3rd International Symposium on Cone Penetration Testing, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA - 2014

Session Report 2: CPT Interpretation

T. Lunne, S. Yang
Norwegian Geotechnical Institaute, Oslo, Norway
F. Schnaid
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

1 INTRODUCTION

Altogether 51 papers, in addition to the Keynote lecture by Paul Mayne, have been reviewed in con-
nection with this Session report. The papers mostly cover various aspects of the CPT/CPTU including
experimental studies, empirical correlations to soil parameters, numerical and statistical approaches
and correlations to other in situ tests. But, also other in situ tests are discussed in the papers, like SPT,
SCPT, SDMT, RCPT, vane, PLT and full flow probes. Regarding soils, most papers cover clay, sand
and silt but also other materials have been discussed. In the following the content of the papers will be
summarized in a similar way as was done in the Session report on Interpretation to CPT 10 (Schneider,
2010) to see if any trends on development with time can be observed.
Then the major part of this report will give some details of selected papers, on selected topics that
the session reporters have found most interesting, in as much as they cover some new aspects of inter-
pretation. Papers within this session have been referenced in italics, with no year, to distinguish them
from other references.

2 OVERVIEW OF PAPERS

Figure 2.1 gives and overview of the papers to CPT 10 as presented by Schneider (2010) in terms of
analyses method, soil characteristics evaluated, soil types covered and in situ tests used. Figure 2.2
gives a similar overview of the distribution of papers in this session of CPT 14.

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Figure 2.1 Distribution of papers within CPT 10 interpretation session (a) analyses method; (b) soil characteris-
tics evaluated; (c) soil types discussed; and (d) in situ tests used (from Schneider, 2010).

(a) (b)

(c ) (d)

Figure 2.2 Distribution of papers within CPT 14 interpretation session (a) analyses method; (b) soil characteris-
tics evaluated; (c) soil types discussed; and (d) in situ tests used.

Based on a comparison of Figures 2.1 and 2.2 it appears that the present session report has some-
what less emphasis on empirical and experimental related papers, but more papers in the numerical and
analytical category. Numerical analyses have given the necessary background for interpretation of
penetration tests in clay and are providing useful insights on rate effects and bearing capacity (Zheng et
al; Sheng et al). Analytical cavity expansion solutions applied to clay and sand are being expanded to
layered soils by Mo et al. More recently developments using Discrete Element Method (DEM) simula-
tions have been conducted to investigate the effect of initial sample conditions, particle shape and par-

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ticle friction on the stress-strain behaviour of granular materials. In addition, Particle Image Velocity
(PIV) is being used to identify deforming zones and localized shear bands in granular materials. The
contributions by Butlanska et al and Melnikov and Boldyrev illustrate possible applications of these
methods to cone penetration.
Regarding type of soil properties covered it seems that state and classification parameters are in-
cluded in more papers in the present session report whereas rate effects and CPT-SPT correlations are
new topics. However, it may be that some of these topics were covered in one of the other sessions in
CPT 10. Regarding soil or material types, there are no obvious differences. Regarding the type of in
situ tests covered the most striking difference is that in CPT 14 there are more papers on the SCPT and
none on the DMT. But one should not read too much into the division of topics as illustrated in Figures
2.1 and 2.2 since there can be some papers that could have been in one of the other sessions and like-
wise some of the papers in the other sessions that could have been in Session 2.
Based on the review of all the papers it was decided to use the rest of this Session report to discuss
the following selected topics related to interpretation of CPTU and other penetration tests:
1. Undrained shear strength
2. Soil stiffness
3. Water flow characteristics
4. Soil state
5. Classification

