Section 6.

1 1 Symmetries

Section 6.1 Symmetries and Algebraic Systems

Purpose of Section:
Section To introduce the idea of a symmetry of an object in the
plane, which will act as an introduction to the study of algebraic structures, in
particular algebraic groups.

Abstraction and Abstract Algebra

The ability to abstract is a unique feature of human thought, an ability
not shared by lower forms of living creatures. The ability to capture the
essence of what we see and experience is so engrained in our mental
processes, we never give it a second thought. If the human mind did not have
the capability to abstract commonalities in daily living, we would live in a
different world altogether. Suppose we lacked the capacity to grasp the
essence of what makes up a chair. We would be forced to call every chair
by a different name in order to communicate to others what we are referring.
The statement the chair in the living room would have no meaning unless we
knew what exact chair was being referred. Parents point to a picture of a
dog in a picture book and tell their infant, dog, and it is a proud moment for
the parents when the child sees a dog in the yard and says, dog!

The concept of number is a crowning achievement of humans ability to

abstract the essence of size of sets. It is not necessary to talk about three
people, three days, three dogs and so on. We have abstracted among
those things the commonality of threeness so there is no need to say add
three goats plus five goats, or three cats plus five cats, we simply say
three plus five.

The current chapter is a glimpse into some ideas of what is called

abstract algebra. Before defining what we mean by an abstract algebra,
you should realize you have already studied some abstract algebras whether
you know it or not, one being the integers. The integers are an abstract
algebra, although you probably have never called them abstract or an
algebra. The integers are a set of objects, called integers, and binary
operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication, defined on the integers,
along with a collection of axioms which the operations obey. Abstract algebra
abstracts the essence of the integers and other mathematical structures, and
says; lets not study just this or that, lets study all things which have certain
properties. (Not all that different from the infant when it says dog, realizing
there are more dogs than in the picture book.) Abstract mathematics allows
one to think about attributes and relationships, and not focus on specific
objects that possess those attributes and relationships.

The benefits of abstraction are many; it uncovers deep relationships

between different areas of mathematics by allowing one to rise up above the
Section 6.1 2 Symmetries

nuances of a particular area and see things from a broader point of view, like
seeing the forest instead of the trees, so to speak. The main disadvantage of
abstraction is that abstract concepts are more difficult to learn and require
more mathematical maturity before they can be understood and appreciated.
In summary, abstract algebra studies general mathematical structures with
given properties, the most important structures being groups, rings, and fields.

Before we start our formal discussion of algebraic groups in the next section, we
motivate their study with the introduction of symmetries.

Symmetries
Symmetries
We are all familiar with symmetrical objects, which we generally think
of as objects of beauty, and although you may not be prepared to give a
precise mathematical definition of symmetry, you know one when you see one.
Most people would say a square is more symmetrical than a rectangle, and a
hexagon more symmetrical than a square, and a circle is the most symmetrical
object of all.

Regular patterns and symmetries are known to all cultures and

societies. Although we generally think of symmetry in terms of geometric
objects, we can also include physical objects as well, like an atom, the
crystalline structure of a mineral, a plant, an animal, the solar system, or even
the universe. The concept of symmetry also embodies processes like
chemical reactions, the scattering of elementary particles, a musical score, the
evolution of the solar system, and even mathematical equations. In physics
symmetry1 has to do with the invariance (i.e. unchanging) of natural laws
under space and time transformations. A physical law having space/time
symmetries establishes that the law is independent of translating, rotating, or
reflecting the coordinates of the system. The symmetries of a physical
system are fundamental to how the system acts and behaves. And once the
word symmetry is mentioned, a mathematician thinks of a mathematical
structure called a group.

Symmetries in Two Dimensions

For a single (bounded) figure in two dimensions there are two types of
symmetries2. There is symmetry across a line in which one side of the object
is the mirror image of its other half. This type of symmetry is called line
symmetry (or reflective or mirror symmetry). Figure 1 shows an isosceles
triangle with a line symmetry through its vertical median.

1
For the seminal work on symmetries, see Symmetry by Hermann Weyl (Princeton Univ Press)
1980.
2
We do not include translation symmetries here since we are considering only single
geometric objects.
Section 6.1 3 Symmetries

Line Symmetry
Figure 1

The drawings of insects in Figure 2 have a bilateral symmetry. Other figures

are symmetric through more than one line, such as a square, which has four
lines (or axes) of symmetry; its horizontal and vertical midlines, and its two
diagonal lines. A regular n -gon has n lines of symmetry and a circle has an
infinite number.

