ANATOMY OF AN ORACLE:

by
Glenn A. Carnagey, Sr., and Glenn A. Carnagey Jr.

Ever since exegetes learned of the electrifying discoveries at

Tel Marduk (Ebla), Syria, it was inevitable that Biblical connec-
tions would surface. The discovery of the Hebrew word for
prophet, n`b' (previously found in no other Semitic language),
stirred considerable interest. A renewed interest in biblical
prophecy and its setting in the Ancient Near East has heightened
interest in the new information from Ebla. It is an excellent time
for a form critical reassessment of the vehicles through which the
Holy Spirit revealed Old Testament prophecy. Although this arti-
cle provides background information on developing form critical
thought, it focuses on defining and illustrating the rich variety of
forms in which Old Testament prophecy appears.

Historical Background

Insight into the occasionally obscure reports of the prophets

is welcome. Sound prophetic exegesis benefits from having a
comprehensive picture of both the contents and the form of Old
and New Testament prophecy. This article seeks to explain the
proper contribution which form criticism can make to exegesis.1
Neither form criticism nor exegesis can occur in a vacuum. Each
prophet faced specific circumstances as he fulfilled his divine

1
The authors reject the destructive aims to which liberals often apply form
analysis. The Bible is Gods inspired and inerrant word. Legitimate form
analysis recognizes that various forms exist in each culture. A Dear John
letter is a form in which one expects to see a statement that although the re-
cipient was dear to the writer, that the romance has ended (usually due to a
new flame). A promissory note is a form in which a borrower pledges to make
specified payments at a certain interest rate until the loan is repaid. It also lists
consequences for late payments or default. Other forms include: a last will and
testament, a sonnet, a newspaper sports account (giving game location, teams,
final score, and winner), etc. Readers expect certain features in each form.
 Anatomy of an Oracle 53

commission to transmit Gods message. Knowing what is com-

mon in form assists in understanding the text.2 What is Gods
choice regarding the format of prophetic material? Do these ele-
ments occur with regularity in other works of the same prophet or
in those of his predecessors or successors?

Hermann Gunkel

Hermann Gunkel was among the first to put forth an orderly

system in dealing with the prophetic corpus. His fondness of
evolutionary thinking led him (and others) to assume that the
earliest prophetic materials were short two-line sayings. He con-
cluded that the oldest biblical prophecies were what he termed
the two-line Threat/Promise sayings. While rejecting the rea-
soning behind his conclusions, his observation that the form itself
exists is quite valid. According to Gunkel, the earliest prophets
were primarily speakers who spoke their messages to the in-
tended audiences; later, the practice of writing down the mes-
sages became more prevalent (Conservatives recognize that
Moses is an obvious exception to that construct). Gunkels un-
derstanding of form criticism yields a simple outline:

1. The Vision in Narrative Form.

2. Prophetic Oracles.
a. Threat.
b. Promise.
3. Discourse.
a) Invective (Upbraiding for sin).
b) Exhortation (Call to Well-doing).

Although he only scratched the surface of prophetic mate-

rial, others expanded his limited schema of prophetic forms.3
2
This does not necessarily mean that the feature is always present or even that
it ought to be present. One must be careful in reaching dogmatic conclusions
when a feature occasionally is absent.
3
Hermann Gunkel, Den Propheten (Gttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 1929).
54 CTS Journal 7 (JanuaryMarch 2001)

Claus Westermann

Claus Westermann marks the next great advance in form

critical thinking about prophetic literature. His Basic Forms of
Prophetic Speech has become a classic.4 He regarded the prophet
as preeminently a messenger. Though recent findings at Mari,
Ebla, and Nuzi weaken his thesis somewhat, much of his case is
still valid. Westermanns three main categories of prophetic lit-
erature are accounts, prayers, and speeches.

