Basu D. Et Madhav M.R. 2000

Technical Paper by D. Basu and M.R.
Madhav
EFFECT OF PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAIN

CLOGGING ON THE RATE OF CONSOLIDATION:
A NUMERICAL STUDY
ABSTRACT: Ground treatment of soft soil deposits by prefabricated vertical drains

(PVDs) is a common practice in geotechnical engineering. The PVDs accelerate the
consolidation process and help to rapidly increase the strength and stiffness of soil. Cer-
tain operational problems, such as clogging, are inherent to PVDs. The fine particles
in the soil may become entrapped within the fibers of the filter, i.e. the geotextile, sur-
rounding the PVD. If the pores of the filter sleeve are clogged, the discharge capacity
of the PVD reduces and, consequently, the consolidation process is impeded. In this pa-
per, a numerical study is carried out to investigate the effect of PVD geotextile filter
clogging on the rate of soil consolidation. The rate of consolidation decreases with in-
creasing clogging and is a function of the location of the clogged area in the PVD. In
the parametric study, the PVD was sequentially clogged and its effect studied. The ef-
fect of smear was also included in the analysis.
KEYWORDS: Clogging, Consolidation, Soft soil, Ground improvement,

Prefabricated vertical drain.
AUTHORS: D. Basu, Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian

Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India, E-mail: dibasu@iitk.ac.in,
dipan52@yahoo.com; and M.R. Madhav, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India, Telephone: 91/512-59-7144,
Telefax: 91/512-59-7395, E-mail: madhav@iitk.ac.in.
PUBLICATION: Geosynthetics International is published by the Industrial Fabrics

Association International, 1801 County Road B West, Roseville, Minnesota
55113-4061, USA, Telephone: 1/651-222-2508, Telefax: 1/651-631-9334.
Geosynthetics International is registered under ISSN 1072-6349.
DATES: Original manuscript received 27 January 2000, revised version received and
accepted 19 June 2000. Discussion open until 1 March 2001.
REFERENCE: Basu, D. and Madhav, M.R., 2000, Effect of Prefabricated Vertical

Drain Clogging on the Rate of Consolidation: A Numerical Study, Geosynthetics
International, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 189-215.
GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3 189

BASU AND MADHAV D Effect of PVD Clogging on the Rate of Consolidation
1 INTRODUCTION
Soft soil deposits are a constant challenge in geotechnical engineering owing to their
low strength and high compressibility. Ground treatment of these deposits includes
heavy tamping (dynamic compaction), dynamic replacement (with or without mixing),
vibratory densification (vibro-compaction and vibro-replacement), preloading without
the addition of drains, and preloading with vertical drains. Preloading with vertical
drains is successfully used to pre-empt large settlements in highly compressible depos-
its with very low permeability (Johnson 1970; Hansbo 1979; Forrester 1982; Jamiol-
kowski et al. 1983; Holtz 1987). This method of treatment ensures a significant increase
in soil strength and stiffness. Vertical drains accelerate the consolidation process by re-
ducing the drainage path and by reorienting the direction of flow into a more permeable
(horizontal) direction. Their efficacy is at a maximum when there is a time constraint
for ground improvement in soft soils.
The earliest version of vertical drains was sand drains, which consisted of a borehole
filled with sand. Dastidar et al. (1969) introduced sand-wicks, which had an advantage
over sand drains regarding ease of construction and ensuring the continuity of the drain.
Since the 1970s, band-shaped prefabricated vertical drains (abbreviated as PVD here-
in), originally developed by Kjellman (1948), have replaced sand-wicks. Various
manufacturers throughout the world are producing a large variety of PVDs. There are
two main types of PVDs (Akagi 1994). One common type consists of a thin geotextile
filter sleeve (typically a nonwoven) surrounding a corrugated or studded plastic central
core. The filter sleeve prevents fine soil particles from entering into the core, but allows
easy entry of pore water. The central core acts as a drainage channel, while withstanding
buckling and compressive stresses. The other type of PVD is a simple unit-sized strip
of porous plastic having small continuous drainage holes inside, with sufficient strength
and durability. The primary functions of these drains are (i) to filter the excess water
from the consolidating soil (filtration) and (ii) to carry this water away from the com-
pressible soil layers, by longitudinal flow (drainage). A typical PVD has a width of
approximately 100 mm and thickness of 3 to 4 mm. They are usually installed in square
or triangular arrays using a mandrel, which is often square, rectangular, or octagonal
in shape.
The popularity of PVDs can be attributed to the advantages they have over conven-
tional sand drains. Installation of a PVD is fast and the material can be easily stored and
transported. The tensile strength of PVDs maintains its continuity, and most important-
ly, PVDs are cheaper than sand drains (Hausmann 1990, pp. 249-251). However, the
following are inherent problems encountered when using PVDs: (i) formation of a
smear zone around the PVD; (ii) decrease in PVD discharge capacity due to the increase
in lateral confining pressure with depth, folding, and kinking; and (iii) PVD clogging.
During the installation of PVDs, the surrounding soil becomes disturbed. This dis-
turbance decreases the horizontal permeability in that soil zone, thus, slowing down the
consolidation process. This zone of disturbed soil is referred to as the smear zone, the
extent of which depends on the PVD size and the method of installation. The effects
of smear have been incorporated in analytical solutions (Barron 1948; Hansbo 1981).
Many experimental studies have been reported that investigate the phenomenon of
smear (Casagrande and Poulos 1969; Akagi 1977; Akai et al. 1981; Onoue 1991; Berga-
do et al. 1991). Madhav et al. (1993) performed a parametric study and concluded that
190 GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3