Figures with One Line Symmetry

Figure 2

A second type of symmetry of a figure in the plane is rotational (or

radial)
radial symmetry.
symmetry An object has rotational symmetry if the object is repeated
when rotated certain degrees about a central point. The objects in Figure 3
have rotational symmetry about a point but no line symmetries.

Rotational Symmetries but No Line Symmetry

Figure 3

The flower shaped figure at the left in Figure 3 repeats itself when rotated 0,
120, 240 degrees about its center point so we say the figure has rotational
symmetry of degree 3. The letter Z has rotational symmetry 2, and the two
figures at the right have, respectively, rotational symmetries 3 and 4.
Section 6.1 4 Symmetries

Some objects have both reflective and rotational symmetries as

illustrated by the regular polygons3 in Figure 4. The equilateral triangle has 3
rotational symmetries (rotations of 0
,120
and 240
about a center point) and
3 reflective symmetries through median lines passing through the three
vertices. A regular polygon with n vertices has n rotation symmetries (each
rotation 360 / n degrees) and n lines of symmetry.

3
Recall that a regular polygon is a polygon whose lengths of sides and angles are the same. Common
ones are the equilateral triange, square, pentagon, and so on.
Section 6.1 5 Symmetries

Equal Number of Rotation and Line Symmetr

Symmetries
ymmetries
Rotation Line
Figure
Symmetries Symmetries

3 rotations 3 line
0 ,120 , 240




symmetries

4 rotations 4 line
0 ,90
,180
, 270



symmetries

5 rotations 5 line
0 , 72 ,144 , 216 , 288






symmetries

Infinite number Infinite number of

of rotation symmetries line symmetries

Figures Having Both Rotational and Reflective Symmetries

Figure 4

Margin Note: Many letters of the alphabet, such as A,B,C,D, , have various
rotation and line symmetries.

Symmetry
Symmetry Transformations
Although you can think of symmetries as a property of an object, which it
it, there is another interpretation which is more beneficial for our purposes.
For us a symmetry is a function or what we often will call a mapping or
transformation.
Section 6.1 6 Symmetries

Definition A symmetry of an object, say A , in the plane is a distance

isometry that maps the object A onto itself4.
preserving mapping f (called an isometry)
That is, if f is a symmetry map, then f ( A ) = A .

Rotation Symmetry of 180 degrees

Note:
Note If an object A in the plane is bounded (i.e. it is inside some circle with
finite radius) then a translation of the object merely sliding it in some direction
is not a symmetry since it alters the location of the figure. For unbounded
figures such as wallpaper designs, floor tiles, and so on are often symmetries.
We now look at some simple geometric shapes in the plane.

Symmetries of a Rectangle
Figure 5 shows a rectangle in which the length and width are not the
same in which we have labeled the corners as A, B, C , D to help us visualize
how the rectangle is rotated and reflected.

Figure 5

You can convince yourself that the rectangle has two rotation symmetries of
0
, 180
, and two line (or flip) symmetries where the lines of symmetry are
the horizontal and vertical midlines. These four symmetries are illustrated in
Figure 6.

4
Symmetries in three dimensions are defined analogously.
Section 6.1 7 Symmetries

First Final
Motion Symbol
Position Position

No Motion e

Rotate 180
R180

Flip over
Horizontal Median
H

Flip over
V
Vertical Median

The Four Symmetries of a Rectangle

Figure 6

So what do these symmetries have to do with algebraic structures? Since a

symmetry is a transformation (i.e. a function) which maps the points of an
object back into itself, we can define the product of two transformations as
performing one symmetry followed by the other (i.e. a composition of
functions). It is clear that since each symmetry leaves the object unchanged,
so does the product of two symmetries. In other words, the product formed in
this manner is also a symmetry. For example, if we perform a 180
rotation5,
denoted by R180 , followed by H a flip through the horizontal midline, the
result, as illustrated in Figure 7, is the same as performing the single
symmetry V , a flip through the vertical midline. In other words, we have
computed the product R180 H = V .

