soil contains two sorts of water: that which is unavailable to plants and that which is available.

not all water entering a soil can be used by growing vegetation. Two circumstances make soil
water unavailable. One is the rapid percolation of rainwater through large pores, quickly by
passing the roots. The other kind of unavailable water is in thin films that are held too tightly on
the surfaces od soil particles for plant roots to extract. The soil water between the field capacity
and the wilting point is available. Loamy soils have more available water than sandy soils (which
let water drain on through) and clay soils (which hold water films tightly).
Tile drainage
To rid the soil of excess water, tile drainage systems have been installed on millions of acres of
land. Tiles function only when the soil around them is saturated, so that water can flow from the
large pores in the soil into the gaps between the 1-foot sections of clay or concrete tile and
through holes in tile walls of plastic and thence into the tile lines. To have an outlet for tile
drains, natural drainage channels sometimes have to be deepened. Channelization is needed to
carry water from drainage tiles.
Temperature
Soil receives most of its heat from sunlight and loses it by radiation at night. Thus the surface is
alternately the warmest and coolest part of the soil. A closed canopy of foliage protects soil from
temperature extremes. In bare fields and gardens a mulch preserves the soil from drastic
changes in temperature, although the average soil temperature remains essentially unchanged.
Plant nutrition
Natural nutrients
Plants may take forty or more different elements from the soil, only sixteen of which are
considered essential for complete plant development. Most of the plant tissue is made up of
carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) that come from carbon dioxide in the air and water in
the soil. The remaining thirteen elements are normally absorbed in ionic form from the soil,
although small amounts can be taken in through the leaves if placed there in solution by
precipitation or spray irrigation. Plant nutrients are present in soil in two forms: immediately
available To plants and unavailable to plants. Soil tests have been devised to measure the
available portion of each element present.
Commercial fertilizer
It has been indicated that the three elements most commonly deficient for crop production are
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Inorganic solid forms. A bag of complete fertilizer is usually a mixture of one or two carriers each
of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. A bag of complete commercial fertilizer is a mixture of
salts such as ammonium nitrate, calcium phosphate, and potassium chloride.
Gaseous and liquid forms. Besides the solid forms of fertilizer sold in bags or in bulk, there are
other forms that are popular for field application.
Organic commercial fertilizer. A solid form of organic manufactured fertilizer is also available.
Animal manure
Animal manure is the oldest form of fertilizer used by people since they first learned to grow
crops. Animal manure improves soil structure as well as supplying nutrients.
Handling manure. if manure is to retain its nutrient value, it must not be allowed to dry out, nor
should it be left in piles open to rains.
Green manure crops
Crops that are plowed under to improve the fertility and physical condition of the soil are called
green manure crops. The production of green manure crops will fit into some farming operations
but not others.
Composting
The basic ingredients of a compost heap are organic residue, a little natural soil, moisture,
nitrogen fertilizer, and some lime to counteract acidity associated with the nitrogen.
Organic gardening
Organic gardening usually allows for the slow release of a naturally balanced supply of nutrients
from decaying organic matter. In this way the gardener avoids mistakes that might be made by
applying commercial fertilizer at improper rates. Crops of high quality and quantity may be
grown by organic methods.
Soil reaction