an extremely disturbed inner smear zone adhering to the PVD significantly hinders the
consolidation process.
The problem of reduction of discharge capacity, qw (defined as qw = Q/i, where Q is
the discharge velocity and i is the hydraulic gradient), or well resistance, has been inves-
tigated by several researchers, including Lawrence and Koerner (1988), Ali (1991),
Miura et al. (1993), and Kamon et al. (1994). Pore water reaching the PVD core travels
vertically upward through the PVD. The term well resistance refers to the impedance
of vertical flow of water through the PVD. According to Mesri et al. (1994), well resist-
ance refers to the finite permeability of the vertical drain with respect to that of the soil.
The lateral confining stress squeezes the PVD, thereby, constricting the drainage chan-
nel and increasing the well resistance. Moreover, as the soil consolidates, the ground
settles and pulls the PVD down with it. This results in the development of compressive
and bending stresses in the PVD, which further reduce flow. However, slightly flexible
PVD cores with three-dimensional, interconnected flow channels resist this reduction
in discharge (Ali 1991). If the settlement is large (which is often the case), the PVD
buckles, folds, or forms kinks, further reducing the discharge. For most PVDs, the dis-
charge capacity is less affected by bending, but decreases considerably due to kinking
(Miura et al. 1993).
The problems discussed in the preceding paragraph arise only when the pore water
enters the interior of the PVD; but, the very process of ingress of pore water into the
PVD core through the filter sleeve is hindered due to clogging of the filter sleeve by fine
soil particles. While it is desirable that some fines should pass through the filter to per-
mit the formation of a natural soil filter around it, too many fines could reduce the PVD
discharge capacity due to clogging, sedimentation, and blockage, thus increasing the
filter resistance (Miura et al. 1993). In addition, the fines entering the PVD core could
clog the vertical channel reducing the discharge capacity. Miura et al. (1993) and Mesri
et al. (1994) have reported this problem, but its effect on PVD performance has neither
been experimentally quantified, nor theoretically predicted. This paper investigates the
effect of clogging on the performance of PVDs. A parametric study is carried out using
the finite difference technique to study the variation of the average degree of consolida-
tion obtained using a PVD for different degrees of clogging. In the analysis, the shape
of the PVD and the area of influence are maintained as constants. This differs from most
other theoretical studies performed to date, in which both the shape and area of influ-
ence are transformed into equivalent circular shapes.
2 PROBLEM DEFINITION AND FORMULATION
2.1 Problem Definition
The present work involves the study of the variation of the average degree of consoli-
dation, U, as obtained using a PVD, with the time factor T, for different amounts of PVD
clogging. A square arrangement (Figure 1) of PVDs, having a spacing of 1 m 1 m
(sx sy ), was considered in the analysis (PVD width, b = 100 mm, and thickness, w =
4 mm). It is reasonable to assume that water within the area shown in Figure 1 flows
only into the PVD and there is no cross-boundary flow. Thus, the area can be treated