5
It is our convention that all rotations are done counterclockwise.
Section 6.1 8 Symmetries

Product of Symmetries R180 H = V

Figure 7

Note that the do nothing symmetry e , called the identity symmetry,

symmetry and is
analogous to 1 in normal multiplication of integers. Figure 8 shows the
product of a few symmetries.

eH = He = H
Ve = Ve = V
R180 e = eR180 = R180
ee = e
R180 R180 = e
VV = e
HH = e
Products of Typical Symmetries
Figure 8

Note also that two successive operations of any of the symmetries e, R180, V , H
results in returning to the original position. For that reason we say each of
these symmetries is its own inverse,
inverse which are expressed in Figure 9.
Section 6.1 9 Symmetries

HH = e H = H 1
VV = e V = V 1
R180 R180 = e R180 = R180
1

ee = e e = e1
Inverses of Symmetries
Figure 9

We can now make a multiplication table for the symmetries of a rectangle,

which is shown in Figure 10. The product of any two symmetries lies at the
intersection of the row and column of the symmetries. For example, the
intersection of the row labeled R180 and column labeled H is V , which means
R180 H = V . The borders of the cells containing the identity symmetry e are
darkened as an aid in reading the table.

e R180 H V
e e R180 H V
R180 R180 e V H
H H V e R180
V V H R180 e

Multiplication Table for Symmetries of a Rectangle

Figure 10

Note:

1. Every row and column of the multiplication table contains one and exactly
one of the four symmetries. It is like a Latin square.

2. In this example the main diagonal contains the identity symmetry e , which
means the product of each symmetry times itself is the identity, or equivalently
each symmetry is equal to its inverse.

3. The table is symmetric about the main diagonal which means the
multiplication of symmetries is commutative.
commutative i.e. AB = BA just like multiplication
of numbers in arithmetic. We would call this a commutative algebraic system.

4. The four symmetries e, R180, V , H of the rectangle along with the product
operation form what is called an algebraic group.
group.
Section 6.1 10 Symmetries

We have seen how the symmetries of a rectangle form an algebraic

structure of four elements, complete with algebraic identity, and where (in this
example) every element has an inverse. Observe how this system is
analogous to the integers with the operation of addition, except there are an
infinite number of integers (and in the case of integers, only 0 is its own
inverse).

Margin Note: There are objects with no line or rotational symmetries. Can
you draw some?

Symmetries of an Equilateral Triangle

We now examine a figure that is more symmetric than the rectangle,
the equilateral triangle. The equilateral triangle6 as drawn in Figure 11 has 6
symmetries, three rotational symmetries in which the triangle is rotated
0
,120
, 240
about its center, and 3 line symmetries in which the triangle is
reflected through lines passing through the vertices as drawn as dotted line
segments.

Six Symmetries of an Equilateral Triangle

Figure 11

Denoting these symmetry mappings as e, R120 , R240 , Fv , Fnw , Fne , where e is the
identity (do nothing) symmetry, R120 , R240 are (counterclockwise) rotations of
120
, 240
respectively, Fv denotes the flip through the vertical median, Fnw
denotes the flip around the northwest median, and Fne is the flip around the
northeast median. Figure 12 illustrates the effect of these symmetries.

6
Recall that an equilateral triangle is a triangle with the three sides (or three angles) the same.
Section 6.1 11 Symmetries

First Final
Motion Symbol
Position Position

No Motion e

Rotate 120
R120

Counterclockwise

Rotate 240
R240

Counterclockwise

Flip over the

Fv
Vertical Axis

Flip over the

Fne
Northeast Axis

Flip over the

Fnw
Northwest Axis

Symmetries of an Equilateral Triangle

Figure 12
Section 6.1 12 Symmetries

As we did for the rectangle, we can compute the multiplication, or Cayley

table, for these symmetries. See Figure 13.

e R120 R240 Fv Fne Fnw

e e R120 R240 Fv Fne Fnw
R120 R120 R240 e Fne Fnw Fv
R240 R240 e R120 Fnw Fv Fne
Fv Fv Fnw Fne e R240 R120
Fne Fne Fv Fnw R120 e R240
Fnw Fnw Fne Fv R240 R120 e

Multiplication Table for Symmetries of an Equilateral Triangle

Figure 13

We have drawn the borders around the identity symmetry e so the table can
be more easily read and interpreted. For easier reading, we have shaded the
northeast and northwest blocks of products involving the three flip
symmetries.

Example 1 (Commutative
(Commutative Operations)
Are the symmetry operations for the equilateral triangle commutative?
In other words, does the order in which the operations are performed make a
difference in the outcome7?

Solution
To determine if the symmetries are commutative, we examine the
products in the multiplication table in Figure 11 to see if they are symmetric
around the diagonal elements. In this case the table is not symmetric for all
symmetries so the symmetry operations are not commutative. Note that
Fnw Fne Fne Fnw although one product is commutative; R120 R240 = R240 R120 = e .

