Columbia University

Department of Physics
QUALIFYING EXAMINATION

Wednesday, January 15, 2014

1:00PM to 3:00PM
Modern Physics
Section 3. Quantum Mechanics

Two hours are permitted for the completion of this section of the examination. Choose
4 problems out of the 5 included in this section. (You will not earn extra credit by doing an
additional problem). Apportion your time carefully.

Use separate answer booklet(s) for each question. Clearly mark on the answer booklet(s)
which question you are answering (e.g., Section 3 (QM), Question 2, etc.).

Do NOT write your name on your answer booklets. Instead, clearly indicate your Exam
Letter Code.

You may refer to the single handwritten note sheet on 8 12 11 paper (double-sided) you
have prepared on Modern Physics. The note sheet cannot leave the exam room once the
exam has begun. This note sheet must be handed in at the end of todays exam. Please
include your Exam Letter Code on your note sheet. No other extraneous papers or books
are permitted.

Simple calculators are permitted. However, the use of calculators for storing and/or recov-
ering formulae or constants is NOT permitted.

Questions should be directed to the proctor.

Good Luck!

Section 3 Page 1 of 6
 1. Consider a one-dimensional, simple harmonic oscillator with an additional, anharmonic
x4 term:
p2 1
H= + m 2 x2 + x4
2m 2
(a) What are the energy eigenvalues of H when = 0?
(b) What is the shift in the lowest eigenvalue found in part (a) to first order in ?
(c) Find this energy shift to order 2 .
(d) Using a Gaussian trial function, make a variational estimate of the energy of the
ground state. (You need only obtain an explicit equation whose solution would give
this estimate). Solve this equation to first order in and compare your result with
that in part (b).

Section 3 Page 2 of 6
 2. Suppose we have a system with N non-interacting spins, with the state described by:

|i = |i(1) |i(2) ... |i(N ) ,

where each spin is in an identically prepared superposition of spin up (+) and down (-):

|i(1) = |i(2) = ... = |i(N ) = a |+i + b |i ,

where |a|2 + |b|2 = 1, and |+i , |i form an orthonormal set. The inner product between
different spins (e.g. spin (1) and spin (2)) is zero. Let us define an operator that acts
on |i:
N
1 X (i)

P +1 ,
2N i=1

where each (i) acts only on the corresponding spin |i(i) , with the understanding that
acting on |+i returns 1, and acting on |i returns 1.
 
2
Compute the norm of the state P |a| |i i.e. find
 2
2
h| P |a| |i ,

for an arbitrary N . Does the N limit correspond to what you expect? Hint: if
you think about what P means physically, you would realize you have derived the Born
rule - without talking about the collapse of the wavefunction at all.

Section 3 Page 3 of 6
 3. Use the trial wave function  a 1/4 2 /2
(x) = eax

to estimate, and bound, the ground state energy of the Hamiltonian

p2
H= V0 (x)
2m
for one-dimensional motion in a -function potential. V0 > 0. Compare your answer
mV 2
with the exact answer E0exact = 2h20

Section 3 Page 4 of 6
 4. For a quantum mechanical particle of mass m, consider the (active) Galilean boost
transformation
~x ~x 0 = ~x v~0 t,
where v0 is a constant velocity vector. For simplicity set h = 1.
(a) On physical grounds, argue that the probability density and current

2 ~ i h ~ ~
i
(~x, t) | (~x, t)| , J (~x, t) =
2m
should transform as

(~x, t) (~x 0 , t) , J~ (~x, t) J~ (~x 0 , t) + (~x 0 , t) v~0

(b) Derive the corresponding transformation law for the wave function (~x, t). [Hint:
use a polar representation for the wave function, (~x, t) = R(~x, t)ei(~x,t) .]
(c) Check that, in the absence of a potential, the Schrodinger equation is invariant
under such a transformation.