sx = 1 m
Zone of smear
(300 mm 200 mm)
x sy = 1 m
PVD
(100 mm 4 mm)
Figure 1. Area of influence of a single PVD.
as a unit cell with impervious boundaries, typically representing the entire area in which
the PVDs are installed.
Finite difference was chosen as the numerical technique and an implicit scheme
(Euler Backward) was used for the time increments. For the differential equation used
in the study, as described in Section 2.2, the implicit scheme is infinitely stable and,
hence, no time-step value restriction was required. The scheme requires the solution of
a set of simultaneous equations by using, for example, the Gauss Siedel technique. The
effect of smear around the PVD was included in the present analysis.
2.2 Governing and Corresponding Finite Difference Equations
In this study, the Terzaghi-Rendulic theory of consolidation was assumed to be valid,

which is a common assumption (Das 1983, pp. 319-325). The differential equation gov-
erning the consolidation phenomenon is:
t h
x2

u = C 2u + 2u
y2
(1)
where: u = excess pore water pressure; t = time; x and y = distance coordinates; and Ch
= coefficient of consolidation for flow in the horizontal direction, considering the me-
dium to be isotropic. This equation was approximated by the finite difference technique
using an implicit (Euler Backward) scheme. The resulting algebraic equation is:
u t+t
i, j
u ti, j
t
= Ch
u t+t
i+1, j
2u t+t
i, j
x 2
+ ut+t
i1, j
+
ut+t
i, j+1
2ut+t
i, j
y 2
+ u t+t
i, j1
(2)
In Equation 2, i and j are required for space discretisation and represent a point (i,
j) (Figure 2), where: ui, j = excess pore water pressure; t = index for time step; x and
y = step lengths in the x and y directions, respectively; and t = time increment.

(i, j + 1)
y (i --- 1, j) (i, j) (i + 1, j)
x
(i, j --- 1)
Figure 2. Convention followed for the finite difference discretisation.
2.3 Domain of Analysis, Discretisation, and Boundary and Initial Conditions
The boundaries of the unit cell were assumed to be impervious, as discussed in Sec-
tion 2.1, and a Neumann boundary condition (u/ = 0, is the direction of the unit
normal vector on any boundary) was imposed on the boundaries. The boundary along
the PVD is pervious and a Dirichlet boundary condition (u specified) is required. Since
the flow of water in the four quadrants of the unit cell is symmetrical, only one quadrant
was considered as the domain for analysis (Figure 3). A Neumann boundary condition
was also imposed along the quadrant boundaries because there is no cross-boundary
flow. The PVD thickness (4 mm) was neglected in the numerical analysis for the sake
of simplicity.
To study the PVD clogging effect, a very fine discretisation near the PVD was neces-
sary. The use of such a fine mesh over the entire domain would require a very large com-
putation time; hence, a coarser mesh was used in the domain away from the PVD. The
discretisation of the domain is shown in Figure 4. Four zones, Zones A, B, C, and D,
four inter-zone boundaries, Boundaries a, b, c, and d, and four peripheral boundaries,
Boundaries , , , and are used. Although the discretisations are different in each
sx /2 = 0.5 m
u/y = 0
sy /2 = 0.5 m
y
x
u/x = 0
u/y = 0
PVD
b/2 = 50 mm
Figure 3. Domain of analysis (without the smear zone).


(i) (ii)
A B
Point 2
Point 1 a

d (v) b
(iv)
c Point 3 C
Point 4
(iii)
D (vi)
PVD
Figure 4. Finite difference discretisation.
zone, x and y were taken to be equal in each zone. Hence, if x = y = s, Equation

2 becomes:
u t+t
i, j
u ti, j
t
= Ch u t+t
i+1, j
+ u t+t
i1, j
+ ut+t
i, j+1
s 2
+ ut+t
i, j1
4ut+t
i, j
(3)
For points in Zones A, B, and C, s was taken to be se = 25 mm and the working

equation for these zones, as derived from Equation 3, is:
e 1
u t+t
i, j = ut+t + ut+t t+t t+t
i1, j + u i, j+1 + u i, j1 + ut (4)
1 + 4 e i+1, j 1 + 4 e i, j
where
Ch t
e = (5)
s 2e
For points in Zone D, Equation 4 is valid with e being replaced by i where:

Ch t
i = (6)
s 2i
with si = 5 mm.