3 UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH

Several of the papers have undrained shear strength as the main topic, and some cover undrained shear
strength in addition to a number of other soil parameters.
A wide range of materials from soft clays to mine tailings (Mantras et al.), polymer treated slurry
(Reid and Fourie), preloaded stabilized dredged sediments (Makusa et al.) and boulder clay (O'Kelly)
have been dealt with. It has been decided in the following summary to focus mainly on soft clays.
Previously several authors have presented correlations between excess pore pressure measured dur-
ing penetration, u2 = u2 u0 and su, in terms of the cone factor Nu2 = u2/su. Karlsrud et al. (2005)
reported values Nu2 in the range 5 10 for Norwegian soft marine clays when using su from a triaxial
tests consolidated anisotropically to best estimate of in situ stresses and sheared in compression
(CAUC) as the reference strength. Similarly Low et al. (2010) established a high quality data base for
offshore soft clays and found a range in Nu2 from 4 10.
Mantaras et al. present a novel approach where su can be determined from the maximum pore pres-
sure measured during a dissipation tests (umax), instead of the penetration pore pressure. Based on a
theoretical evaluation Mantras et al. found that the following formulation can be used:
Su = umax /4.2 (0.2)log(Ir)
where Ir is the rigidity index; Ir = G/su. For typical values of Ir (between 100 to 500) the relationship is
approximately Su = umax / Nmax with Nmax from 8 11, which is not dissimilar to previous values.
Due to the several assumptions made in the theoretical derivation, including the uncertainty about
the value if Ir, the method needs to be calibrated with high quality laboratory or field measurements of
su. Since su depends on how it is measured it is also important to use a consistent measurement of su
such as the CAUC triaxial test, or the field vane test as used by Mantras et al.
For lightly overconsolidated clays with OCR say less than 2 there will usually not be an increase in
pore pressure during the dissipation test. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.1.

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Figure 3.1 Solutions for Type 2 dilatory dissipation curves for various OCRs (after Burns & Mayne, 1998)

Figure 3.2 shows the use of the new method for Barra da Tijuca soft clay deposit in Rio de Janeiro.
It can be seen that the su found from dissipation tests fit well with vane tests and also with su interpret-
ed from the CPTU cone resistance using a cone factor Nkt = 11.

Figure 3.2 Barra da Tijuca soft clay deposit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (from Mantras et al).

This new approach has potential especially for medium OCR values where the measured pore pres-
sure increases after a stop in penetration, i.e. dilatory behavior. For clays of low OCR where pore pres-
sure do not increase after a stop in penetration (i.e. usually for OCR < 2) it is most appropriate to use
the traditional approach with Nu2 = u2/su since this gives a continuous profile.
Boone et al. present an interesting case from a project in Northern Africa with a large number of
CPTs and geotechnical borings and vane shear tests. The authors evaluate correlations between CPTU
data and laboratory test results. They find that the correlations become much more consistent when the
highest quality samples are used based on the Sample Quality Designation (SQD) according to Ter-
zaghi et al. (1997). Fig. 3.3 illustrates the importance of this approach; the lowest quality samples
SQD E and D indicate values of OCR less than 1, while the higher quality samples indicates OCR > 1
which makes much more sense.

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Figure 3.3 Overconsolidation ratio versus elevation coded by SQD (from Boone et al.)

By combining the laboratory tests on the highest quality samples with the results of the CPTUs con-
sistent and reliable profiles of OCR and undrained shear strength are obtained. The same approach is
applied for predictions of coefficient of consolidation, cv. Since the coefficient of consolidation found
from the CPTU dissipation test is valid for horizontal flow Boone et al. make a correction for hydraulic
anisotropy before comparing with the oedometer derived cv values. Figure 3.4 shows that samples of
the highest quality gives the best fit to the CPTU cv values as derived from t50 (using the method of
Houlsby and Teh, 1988) and corrected for hydraulic anisotropy.

Figure 3.4 Layer 2 vertical coefficient of consolidations from in situ dissipation testing versus laboratory consol-
idation testing (from Boone et al.)