Accounts are occasional first or second person reports of the

activity of the prophets in the form of historical narrative (Isaiah
3639; Jeremiah 26; 32). Often, accounts supply the framework
around speeches, provide the circumstances of reception and de-
livery, or act as superscription for the book. Although prayers are
relatively rare, the prophet directs these words to God. A well-
known example is Jeremiahs complaint to God (Jeremiah 12;
15:5ff; 17:4ff). Others follow the patterns of the various types of
psalms, as in Amos 4:13; 5:89; 9:56. Speeches constitute the
bulk of the prophetic literature. In these the prophet addresses
Israel or Judah, a group within them, or a foreign nation. They
are more of a spontaneous expression than a long formal compo-
sition and can be isolated by observing the formulas that open
and conclude them, as well as changes in person and motivation.

Together, Gunkel and Westermann provide an essential in-

troduction to form criticisms relationship to prophecy. All of
these categories facilitate exegesis of prophecy, but they are in-
complete.

The Current Situation

What should the conservative (an inerrantist literal inter-

preter) accept from the above material? He cannot accept the

4
Claus Westermann, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech, trans. H. C. White
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967).
 Anatomy of an Oracle 55

evolutionary bias, nor can he be content with paradigms that are

woefully inadequate for dealing with the rich variety of forms in
the Word itself. However, he can accept the concept of such
forms (or categories) as messenger speeches, and seek to define
them within the biblical framework. The prophet certainly is
Gods messenger, the one who stands before Gods people with
Gods authoritative message. The pages of prophetic literature
are saturated with Thus saith the Lord and other comments that
essentially echo Micaiahs assertion that As the Lord lives, what
the Lord says to me, that I will speak (1 Kings 22:14).5 The
prophet was to convey Gods message (not his own) to the peo-
ple.6 Yet, Gods message does not have a stereotyped format. The
remainder of this article seeks to organize this wide-ranging fea-
ture of Gods word for the benefit of exegetes.

Specific Prophetic Oracular Forms

Prophetic material divides into six major sections: 1) Vision

Reports, 2) Epistolary Oracles, 3) Hymnic Oracles, 4) Legal Ora-
cles, 5) Wisdom Oracles and 6) Eschatological Oracles. Prophets
could draw upon a wealth of literary forms for messages.

Type 1: Vision Reports

These occur near the beginning of the Prophets active

ministry and often include his commissioning. The prophet de-
scribes what Yahweh showed him (Then Yahweh caused me to
see). Usually, they announce a message, often illustrated via a
training aid (cf. the Basket of Summer Fruit in Amos 8:13).

5
Unless otherwise indicated all Scripture citations are from the New King
James Version of the Holy Bible (Nashville: Nelson, 1990, 1985, 1983).
6
However, at times the prophets became so caught up in this process that they
interceded for the people to whom they were messengers. Moses (on many
occasions), Isaiah, and even Amos interceded in prayer for the subjects of their
prophecies (Isaiah 6:11; Amos 7:13).
56 CTS Journal 7 (JanuaryMarch 2001)

Report of a Prophets Commission Oracle: Isaiah

6:113; Jeremiah 1:110; and Ezekiel 2:13:27 are clear
examples. Though similar in form, each reported his call in
his own way:

Isaiah 6:113

1. Date (6:1a)
2. Description of Vision (6:1b4)
3. Confession of Humility (6:5)
4. Purification/Sanctification (6:6)
5. Divine Commission (6:713)

Jeremiah 1:110

1. Date (1:13)
2. Divine Appointment (1:45)
3. Confession of Humility (1:6)
4. Divine Comfort (1:78)
5. Purification/Sanctification (1:9a)
6. Divine Commission (1:9b10)

Ezekiel 2:13:21

1. Divine Call (2:1)

2. Divine Commission (2:23)
3. Divine Appointment (2:47)
4. Purification/Sanctification (2:83:3)
5. Additional Commission (3:415)
6. Additional Appointment (3:1621)

Oracles belonging to the same form resemble each other, but

have unique features (like snowflakes).

Anointing Commission Oracle: Isaiah 1:162:12 is the

only scriptural example. It emphasizes the Messianic nature
of the message.
 Anatomy of an Oracle 57

Account of Sign-Act Oracles: These signs are not theo-

phanic visions of God, but signs consisting of things com-
mon in life (or even the prophets own actions) which God
explains to the prophet (Isaiah 8:14; Jeremiah 14:15; Eze-
kiel 45). The usual sequence of events is:

1. Instruction concerning the Sign-Act,

2. Execution of the Sign-Act by the Prophet, and
3. Interpretation of the Sign-Act to the audience.

The fig tree (Matthew 24) is a New Testament example by

which Jesus taught His disciples prophecy from a tree.