For points on Boundaries , , , and , a Neumann boundary condition was im-

posed by modifying Equation 3. The equations for points lying on the inter-zone bound-
aries, Boundaries c and d, were mathematically more involved because of the unequal
step lengths on either side of the points along the x and y directions. The details of these
equations are given in the Appendix.
There were further problems for points along Boundaries c and d because the mesh
was coarser on one side of these boundaries. Therefore, finite difference equations
could not be applied to the points on Boundaries c and d between the nodes of the coars-
er mesh, due to an absence of nodes along the x and y directions, respectively. To solve
this problem, imaginary nodes were assumed along the grid lines next to Boundaries
c and d as shown in Figure 5. The values of u at these imaginary nodes were calculated
using linear interpolation after excess pore water pressure values, u, were determined
at the real nodes at every time step.
For points on the PVD, a Dirichlet boundary condition was initially imposed. This
boundary condition implied the free flow of water through the PVD (i.e. no clogging)
and the value of u was set to zero since the excess pore water pressure completely dissi-
pates at the PVD.
Since Equation 1 is a time-dependent equation (initial value problem), initial values
of u at all of the nodes were arbitrarily set to 100, except at the nodes on the PVD bound-
ary where u = 0 because the excess pore water pressure dissipates completely at the PVD
boundary immediately after PVD installation (when there is no clogging).
Imaginary nodes
Coarse grid
Inter-zone
boundary, d
Imaginary
Interpolation nodes
required
for these points
Fine
resolution grid
PVD
Inter-zone boundary, c
Figure 5. Imaginary nodes used for the linear interpolation.

2.4 Model for PVD Clogging
The model described thus far does not take into account PVD clogging. Clogging
was taken into account by imposing a Neumann boundary condition for points on the
PVD boundary. When the gradient at a point on the PVD boundary is made equal to zero
it implies that no flow occurs across that point. Since the entire PVD is represented by
a set of discrete points (nodes), a clogged node implies that the section of the PVD lying
within half the step length on both sides of the node is clogged (Figure 6). Thus, if a
single node is clogged (except the end nodes), it implies 10% PVD clogging for the dis-
cretisation scheme adopted (Figure 4) in this study. The initial condition specified at
the clogged points is u = 100, similar to the interior points.
2.5 Degree of Consolidation and Time Factor
At every time step, the average degree of consolidation, U, was calculated such that
it could be plotted against the corresponding time factor, T. The expression for U is:
u(x, y, T)dx dy
U =1A (7)
u ini dx dy
A
where uini and u(x,y,T) are the excess pore water pressures at any point in the entire do-
main initially and at any time factor T, respectively. Integration over the entire domain
A can be performed using the trapezoidal or Simpsons rule for a two-dimensional case.
The time factor, T, is defined as:
Ch t
T= (8)
d 2e
where: t = time; and de = equivalent diameter of the unit cell, calculated by equating
the area of the real domain and its equivalent circle. The expression for de is:
de = 4 s sx y
(9)
Clogged node
Section of the PVD

represented by the node
Figure 6. Numerical modeling of PVD clogging.

where sx and sy are the PVD spacings in the x and y directions, respectively. The average
degree of consolidation, U, can thus be expressed in terms of T. The basic algorithm
followed in the study is illustrated in Figure 7.
2.6 Analysis Considering the Smear Zone
The extent of the smear zone surrounding a PVD is not uniquely known. Casagrande
and Poulos (1969), McDonald (1985), and Aboshi and Inoue (1986) recommend that
the area of the smear zone be taken as equal to that of the mandrel, while Holtz and Holm
(1973), Akagi (1977), and Hansbo (1981) assume the diameter of the smear zone to be
twice the equivalent diameter of the mandrel. Based on the back-calculated values from
the observed time-settlement relationships obtained from a laboratory-scale consolida-
tion test, Bergado et al. (1991) support the results of Hansbo (1981). Madhav et al.
(1993) studied the actual variation of the horizontal coefficient of permeability and
Input de , Tinitial , Tmaximum , and T
Set u(i, j) values of unclogged PVD nodes to 0