Example 2 (Finding Inverse Symmetries)

What are the inverses of each symmetry operation?
Solution
Note that e2 = Fv2 = Fne2 = Fnw2 = e which means the symmetries e, Fv , Fne , Fnv
are their own inverses, that is e = e 1 , Fv = Fv1 , Fne = Fne1 , Fnv = Fnv1 .
1 1
However, note that R120 = R240 and R240 = R120 . The fact there is one and only

7
Not all mathematical operations are commutative. Examples are matrix multiplication and the cross
product of vectors. In daily life not all operations are commutative either. Going outside and emptying the
garbage is one example.
Section 6.1 13 Symmetries

one identity symmetry e in every row and column means that each symmetry
has exactly one inverse symmetry.
The collection e, R120 , R240 , Fv , Fnw , Fne of symmetries of the equilateral
triangle along with the product operation defines the dihedral group of order 6
and denoted by D6 . In general the dihedral group of order D2 n represents the
symmetries of a regular n -gon.

Pure Mathematics: The story goes how Abraham Lincoln, failing to convince his
Cabinet how their reasoning was faulty, ask them, How many legs does a cow
have? When they said four, he then continued, Well then, if a cows tail was
a leg, how many legs does it have? When they said five, obviously, Lincoln
said, Thats where you are wrong. Just calling a tail a leg doesnt make it a
let. This story may be true in the real world, but in the world of pure
mathematics it is wrong. If you call a cows tail a leg, then it is a leg. In pure
mathematics, we do not need to know what the things we are working with are,
only the rules with govern them. We only need to know the axioms.
Section 6.1 14 Symmetries

Problems

1. Determine the number of line and rotational symmetries of the following

letters.
a) A l) L w) W
b) B m) M x) X
c) C n) N y) Y
d) D o) O z) Z
e) E p) P
f) F q Q
g) G r) R
h) H s) S
i) I t) T
j) J u) U
k) K v) V

2. Draw a figure that has the following symmetries.

a) no rotational and no line symmetries

b) 1 rotational and no line symmetries
c) no rotational and 1 line symmetry
d) 1 rotational and 1 line symmetry
e) 2 rotational and no line symmetries
f) no rotational and 2 line symmetries
g) 4 rotational and no line symmetries

3. (Multiplication Tables) For the following objects determine the

symmetries and compute the multiplication table for the symmetries. Find the
inverse of each symmetry.

a)
Section 6.1 15 Symmetries

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)
Section 6.1 16 Symmetries

g)

Symmetries)8 The following logos have an equal number of line

4. (Common Symmetries)
and rotation symmetries. These are the symmetries of a regular n gon.
Symmetries of this type are called dihedral symmetries.
symmetries Find the rotational
and reflection symmetries of the following figures. Hint: Dont forget the
identity mapping which is a rotation of zero degrees.

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

8
We thank Annalisa Crannel of Franklin and Marshall College for
providing these logos.
Section 6.1 17 Symmetries

5. (Symmetries of Solutions of Differential Equations) The solutions of the

differential equation dy dx = y is the one-parameter family y = ce x where c is
an arbitrary constant. Show that the transformation x = x + h, y = y where
h is an arbitrary real number maps the family of solutions back into the family
of solutions, and hence is a symmetry transformation of the differential
equation.

6. (Find the Symmetries) Draw a geometric object whose symmetries

a, b, c, d have the following multiplication tables.
a)
e a
e e a
a a e

b)
e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a

c)
e a b c
e e a b c
a a b c e
b b c e a
c c e a b

d)
e a b c d
e e a b c d
a a b c d e
b b c d e a
c c d e a b
d d e a b c

6 (Symmetries of a Parallelogram) Describe the symmetries of a

parallelogram that is neither a rhombus nor a rectangle.
Section 6.1 18 Symmetries

7. (Symmetries of an Ellipse) Describe the symmetries of an ellipse that is not

a circle.

8. (Multiplication Tables) Find the multiplication table for the symmetries of the
star in Figure 15. Once you determine the pattern for the table, it goes fairly
fast.

Figure 14

9. (Representation of D2 with Matrices) Show that the matrices

1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
e= , A= , B= , C=
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

satisfy the following multiplication table of the dihedral group D2 where the
group operation is defined as matrix multiplication. This means the group can
be represented by matrices where the group operation is matrix multiplication.

e A B C
e e A B C
A A e C B
B B C e A
C C B A e
Dihedral Multiplication Table