Type 2: Epistolary Oracles

The Old Testament offers only one example of this type of

oracle (cf. the seven Epistolary Oracles in Revelation 23). This
oracle concerning Elijah is marked by the phrase: Yahweh Adonai
sends a word against. . . . (2 Chronicles 21:12).

Type 3: Hymnic Oracles

These are rare, but they uniquely combine two genres of

Old Testament Literature: Hymns and Prophecy. Only four forms
belong to this category:

1. Call to Worship Oracles,

2. Song Oracles,
3. Dirge Oracles, and
4. Exhortation Oracles.

Call to Worship Oracle: This title does not fully capture

the idea. It sarcastically calls the nation to worship its false
gods and idols with the hope that when the worshiper real-
izes his false gods can offer no help, he will turn to Yah-
weh. Amos 4:4 is an example:
58 CTS Journal 7 (JanuaryMarch 2001)

Come to Bethel and transgress

To Gilgal and multiply transgression.
Bring your sacrifices every morning,
Your tithes every three days.

Dirge Oracle: Judgment is so certain that the prophet

actually sings a funeral dirge lamenting the victims (Amos
5:12; Ezekiel 32:216).

Song Oracles: Both forms of this oracle resemble the

above oracles, since they also encourage the believer to
rejoice. The only difference is in the musical response
rather than the verbal one.

1. Sing (Psalm 7:1; Amos 8:3; Isaiah 42:10; Jeremiah

20:13; Zephaniah 2:4)
2. A Song (Isaiah 12:5; Zephaniah 3:14)

Exhortation to Rejoice Oracles: These are purely calls to

exultation and joy on the part of the believer, who is
already saved and maturing. He is invited to revel in the
loyalty and activity of the Lord on his behalf.

1. Awake (Isaiah 51:913, 1723; 52:12)

2. Give a Ringing Shout of Victory (Isaiah 54:17;
Zechariah 9:9)
3. Shine . . . Arise (Isaiah 60:120)

Type 4: Legal Oracles

These are the most common of the six subdivisions. The

particular forms present the successive stages of a court trial:

1. The Full Trial,

2. Warning of Indictment,
3. Reading of Charges, and
4. Verdict/Sentence Execution.
 Anatomy of an Oracle 59

Full Trial Oracles: Micah and Hosea are the most profi-
cient at this form of oracle. Several complete examples of
the form appear. These focus on the Hebrew word r'b, (to
bring a legal case against someone). The entire oracle
utilizes technical courtroom terminology. Micah 6:116 is
representative:7

1. Subpoena: Hear. . . Arise. . . Plead your case (6:1a),

2. Calling Witnesses to Testify: Hear! (6:1b2),
3. Testimony & Charges: I . . . my people (6:312),
4. Verdict and Sentence: I will. . . (6:1316).

Warning Oracles: Such warnings to bring about rehabili-

tation are common before judgment by God. These oracles
emphasize warning and listing the problems, not the poten-
tial consequences of continuing the behavior.

A. The Woe Oracle: The particle Hoy (woe) always

introduces this oracle. It is used to get the listeners
attention and warn him in a manner similar to
casuistic law that he has two choices of action (If a
man do this. . . then you shall do thus).

Amos 6:1 illustrates the Woe Oracle form:

1. Command: Seek the Lord

2. Purpose: That you might live
3. Consequence of Failure: Lest the Lord break
forth

B. Imperatival Oracles: Hundreds of these appear

throughout prophetic literature. They also seek to
gain the listeners attention and rehabilitate him.
Each begins with an action imperative, requiring

7
Other examples include Hosea 4:119 and 12:2ff. Isaiah and the other proph-
ets use legal language frequently.
60 CTS Journal 7 (JanuaryMarch 2001)

specific steps of the listener, generally based on the

content of the oracle that follows.