Measurement of undrained shear strength using full flow penetrometers are covered in some papers.
Based on mini probe tests in the centrifuge Reid and Fourie find that both CPT and T-bar tests can be
used to document the change in properties between untreated (UT) and polymer treated (PT) slurry.
This type of slurry is used in the mining industry. Reid and Fourie report mixed results when compar-
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ing with laboratory test data, and suggest more research is required, including further analysis of the
pore fluid viscosity.
Long et al. report the use of piezoball tests in soft Irish clays. They present correlations between
ball penetration resistance and results of laboratory tests (DSS, CIU, CAUC, UU) in terms of un-
drained shear strength at 4 Irish sites. For the ball tests penetration pore pressure was also measured, at
mid face for three of the sites and at the ball equator for one of the sites. There is quite a large scatter
in the data with Nball ranging from 6 to 19, with 12 as an overall average. Long et al suggest that the
reason for the large scatter can be varying quality of the data. Another reason is likely that laboratory
determined undrained shear strengths vary with type of tests; for instance suDSS has frequently been
found to be 0.6 0.8 suCAUC for soft clays. Long et al has also derived N factors for the measured pore
pressures, and the scatter in these values is also significant (see Figure 3.5). No correlations between
the N-values and water content or plasticity index values were found. Despite the scatter in the data
Long et al states that the measurement of pore pressure has some promise, but that further studies are
required to find the ideal location of the pore pressure sensor on the ball.

Figure 3.5. Piezoball bearing capacity factors (a) Nball, (b) Nu-ballmid face filter and (c) Nu-ball equator filter (from
Long et al.)

Larsson et al. present a very well documented study of T-bar tests in soft and sensitive Swedish
clays. As part of a larger project Larsson et al carried out T-bar tests at 12 sites covering altogether 22
different clay types with low, medium and high plasticity and sensitivities from 10 to 253. At each test
site cyclic T-bar tests were included and CPTs were also performed. NT-bar factors between 6 and 19
were found using vane shear strength as reference.

Figure 3.6. Evaluated NTbar(OCR=1.3)-factors (after correction of NTbar for overconsolidation) as a function of liquid
limit (wL)(after Larsson et al.)

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 Larsson et al. conclude that there are some limitations with the T-bar compared to the CPTU in-
cluding risk for bending and need for predrilling through dry crust, and also a relatively poor profiling
capability. For practical use in Sweden Larsson et al recommend that the CPTU is the most suitable
tool, provided equipment adapted for the soil type to be tested is considered.
Nevertheless, Larsson et al. found some correlations based on their tests in Swedish clays. They
found that much higher NTbar factors need to be used for remoulded shear strength compared to intact
shear strength.
suREM ~ (qTbarREM 12.8)/ 18.3
NTbarREM ~ 14.5 + 0.8*St
NTbar (OCR = 1.3) ~ 4.4 + 8.4 wl
This is in line with findings from other authors including DeJong et al. (2011) and Low et al.
(2010).
Before leaving the topic of undrained shear strength the reporters would like to advocate the follow-
ing as regards to evaluating undrained shear strength in soft clay from CPTU data:
Use a consistent reference shear strength; as for instance CAUC triaxial test on a selected few high
quality samples, develop local cone factors Nkt and Nu2. Use both the measured cone resistance and
the measured penetration pore pressure and the local cone factors to derive su throughout the area cov-
ered by the project. Figure 3.7 illustrates this approach on two project NGI has been involved in in
South East Asia. It should be borne in mind that by definition Nu2 = Bq* Nkt.
undrained shear strength, su (kPa)
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0
0.0

1.0 su from Nkt = 10

su from Nu = 7
2.0 su from CAUC

3.0
depth below seabed (m)

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

Figure 3.7 Example suC from CPTU in deep waters in South China Sea

4 SOIL STIFFNESS

It is encouraging that 11 of the papers to Session 2 cover the measurement of Vs using the seismic cone
test (SCPTU); and in addition the keynote lecture in this session focused on the interpretation of ge-
otechnical parameters from the SCPTU. Three of the papers concentrate on details in the measurement
techniques and procedures, while the remaining of the SCPT related papers cover the use of the Vs (or
Gmax) measured from the test.
Two papers by Baziw and Verbeek deal with procedures and analysis related to seismic cone test-
ing. In one of the papers they discuss the minimization of source-sensor radial offset so that the
Straight Ray Assumption (SRA) methodology can be utilized to calculate interval velocities. They
show that implementing larger sensor-source offsets the source wave can refract and travel within rela-
tively high velocity critical layers for an extended time, which increases the characterization of the
layer or depth under analysis. In addition this set-up allows for greater SCPT vertical resolution be-
cause small depth increments are feasible. In the second of their papers Baziw and Verbeek discuss the

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concept of Total Internal Reflecion (TIR) and the associated source wave shift, and propose a proce-
dure to allow the proper analysis of seismic data that contain TIRs.
Styler et al. describe a technique of using signal stacking of shear waves from a perpetual signal
source during continuous penetration. An example of applying this technique is shown in Figure 4.1.
This appears to be a very powerful technique that can give higher efficiency and better resolution for
the SCPT.