Set remaining u(i, j) values to 100 (initial condition)
Increase T from Tinitial to Tmaximum in steps of T
At every step, form u(i, j) equations using values from previous time step
Solve set of simultaneous equations by Gauss Siedel iterative technique
Calculate U
Store u(i, j) values for use in next step
If U 99.99%, exit loop
End loop for T
End
Figure 7. Basic algorithm used for the numerical study.

found the extent of the disturbed zone to be up to a distance of 700 mm from the center
of the mandrel. Madhav et al. (1993) observed that within the smear zone there exists
two distinct sub-zones, namely, (i) an inner highly disturbed zone around the PVD
where the coefficient of horizontal permeability was approximately 0.2 times that of
the undisturbed zone and (ii) a transition zone in which the horizontal permeability in-
creased with distance away from the PVD until it reaches its maximum value in the un-
disturbed zone. Madhav et al. (1993) also showed that the transition zone has a less
significant effect on the consolidation process.
Based on all of these observations, a single smear zone, with a coefficient of horizon-
tal permeability, khs , equal to the value suggested by Madhav et al. (1993) for the inner
smear zone and extending up to a distance of 100 mm from the PVD surface, was con-
sidered to be a reasonable assumption in the current analysis (Figure 8). The equations
used were derived following the procedure given by Das (1983, pp. 271-275). The soil
was assumed to be isotropic and its compressibility unaffected by disturbance, thus, the
coefficients of consolidation of both zones are proportional to the respective coeffi-
cients of permeability. The details of the equations are given in the Appendix.
3 COMPARISON WITH THE ANALYTICAL SOLUTION
3.1 Comparison Without the Smear Zone
The numerical solution for the no clogging condition was compared to the analytical
solution available for a circular drain (axi-symmetric case) with equal strain case (Bar-
ron 1948). The analytical solution for U is:
8T
U =1e F(n) (10)
where
sx /2 = 0.5 m
kh
sy /2 = 0.5 m
y
x
150 mm
p khs q
100 mm
PVD r
Zone of smear
b/2 = 50 mm
Figure 8. Domain of analysis including the smear zone.

F(n) = n n 1 ln n 3n4n 1
2
2 2
2
(11)
with
de
n= (12)
dw
where: n = ratio of the equivalent diameter of the unit cell to that of the PVD; F = func-
tion of n; de = equivalent diameter of the unit cell (Equation 9); and dw = equivalent PVD
diameter obtained by equating the perimeters of the real drain to an equivalent circular
drain (Hansbo 1981). The equivalent diameter dw is given by the following:
2 (b + w)
dw = (13)
where b and w are the PVD width and thickness, respectively.
3.2 Comparison With the Smear Zone
The numerical result, including the smear effect for the no-clogging condition, was
also compared with the analytical solution proposed by Hansbo (1981). The expression
for U is the same as Equation 10 with F(n) being modified as follows:
n + k h ln m 3
F(n) = ln m (14)
k hs 4
In Equation 14, the new term m is the ratio of the equivalent diameter, ds , of the
smear zone to that of the drain, dw, and kh and khs are the coefficients of horizontal
permeability for the undisturbed and smear zones, respectively. The equivalent diame-
ter of the smear zone was calculated in the same way as the equivalent diameter of the
unit cell.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Test of Convergence
In order to minimize the numerical error, a test of convergence was performed. The
discretisation of the outer domain (Zones A, B, and C) was successively reduced until
the difference in results between two successive discretisations was within tolerable
limits (0.76%). In each case, the new discretisation was a subset of its preceding one;
however, the discretisation of the inner domain (Zone D) was not changed, it being un-
derstood that such a fine discretisation would yield acceptable results. The details of
the adopted discretisation scheme were discussed in Section 2.3. Although there was
no restriction on the magnitude of the time increment, a test on the time increment was
performed and it was found that aberrations were negligible for time increments up to
0.1T. Hence, in the analysis, the increment in time was varied from 0.0001T to 0.1T.