C. Exhortation to Return to Doctrine Oracles: Most

oracles in this subgroup are couched in the form of
an invitation to one group or another to listen to the
gospel or doctrine. They address both unbelievers
and believers.

1. Remember (Isaiah 44:2133; 46:811;

63:719; Malachi 4:45),
2. Draw Near (Isaiah 34:115; 45:20),8
3. Seek from/Resort to (Isaiah 34:1617;
35:110).

Disciplinary Oracles: Here God seeks to elicit the listen-

ers repentance by describing how they will react to their
painful judgment.

1. Howl (Zechariah 11:2; Isaiah 13:6; 14:31; 16:7;

23:1, 6, 14; Jeremiah 4:8; 25:34; 48:20; 49:3; 51:8;
Ezekiel 21:12; 30:2; Joel 1:5, 11, 13; Zephaniah
1:11)
2. Cry loudly (Isaiah 58:114)
3. Go out . . . Flee (Isaiah 48:2022)
4. Come down . . . Sit in the dust (Isaiah 47:1)

A. A Voice is Calling Oracle: This form appears only

once (Isaiah 40:3, 4, 631).

B. The Hear The Lords Voice Oracle: It is a special

adaptation of the imperatival oracle expanded tre-
mendously to the point where it became one of the
most prevalent of all the oracular forms. It is a call

8
This type of oracle combines the Call to Witness with the Imperatival Oracle.
 Anatomy of an Oracle 61

to court as when a bailiff says, All rise! It is com-

mon.9

Accusation Oracles: These oracles concentrate on getting

the attention of the accused and framing Gods charges
against them.

A. The Call to Witness Oracles: This oracle is usu-

ally an inclusion preceding the indictment, though
occasionally it stands alone. It is an Imperatival
Oracle emphasizing the need to return to and apply
Gods Word.10 The form consists of v!muW (hear)
followed by the addressee (Isaiah 1:2; Micah 1:2;
6:2).

B. The H!N@h Oracle: The interjection H ! N @ h

(Behold) always introduces this oracle. It is quite
close to the Imperatival Oracles, but like other Ac-
cusation Oracles it stresses the guilt and potential
judgment of the accused.

C. The Interrogatory Oracle: This version of the full

trial oracle forms an indictment through questions:
Do you not know. . . Have you not heard? (Isaiah
40:28).

Verdict Oracles: Five forms belong to this category. Each

stresses the imposition of a sentence upon the addressee.

9
Isaiah 1:10, 39:57, 46:17, 46:1213, 48:1216, 49:14, 51:18, 66:524;
Hosea 5:17; Micah 1:2; 6:1; Amos 3:1. A slight adaptation occurs in Zecha-
riah 3:9, Hear Now along with the use of an alternative verb in another varia-
tion: Hear H~h&rvW found in Isaiah 41:116 and 44:1.
10
As in parallel ancient near eastern treaties, witnesses are the Hebrew substi-
tutes for the Pantheon lists of other nations treaties. The Jews used instead the
heavens, the clouds, the mountains and other parts of creation to represent the
creator and witnesses.
62 CTS Journal 7 (JanuaryMarch 2001)

A. Name of the LORD Oracles: The verdict is given

in the Name of the LORD. This probably is due to
the poetic device of metonymy, in which a part
stands for the whole (name/reputation/character for
whole person).11 This format places the entire
weight of Gods Essence upon recalcitrant believers
(Amos 5:8, 27; 9:6).

B. Thus Says Oracles: This forms frequency makes

listing of verses unnecessary. Its introductory
phrase, Thus says Yahweh, is the most common
preface for Verdict Oracles. It is also used fre-
quently for instruction, placing the onus of initiating
judgment on God, not the prophet.

C. Woe (hoy) Oracles: Especially frequent in Isaiah,

these oracles are pure judgment addressed to a spe-
cific recipient. This Hebrew particle indicating sor-
row always introduces them. These are frequent in
Isaiah, but are scattered throughout the minor
prophets as well. A full Woe Oracle includes an ad-
dress to the defendant, an indictment/description of
charges and a verdict (Amos 6:114).