Figure 4.1 Perpetual Source SCPTU profile with Vs interpreted using a 1 m cross correlation window over a
stacked signal (red) and compared to an adjacent conventional seismic tests (black) from Styler et al.

Nguyen et al. have prepared a database of parallel Vs measurements and CPTU data at soft clay
sites. The data are from 9 offshore sites using a seismic probe in connection with the PROD system
shown in Figure 4.2, and also from 5 well investigated onshore sites. A new correlation Gmax = 89.1 x
qnet1.5 is proposed as can be seen in Figure 4.3. The proposed correlation deviates somewhat from pre-
vious correlation by Robertson (2009).

Figure 4.2 Schematic setup of SCPTU test offshore (from Nguyen et al.)
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Figure 4.3 New Gmax correlation compared with Robertson (2009) (from Nguyen et al.)

Krage et al. present the result of a literature study for establishing a database of SCPTU parameters
and rigidity index, Ir = G /su. G depends on the strain level, and Krage et al. analyze all the data and
decide to use G50 as the shear modulus. They then suggest two methods for evaluating Ir:

Method A: Correlation based on Gmax from SCPT and su from CAUC triaxial tests on high quality
samples (to be used when lab data are available)
Method B: Correlation based on Gmax and qt from SCPTU (to be used if lab data are not available)

Krage et al. state that one of the main purposes of establishing Ir is that this parameter is needed as
input in approaches (e.g. Teh and Houlsby, 1988) to find coefficient of consolidation from dissipation
tests.
O'Murphy et al. present characterization of 2 dense sand sites in Ireland. They carry out CPT, seis-
mic dilatometer (SDMT), surface wave measurements (MASW) as well as various sampling methods
and laboratory triaxial tests. Figure 4.4 shows grain size distributions for the two sand sites, soil behav-
ior type classification from the CPT data and state parameter, , from the SDMT and from CPT. Based
on evaluation of all data O'Murphy et al. conclude that existing CPT correlations provide reasonable
characterization of the in situ conditions in these dense sands. However, many of the existing DMT
based correlations provide unrealistic estimates of the soil properties and are only applicable to sands
with KD values < 10. O'Murphy et al. end by recommending that the best characterization of dense
silty sands can be done using the CPT in combination with Vs measurements using either MASW or
SCPT.

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Figure 4.4 (a) Particle Distribution (b) Normalized CPT soil behavior Chart and (c) State parameter (from
O'Murphy et al.)

A set of 4 papers make direct reference to correlations between cone penetration and soil stiffness,
using either measured stiffness modulus Epl from plate load tests or 1-D laboratory consolidation mod-
ulus M to validate proposed methodologies. Specific correlations between qc and E emerged as a gen-
eral recommendation from CPT14 contributions.
Investigations by Kashirsky et al on the quaternary and pre-quaternary sand-clay deposits from the
Moscow region showed considerable scatter in the qc versus Epl correlations: E = +qc, with 0<<8.5
and 5<<8. The authors propose soil parameter tables to estimate E on the base of combined infor-
mation of qc, void ratio and Atterberg Limits.
Doherty et al. explored the combination of CPT, MASW and LPT to estimate the dynamic Young
Modulus Edyn and modulus degradation to account for soil shear strains generated on wind turbines.
The work describes comprehensive site investigations carried out at two Irish sites characterized by
glacial till deposits over a limestone formation. The proposed design approach is based on a non-linear
settlement model described by a parabolic curve from which Edyn values are gradually reduced as a
function of normalized settlements s/B. A quality control procedure was adopted in the form of multi-
ple plate load tests within the depth of influence of the footing (or turbine), as shown in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Plate bearing test data and unload-reload Epl measurements (Doherty et al.)