Section 3 Page 5 of 6
 5. Consider a free particle in one dimension with mass m. At time t = 0 the expectation
value of its position is hxi0 , with a variance (x)20 = hx2 i0 hxi20 . Find the variance at
some later time t. Express your answer in terms of expectation values of operators at
t = 0.

Section 3 Page 6 of 6
 Sec 3 - 1

N. Christ November 26, 2013

Quals Quantum Mechanics Problem

1. Consider a one-dimensional, simple harmonic oscillator with an addi-
tional, anharmonic x4 term:

p2 1
H= + m 2x2 + x4
2m 2
(a) What are the energy eigenvalues of H when = 0? [2 points]
(b) What is the shift in the lowest eigenvalue found in part (a) to first
order in ? [6 points]
(c) Find this energy shift to order 2 . [8 points]
(d) Using a Gaussian trial function, make a variational estimate of
the energy of the ground state. (You need only obtain an ex-
plicit equation whose solution would give this estimate.) Solve
this equation to first order in and compare your result with that
in part (b). [4 points]

1
 Suggested Solution
1. (a) E (0) = h(n + 12 ).
q
h
(b) Express x in terms of raising and lowering operators: x = 2m
(a + a) and evaluate
(1)
E0 = h0|x4 |0i
!2
h
= h0|(a + a )4 |0i
2m
!2
h
= h0|a(a + a)2 a|0i
2m
!2
h   
= h0| a2 + 1 (a)2 + 1 |0i
2m
!2
h
= 3
2m
(c) Sum over two intermediate states |ni, n = 2 and 4:
 2
 
(2) X hn|x4 |0i
E0 = (0) (0)
n=2,4 E0 En
!4  
2 h 72 24
= +
2m 2h 4h
13h3 2
=
4m4 5
m 2
(d) Use the variational wave function (x) = Ne 2h x . Scaling the three terms in H
by the appropriate factor of and using the result from (a):
!2
1 1 h 1
E() = h( + ) + 3
4 2m 2
 
1 1 
= h + + 2
4
where  = 3h/(m2 3 ). Thus, we must solve 1 1/2 2/3 = 0. Which to first
order in  requires = 1 , leading an energy estimate which agrees with that
found in (b).

2
 Sec 3 - 2

QM problem. Suppose we have a system with N non-interacting spins, with

the state described by:

|i = |i(1) |i(2) ...|i(N ) , (1)

where each spin is in an identically prepared superposition of spin up (+) and

down (-):

|i(1) = |i(2) = ... = |i(N ) = a|+i + b|i , (2)

where |a|2 + |b|2 = 1, and |+i, |i form an orthonormal set. The dot product
between different spins (e.g. spin (1) and spin (2)) is zero. Let us define an
operator that acts on |i:
N
1 X (i)
P ( + 1) , (3)
2N i=1

where each (i) acts only on the corresponding spin |i(i) , with the understand-
ing that acting on |+i returns 1, and acting on |i returns 1.
Compute the norm of the state (P |a|2 )|i i.e. find
 2
h| P |a|2 |i , (4)

for an arbitrary N . Does the N limit correspond to what you expect?

Hint: if you think about what P means physically, you would realize you have
derived the Born rule without talking about the collapse of the wavefunction
at all.
QM solution (Lam Hui). This is a derivation of the Born rule that prob-
ability equals amplitude squared. Let me define P as
N
1 X (i)
P = . (5)
2N i=1

1
Therefore, P = P + 12 . We find:
2  2

2 1 2
h| P |a| |i = h| P (2|a| 1) |i
2
1
= h|P 2 |i (2|a|2 1)h|P |i + (2|a|2 1)2 . (6)
4
The first term gives

N (N 2 N )
2
h|P 2 |i = 2
+ 2
|a|2 |b|2 , (7)
4N 4N

where we have used (i) (a|+i + b|i) = a|+ib|i, and so the i = j terms in P 2
return something proportional to (a h+| b h|) (a|+i b|i) = |a|2 + |b|2 =
1, while the i 6= j terms return something proportional to
2
2
[ (a h+| + b h|) (a|+i b|i) ] = |a|2 |b|2 . (8)