D. Wish Oracles: Closely related to the Woe Oracles,

the Wish Oracle takes a more optimistic approach
with wistfulness. The Hebrew particle lWa (If
that, if only) introduces it.

11
Cf. E. W. Bullinger, Figures of Speech Used in the Bible (London: Eyre and
Spottiswoode, 1898; reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1968), 608. This type of
oracle appears in: Isaiah 3:911; 5:812; 10:14, 10:511; 17:1224; 18:17;
28:18; 29:18, 1516; 30:15; 31:13; 33:112; 45:910; Jeremiah 13:27;
22:1323; 23:14; 48:110; Ezekiel 13:37, 1819; 16:2329; 24:613;
30:24; 34:26; Hosea 7:1316; 9:1014; Amos 5:1820; 6:17; Micah
2:113; 7:16; Nahum 3:17; Habakkuk 2:611, 1517, 1820; Zephaniah
2:57; 3:17; Zechariah 11:l7.
 Anatomy of an Oracle 63

E. Burden Oracles: Most serious of all the verdict

oracles is the Burden Oracle, marked by the use of
m~C`a A burden (Isaiah 14:28, 54:17) and to a
lesser extent by the form n=a%m utterance. Both
of these contain eschatological and severe judgment
content.12

Type 5: Wisdom Oracles

These oracles are usually less serious than those in the

preceding section, but they suggest how skilled the prophets
became as writers. In this section are the Parable Oracle and the
Riddle Oracle, as well as the Fate-Working Deed Oracle and the
Number Proverb Oracle.

The Parable Oracle: Its one biblical example uses a vine-

yard to represent the nation of Judah (Isaiah 5:17).

Three Riddle Oracles: This format is also rare, but Eze-

kiel uses it along with the Parable form to illustrate Judahs
problems through the Eagle and the Vine (Ezekiel 17:210)

The Fate-Working Deed Oracle: These cause and effect

statements resemble one form of the proverbs found in
wisdom literature (Amos 3:3ff).

The Number Proverb Oracle: It emphasizes the nations

innumerable sins as they rebelled against Yahweh. It re-
quires the use of two consecutive numbers: For three . . .
yea, for four. The regular number proverb oracle gives a
full list adding up to the total of both numbers. The trun-
cated number proverb gives only one of the two. These are
unique to Amos (Amos 1:32:8).

12
Isaiah 13:1; 14:28; 17:1; 19:1; 21:11, 13; 22:1, 25; 23:1; 30:6; Jeremiah
22:38; 23:3334; Ezekiel 12:10; Hosea 8:10; Nahum 1:1; Habakkuk 1:1;
Zechariah 9:1; 12:1; Malachi 1:1.
64 CTS Journal 7 (JanuaryMarch 2001)

Type 6: Eschatological Oracles

The final category of oracles consists of a large number of

passages that have variations of the phrase The Day of the Lord.
This common form occurs in almost every prophetic book. The
following illustrates some of the variations:

1. In the Last Days

2. The day/days is/are coming when sometimes with be-
hold
3. In that day
4. After this
5. The day of salvation
6. The days are at hand
7. At that time
8. And it shall come to pass
9. The day of Yahweh.13

Some passages transition between near and a distant fulfillment,

while others focus on eschatological events. On a rare occasion,
Isaiah uses it to refer to the First and Second Advents as a whole.
Context and sound hermeneutical principles are essential for
dealing with these complex passages. The appendix is a concor-
dance listing of the various phrases.

Conclusions

The wealth of Prophetic literature, written, and preserved in

the Old Testament, is vast and has the potential to richly reward
those who study its content. The first half of this article sketched
a brief history of form critical research on prophecy and demon-
strated its rudimentary status. The second half proposed catego-
ries into which most prophetic passages fit. Recognizing the

13
The evidence is strong that the Israelites clearly understood at least item
nine to refer to a period of time commencing with the beginning of the Tribu-
lation and ending with the inauguration of the eternal state.
 Anatomy of an Oracle 65

subcategory of prophecy to which a passage belongs enables the

pastor to handle Scripture more skillfully and discover its truths.