Designing foundations for wind turbines is further discussed by Mynarek et al. with emphasis on
the natural soil variability and its influence on the prediction of the constrained modulus M. Soils are
grouped by CPTU characteristics using functional data analysis together with the results of clustering
in the form of a subsoil rigidity model. A preliminary qualification of homogeneous groups of soils is
154
provided by the classification system proposed by Robertson (2009) which is later refined by statistical
analysis. The model allows an area to be isolated spatially (3-D) considering statistically similar re-
sponse in terms of constrained deformation moduli, as shown in Figure 4.6. In addition functions of
changes in constrained moduli with depth for isolated areas are also obtained.

Figure 4.6 Mean constrained values (a) plan view and (b) cross section (Mynarek et al.)

Similarly, Ciloglu et al. proposed a methodology for the estimation of the constrained moduli of
soil layers based on CPT data assessed from a probabilistic analysis using soil index parameters. In the
model, M = mqc, where is m is a function of fines content (FC) and plasticity index (PI) as summa-
rized in Table 1.

Table 4.1. Proposed CPT-based soil compressibility relationship (from Ciloglu et al.)

5 WATER FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

Pore pressures generated by cone penetration are essential to the assessment of soil parameters from
CPTU data. A large number of papers contributed to this discussion, but some have made specific ref-
erence to water flow characteristics: 4 papers focus mainly on the coefficient of consolidation, 1 on the
coefficient of hydraulic conductivity, and 4 on rate effects.
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 Interpretation of the coefficient of consolidation requires the choice of an analytical solution and a
procedure for the time for 50% dissipation of excess pore pressure to be calculated. Imre et al. in two
companion papers discuss the interpretation of CPT dissipation tests in saline environment. Dissipation
test data were evaluated using three methods: the first and second methods were least square fittings of
a coupled consolidation model proposed by Imre et al (1990) and third method was suggested by Teh
and Houlsby (1988) as a one-point-fitting-method based on the t50. Results from the three methods
were compared to indicate the difference between the saline or non-saline soils. Similarly Mantaras et
al. describe a procedure conceived to curve fit the field dissipation curve and use the first and second
derivates to estimate the value of t50. The approach is calibrated against the theoretical solutions from
Teh and Houlsby (1991) and Burns and Mayne (1991) and is applied to field tests for both monotonic
and dilatory response with regard to time (Figure 5.1). In the method, the equilibrium in situ pore
pressure is no longer required to calculate the percentage of dissipation and the moment of interrupting
dissipation test in the field becomes undisputable.

Figure 5.1 Piezocone data from soft clay deposit (Mantaras et al.)

These papers and other additional contributions demonstrate that (a) there are no specific recom-
mendations regarding a preferable method for interpretation of monotonic and dilatant response of pie-
zocone dissipation tests and (b) there is no standardized procedure to extract the time for 50% dissipa-
tion of excess pore pressure (least square fitting of consolidation models or one-point-fitting-method
based on the t50).
Boone et al reports a study where the horizontal coefficient of consolidation ch was evaluated using
the methodology of Houlsby and Teh (1988) and converting ch to cv on the basis of hydraulic anisotro-
py. A generally good match is obtained between cv values calculated from field dissipation tests and
measurements from high quality laboratory oedometer tests. Values of cv interpreted from dissipation
test is generally higher than those obtained from laboratory results from poor quality specimens.
Estimation of the hydraulic conductivity k from cone data is subjected to uncertainty. Available
methods are generally based on two approaches: estimated soil type and rate of dissipation during
CPTU dissipation tests. Vienken et al reviewed these approaches from results gathered in two testing
sites in Germany by comparing CPTU data and results from direct push slug tests (Figure 5.2). Results
are site specific (translation of t50 into k did not follow established correlations) and require high reso-
lution measurements in coarse-grained sediments.

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Figure 5.2 Comparison for hydraulic conductivity derived from dissipation tests and results from Direct Push
slug tests (Vienken et al.)

