is created for a specific computer. Without DHCP, the IP address must be
entered manually at each computer in an organization and a new IP address must be
entered each time a computer moves to a new location on the network. DHCP lets a
network administrator supervise and distribute IP addresses from a central point and
automatically sends a new IP address when a computer is plugged into a different place in
the network
Chapter - 10
Conclusion
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of electronics
and communication. Now days, computers are used in a wider range. All the organizations
are using multiple computers within their departments to perform their day to day work.
Computer network allows the user to share data, share folders and files with other users
connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a very small area
with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN. Networking inside your
organization is valuable also. In larger companies, many people never meet others in the
organization that can facilitate solving problems or getting resources. This project is

36
forward compatible as we can add more branches at low cost and high efficiency with
effective communication between head office and various branches of an organization.

Bibliography
The following web links are visited for the theory reference:

http://www.cisco.com/web/learning/netacad/course_catalog/PacketTracer.html
http://www.cisco.com/web/learning/netacad/index.html
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/internetworking/technology/handbook/ito_doc.html
http://netcert.tripod.com/ccna/routers/routeprotocols.html
http://www.livinginternet.com/i/iw_route.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol

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http://www.isc.org/software/dhcp
http://www.cisco.com/web/IN/products/routers/index.html
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/R/router.html

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