Similarly, the second term in Eq. (6) contains

N
h|P |i = (|a|2 |b|2 ) . (9)
2N
Noting that |a|2 |b|2 = 2|a|2 1, and putting everything together into Eq.
(6) gives
 2 1
h| P |a|2 |i = |a|2 |b|2 . (10)
N
The miracle here is that allthe O(1)terms cancel out. We have therefore shown
that in the N limit, P |a|2 |i is a state of zero norm i.e.

N : P |i = |a|2 |i (11)

By the usual rule of quantum mechanics, a state with a definite eigenvalue |a|2
under a hermitian operator P would be said to have that precise quantum num-
ber. For us, P can be thought of as the probability operator whose eigenvalue
is therefore the probability. Notice how we manage to discuss probability as
the amplitude squared without talking about the collapse of the wavefunction
at all. Of course this hinges on the acceptance of P as the probability operator,
which seems reasonable from its definition.

2
 Qr-uJo~filtl Sec 3 - 3

Q i~{iri1 ~lXJio

- - ---1+------
 Sec 3 - 4

1 Quantum Mechanics: Galilean invariance

For a quantum mechanical particle of mass m, consider the (active) Galilean boost transformation

~x ~x 0 = ~x ~v0 t , (1)

where ~v0 is a constant velocity vector. For simplicity set ~ = 1.

1. On physical grounds, argue that the probability density and current

(~x, t) |(~x, t)|2 , ~ x, t) = i ~

~
 
J(~ (2)
2m
should transform as

(~x, t) (~x 0 , t) , ~ x 0 , t) + (~x 0 , t) ~v0

~ x, t) J(~
J(~ (3)

2. Derive the corresponding transformation law for the wave function (~x, t). [Hint: use a polar
representation for the wave function, (~x, t) = R(~x, t)ei(~x,t) .]

3. Check that, in the absence of a potential, the Schrondinger equation is invariant under such a
transformation.

Solution
1. At any given time, the probability of finding the particle in an infinitesimal volume d3 x does not
change under a Galilean boost, because the infinitesimal volume element is unchanged:

d3 x0 = d3 x . (4)

However, to have the same probability, one still has to track the original volume element, which is
now moving at velocity ~v0 . The only effect of eq. (1) on is thus the change of argument

(~x, t) (~x 0 , t) . (5)

On the other hand, for the probability current densitylike for all current densitiesone also has
to take into account that, in the ~x0 coordinate system, all velocities get shifted by ~v0 , so that the
current density gets shifted by ~v0 :

J(~ ~ x 0 , t) + (~x 0 , t) ~v0

~ x, t) J(~ (6)

2. Plugging the polar decomposition

= Rei (7)
into eq. (2), one finds that in order to obey (3) one needs

R(~x, t) R(~x 0 , t) , ~ x 0 , t) + m~v0 ,

~ x, t) (~
(~ (8)

that is,
(~x, t) (~x 0 , t) eim~v0 ~x (9)
(times an irrelevant constant phase, related to the integration constant in (8)).

1
3. In the absence of a potential the Schrondinger equation reads
1 2
it + =0. (10)
2m
Under the replacement (9), we get extra contributions to t from the t-dependence of ~x 0 ,

t (~x 0 , t) eim~v0 ~x x=const = e... t ~v0

~ 0 ,
   
(11)

and extra contributions to 2 , from the exponential factor,

2 (~x 0 , t) eim~v0 ~x t=const = e... 0 2 + 2i m

~ 0 ~v0 .
   
(12)

Plugging these expressions into (10), we get simply

1 02
e... it +

] = 0 , (13)
2m
which is, apart from an irrelevant overall factor, the Schrodinger equation in the ~x 0 coordinate
system.
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