Rate effects have become a topic of interest for research papers. After initial research efforts in the
1970s, the threshold was the realization that both probe size and soil compressibility affect the transi-
tion penetration rates (e.g. Randolph and Hope, 2004). Proper account of these effects places emphasis
on the normalization of penetration results that are represented by an analytical backbone curve of
penetration resistance against normalized penetration velocity V (= vd/cv, where v is the penetrometer
velocity, d is the penetrometer diameter, and cv is the vertical coefficient of consolidation), as proposed
by Randolph (2004). The use of the horizontal coefficient of consolidation ch is alternatively adopted
to calculated a normalized Vh under the assumption that ch is more suitable than cv as it reflects the na-
ture of consolidation occurring around the penetrometer probe.
The 4 papers published in this session make use of these concepts, give background information of
penetration rates, describe experimental methods and techniques, employ numerical analysis to identi-
fy parameters controlling transient flow and provide readers with a description of the current develop-
ments required in engineering practice.
Two experimental studies of variable rate penetration testing from the University of Western Aus-
tralia are presented in this session: field tests at the Burswood clay site (Suzuky and Lehane) and cen-
trifuge tests in soil mixtures (Lehane and Suzuky). Extensive research has been carried out at the
Burswood clay site, including the progressive halving of velocities (twitch tests) reported by Suzuky
and Lehane. Tests were carried out at rates down to velocities 100,000 times slower than the standard
rate of penetration of 20 mm/s. The horizontal coefficients of consolidation ch assessed from standard
rate piezocone dissipation tests were adopted as operational values to calculate the normalized penetra-
tion velocity Vh, which is then plotted against normalized penetration resistance (Q = qnet/v0) and
pore pressure ratio (u2/v0) in Figure 5.3. Partial consolidation effects are seen to become progres-
sively more significant as velocities reduce below 0.2 mm/s while viscous rate effects dominate at
rates greater than 2 mm/sec. The drained to undrained resistance ratio QD/QUD is of the order of 1.6,
which is lower than other reported values in clay (of about 2.5).

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Figure 5.3 In situ CPTU rate dependency in Burswood clay (from Suzuky and Lehane)

In a companion paper, Lehane and Suzuky present the results from CPTs performed in a drum cen-
trifuge at various penetration rates in soil mixtures. The degree of drainage is assessed from the nor-
malized penetration velocity V calculated as a function of the vertical coefficient of consolidation cv
measured in Rowe cell consolidation tests. Measured cone penetration versus normalized penetration
velocity is compared with results from other experimental studies into the rate dependence of pene-
trometer resistance in Figure 5.4. For all soils, the transition from undrained to partially drained condi-
tion is at about V~10 and from a partially drained to drained condition is at about V~0.1. The average
ratio of the drained to undrained resistance of ~8.6 contrasts with the ratio of ~17 measured by Jaeger
et al. (2010) and ratio of ~6 measured by Kim et al. (2010). Differences in these ratios cannot be at-
tributed to variations in friction angle and stiffness of the mixtures and are therefore considered to be
associated with different QUD values adopted in each analysis.

Figure 5.4 Rate dependency of normalized cone resistance versus normalized velocity (from Lehane and Suzu-
ky)
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 An interesting case study presented by Garcia et al reports the results of piezocone tests carried out
in the silty-sand deposits from a region in Northern Italy subjected to extensive liquefaction-induced
ground effects. Tests performed at penetration rates ranging from 10 to 130 mm/s were interpreted in
terms of the normalized variables u2/u2ref and Q/Qref as functions of the normalized cone velocity Vh
(Figure 5.5). The experimental data points have been curve fitted by the correlations proposed by
DeJong and Randolph (2012) providing a rough estimated trend for the observed rate effects. In addi-
tion, an evaluation is made of the DeJong and Randolph (2012) procedure for the evaluation of ch ac-
counting for different drainage conditions, indicating that neglecting partial consolidation during probe
installation may introduce inaccuracies in the estimate of ch from piezocone dissipation tests.

Figure 5.5 Effect of normalized penetration rate on cone resistance and excess pore pressures (Garcia et al.)