2 Peter 1:21 indicates that prophecy was written by holy

men of God, who were carried along by the Holy Spirit. It is the
authors hope that as the Holy Spirit carries the student of Gods
Word along in the rediscovery of what He wrote through the
prophets, that this article will help.
66 CTS Journal 7 (JanuaryMarch 2001)

Appendix

This lists Old Testament oracles in scriptural order:

Psalm 7:1.

Isaiah 2:2, 1112, 17, 20; 3:7, 18; 4:2; 5:30, 7:1718, 2021, 23;
9:14; 10:3, 17, 20, 27, 30; 11:1011; 12:1, 4; 13:6, 9; 14:3; 17:1,
4, 7, 9, 11; 19:16, 18, 21, 2324; 20:6; 22:5, 8, 12, 20, 25; 23:15;
24:21; 25:9; 27:12, 1213; 28:5; 29:18; 30:8, 23, 28 (Day of the
Great Slaughter); 31:7; 34:8; 37:3, 39:6; 42:10; 47:9; 49:8; 52:6;
61:2; 63:4; 66:8.

Jeremiah 3:16, 18; 4:9; 5:18; 7:32; 9:25; 12:3 (Day of Slaughter);
16:14, 19 (Day of Affliction/Tribulation); 17:16 (Day of Woe),
17 (Day of Evil); 18:17 (Day of Calamity/Disaster); 19:6; 20:13;
23:57, 20; 25:3334; 27:22; 30:3, 7 (Great Day), 30:8, 24; 31:6
(There Shall be a Day), 27, 29, 31, 33, 38; 33:1416, 20; 46:10
(This Day); 48:12, 41, 47; 49:2, 22, 26, 39; 50:2, 20, 27, 3031;
51:2 (Day of Trouble), 47, 52.

Ezekiel 7:7, 10, 12, 19, 23; 13:5; 21:25, 29; 22:24 (Day of Indig-
nation); 24:2627, 29:21; 30:23, 9; 36:3; 38:14, 16, 1819;
39:8, 11, 13, 22; 40:1; 45:22

Daniel 10:14; 12:13.

Hosea 1:5; 2:16, 18, 21; 3:5; 9:7 (Day of Visitation).

Joel 1:15; 2:12, 11, 29, 31; 3:1, 14, 18.

Amos 2:16; 3:14; 4:2; 5:18, 20; 6:3; 8:3, 9, 11, 13; 9:11, 13.

Obadiah 8, 12, 13, 14, 15.

Micah 2:4; 3:6; 4:1, 6; 5:10; 7:12.

 Anatomy of an Oracle 67

Zephaniah 1:710, 1416, 18; 2:24.

Haggai 2:19, 23.

Zechariah 2:11; 3:910; 6:10; 8:23; 9:16; 12:34, 6, 89, 11;

13:12, 4; 14:1, 4, 69, 13, 2021.

Malachi 3:2, 17; 4:1, 3, 5.

End

Dr. Glenn Carnagey, Sr., earned his B.A. at the University of

Texas, Th.M. at Dallas Theological Seminary, and M.A. & Ph.D.
at the University of Tulsa. He has done extensive archaeological
work in the Near East at Abila of the Decapolis and at el-Muqatir
(biblical Ai), edited a major archaeological journal, the NEAS
Journal. Dr. Carnagey has pastored in Texas, Oklahoma, and
Minnesota. He is a member of Chafer Seminarys National Board
of Advisors. His email address is: glenna@carnagey.com

Glenn A. Carnagey, Jr., has an A.B. in Near Eastern Languages

and Civilizations, University of Chicago, and is a Ph.D. candi-
date in Egyptology at the University of Chicago. He is a Senior
Consultant (system, network, firewall, and internet server ad-
ministration). As a Ryerson Fellow, he worked with hieroglyphic
epigraphy at key international research museums. His archaeo-
logical experience is wide-ranging (on-site work, directing com-
puter operations, and journal editing). He is compiling The
Catalogue of the Medinet Habu Ostraca for the Oriental Institute
of the University of Chicago.