Although experimental tests provide the necessary evidence to identify partial drainage from pene-
tration tests, there is a need to develop a proper understanding of the parameters controlling rate ef-
fects. The large deformation finite element analysis presented by Sheng et al attempts to bridge the gap
between experiments and theory by evaluating the effects of penetration rates on cone resistance and
excess pore pressure. In the study, a rigid cone is pushed into a saturated soil at different penetration
rates, using the Modified Cam clay constitutive model. Numerical predictions are expressed in the
normalized space of cone resistance and pore pressure against penetration velocity for a wide range of
permeability and rate values. For the given set of constitutive parameters adopted in the analysis, Fig-
ure 5.6 shows that the computed pore pressure fall on the same backbone curve irrespective of the soil
permeability values. Best fit equations for cone resistance and pore pressure are a function of 9 param-
eters: qref, ,vo, uud, ud, b, c, m1, m2 and k. The authors advocate that, under a number of assumptions,
only four tests with four different penetration rates are necessary to fully determine the two backbone
curves and the soil hydraulic conductivity (k).

Figure 5.6 Normalized cone resistance versus normalized pore pressure (Sheng et al.)

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 In conclusion, it appears that the degree of partial drainage during continuous penetration is con-
trolled by the normalized velocity V, as defined by Randoph and co-authors. Future standardization is
required when selecting the operational coefficient of consolidation adopted in the analysis of experi-
mental data, before giving practitioners recommendations on how to interpret the corresponding shear
strength and shear stiffness in intermediate permeability soils. Parametric studies designed to identify
the influence of strength and stiffness on the predicted normalized cone resistance and pore pressure
are still necessary.

6 SOIL STATE

The main emphasis in this section is on the state parameter, but the assessment of in situ horizontal
stress is also discussed.
Jager et al. use cavity expansion simulations to develop theoretical relationships of cone resistance
as function of state parameter, fines content and overburden stress. Based on this they present stress
normalizations of cone resistance in terms of the initial state parameter and they evaluate the effects of
fines content on stress normalization parameters. They conclude by saying that they hope their anal-
yses will contribute to the development of more generalized state parameter based normalization pro-
cedures for intermediate soils.
Moss provides an overview of how the state parameter,, determined from CPT results, can be used
to assess seismic soil liquefaction. To determine the state parameter it is required to know the slope,
10, of the critical stress line, CSL. 10 can be found from a series of triaxial tests and then can be
calculated from CPT data provided an assessment of the in situ lateral stress coefficient, K0, can be
made. If the sand being investigated is similar to a well known sand it may be possible to assess 10
from previous published triaxial tests. Moss presents a case from the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake
where CPT data were available at two locations where liquefaction occurred and one location where
liquefaction did not occur. Since the sand at this location was similar to the well known Monterey sand
the 10 value could be assessed from previous triaxial tests and could be calculated from CPT data
assuming Ko = 0.5. Figure 6.1 shows the combined results from CPT and lab data. The CTX line is the
trend from 37 triaxial liquefaction tests.

Figure 6.1 Loma Prieta case histories presented by Moss

Moss demonstrates that when the CSL cannot be based on available triaxial tests then the evaluation
of the state parameter becomes much more uncertain. Moss concludes by encouraging practitioners
and researchers to share laboratory testing results for developing a state parameter catalogue of com-
mon soils so that more field and laboratory testing results can be presented in state parameter space
leading to a better understanding of the liquefaction phenomena.
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 The need of determining the in situ lateral stress ratio, K0, in order to calculate the state parameter
lead to the next topic of discussion. The problem of reliable determination of in situ horizontal stress
has led many researchers in the 1980's and beginning of 1990s to present work on cone penetrometers
where the lateral stress could be measured (eg. Baligh et al. 1985; Bayne and Tjelta, 1987 and others).
However, none of the developments described by these authors appeared to have led to subsequent use
in practical soil investigations. Howie et al. report a re-activation of the efforts at University of British
Columbia (UBC). The latest version of the UBC lateral stress seismic piezocone (LSSCPTU) is shown
in Fig. 6.2, with the lateral stress cell mounted in an enlarged 44 mm diameter section behind a stand-
ard 36 mm piezocone. The pressure sensor consists of an external curved pressure receiving plate or
load transfer "button", with a set screw on its center and a compression subminiature load cell installed
inside the body of the instrumented body.

Figure 6.2 UBC lateral stress seismic piezocone (LSSCPTU) from Howie et al.

Howie et al. reports initial tests, including dissipation tests, at the Kidd Site in the Lower Mainland
of British Columbia; and example test results are shown in Fig. 6.3. Howie et al. argue that the new
design give reliable readings and that the increase in diameter for the Lateral stress module is im-
portant due the re-loading of the soil. They conclude by saying that further work is required to fully
evaluate the capabilities of LSM-II as a practical tool for enhanced site characterization.

Figure 6.3 Results of lateral stress piezocone test at KIDD 2 (after Howie et al.)

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7 CLASSIFICATION

Six of 51 papers focus on soil classification based on SCPT or CPT/CPTU measurements. Unit weight
was correlated to SCPT or CPT measurements in 2 papers.
Ghanekar evaluated four published relationships between CPT measured parameters and soil unit
weight for calcareous fine grained soils from offshore western Indian. The results show that the rela-
tionships by Mayne et al. (2010) and Robertson and Cabal (2010) predict within 10% of the measured
total unit weight for the data shallower than 30 m below seafloor, while for data deeper than 30m, the
relationship by Mayne (2013) predicts within 10% of the measured data.
Cai et al. evaluated unit weight from SCPTU in soft marine Jiangsu clays. The study showed that
the relationship between unit weight and shear wave velocity is the best correlation for the marine
clay, followed by tip resistance, and sleeve friction is the worst. Figure 7.1 shows the relationship be-
tween unit weight and shear wave velocity.

Figure 7.1 Relationship between unit weight and shear wave velocity (Cai, et al.)

Soil behavior type index Ic was discussed in several papers.

Pease showed several case studies of CPT site specific correlation with normalized soil behavior
type evaluation and fines content. One example is shown in Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2 Ic versus fines plot for Stockton California levees (Pease)

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 This paper presented case studies where Ic correlation worked well and some case studies where it
had significant bias resulting in misclassification of soil profiles. Pease suggested that the cone pene-
trometer design and the amount of wear of the friction sleeve may be the reason for correlations to
work in some cases and not to work in other.
Firouzianbandpey et al. estimated soil behavior type based on shear wave velocity and normalized
cone resistance (Qt = (qt - v0)/v0') data in the north of Denmark. Figure 5 predicts the soil type of the
studied region using seismic cone measurements in sand and sand mixtures. The soil behavior types
derived in Figure 7.3 fit very well with soil classification from laboratory test results.

Figure 7.3 Results from the data in the soil classification chart after Robertson et al., 1995 (Firouzianbandpey et
al.)

8 CONCLUSION

This Session report reviews the academic and practical contributions from papers presented in this
symposium to help advance the task of assessing geotechnical properties from CPT tests. Case histo-
ries reported here allow a critical review of established practice (framed on the state of knowledge
built mainly in the 1980s and 1990s) and support recommendations and guidelines applied to different
soil conditions. Ongoing research includes developing suitable statistical methods to analyze different
soils and soil behavior and to identify their spatial variability. Since CPT interpretation considers pene-
tration in sands and clays separately, geo-engineers inherently attempt to describe soils as exhibiting
typical sand or clay behavior. Intermediate permeability soils would then require a proper considera-
tion of rate effects to select appropriate penetration rates for estimation of corresponding fully drained
or undrained resistances. In clays, undrained cone penetration and subsequent pore pressure dissipation
are readily interpreted within the framework of critical state models, allowing strength and flow pa-
rameters to be estimated. Interpretation of strength in soft clay can be made from cone penetrometers,
flow penetrometers and pore pressure measurements. As for sands, assessment of the state of sandy
soils under drained penetration should be treated with caution due to disagreement over the correct
stress normalization. Stiffness can be measured from the seismic CPT, providing an independent read-
ing to support CPT interpretation methods where additional considerations regarding soil compressi-
bility are necessary.
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 Under the complex physical interactions related to CPT penetration and the consequent uncertain-
ties in CPT interpretation, site specific relationships are advocated throughout this session as a safe and
general recommendation for approaching geotechnical design.

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