4.2 Comparison of Numerical and Analytical Solutions for an Unclogged PVD
The numerical solution is compared with the analytical solution for the no PVD
clogging condition in Figure 9. The curves closely match each other. The maximum
difference in U is approximately 6% at T = 0.5. This difference results from the fact that,
in the analytical solution, the domain and PVD are circular whereas in the present case
they are rectangular. For lesser values of T, the consolidation for the numerical case is
faster than the analytical case because the PVD in the numerical case has a straight sur-
face through which water travels orthogonally and readily drains. However, complete
consolidation should occur faster in the analytical solution than that of the numerical
solution because, in the latter case, water has to travel a relatively longer distance from
the corners as can be seen in Figure 9.
4.3 Clogging from the Tip of the PVD
To study the effect of clogging on the value of U, the node at the tip of the PVD was
clogged (Case A), implying 5% clogging of the PVD area. The amount of clogging was
then increased from 5 to 95% by progressively clogging additional nodes toward the
center of the PVD (Figure 10). As expected, the rate of consolidation decreases with
increased clogging. For example, the value of T required for 90% consolidation to take
place for the no PVD clogging condition is 0.75, while those for 15, 35, 55, 75, and 95%
clogging are 0.85, 0.92, 1.04, 1.25, and 1.8, respectively. Thus, if the PVD is 95%
clogged, the time required for 90% consolidation increases to more than double the time
100
sx /sy = 1.0
Degree of consolidation, U (%)
sx /b = 10.0
n = 17.04 Analytical Numerical
50
PVD
Analytical
Unit cell
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 9. Comparison of numerical and analytical results for the case of no PVD clogging.

100
sx /sy = 1.0
sx /b = 10.0
0%
15%
PVD 35%
Clogged section 95%
50
75%
55%
Direction of
progressive clogging
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 10. Clogging from the tip of the PVD (Case A).
required by an unclogged PVD. Again, for a particular value of T, say 1.0, the value of
U obtained is 95.2% for the unclogged PVD whereas those for 15, 35, 55, 75, and 95%
clogging are 93.4, 91.5, 89, 84.8, and 73.3%, respectively. Thus, the decrease in the rate
of consolidation with increasing clogging is substantial.
4.4 Clogging from the Center of the PVD
The effect of clogging from the center of the PVD was also studied (Figure 11). In
this case (Case B), the PVD was progressively clogged from the center toward the tip
of the PVD; however, it was found that the effect of clogging on consolidation is not
as pronounced as it was for Case A. For Case B, the T values required for 90% consolida-
tion are 0.79, 1.06 and 1.17 for 55, 75, and 95% clogging and are much less compared
to those in Case A. Again, for T = 1.0, the degree of consolidation obtained for 55, 75,
and 95% clogging are 94.5, 93.7, and 92.3%, respectively. Thus, the effect of clogging
from the center is less critical compared to the effect clogging from the tip of the PVD.
The probable reason for this difference is that, for Case A, the effective width of the
PVD through which water could escape was reduced and water in the unit cell has to
travel a longer distance leading to an increased time for consolidation (Figure 12a).
However, for Case B, the PVD and, hence, the unit cell are bifurcated into two zones.
The unclogged PVD section is inside and closer to the area to be drained (Figure 12b)
and as a result the consolidation is faster.

100
sx /sy = 1.0
sx /b = 10.0
0%
55%
PVD
95%
Clogged section 75%
50
Direction of
progressive clogging
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 11. Clogging from the center of the PVD (Case B).
(a) (b)
Influence area
Flow path of water gets divided
after clogging into two parts
Flow path
of water
before clogging
Clogged Clogged PVD
PVD section section
(c) (d)
Clogged Clogged PVD

PVD sections sections
(alternate with
pervious sections)
Figure 12. Different methods of PVD clogging: (a) clogging from the tip of the PVD (Case
A); (b) clogging from the center of the PVD (Case B); (c) clogging at the middle of each half
of the PVD (Case C); (d) discontinuous clogging (Case D).

4.5 Clogging at the Middle of Each PVD Half and Discontinuous Clogging
From Section 4.4, it can be inferred that the effect of clogging on the degree of con-
solidation is dependent on the location of the clogged area in the PVD. To investigate
the effect of clogging location, two more cases (Cases C and D) were considered. For
Case C, 50% of the PVD was clogged at the middle in each half of the PVD (Figure 12c).
Thus, the PVD was divided into three sections. For Case D, 50% of the PVD was
clogged such that the clogged zones alternate with the pervious zones (Figure 12d). The
results for Cases C and D are presented in Figure 13 along with those for Cases A and
B. The decrease in the rate of consolidation is minimal for Case D and slightly more
for Case C. In these two cases, the decrease in consolidation is less than that for Case
B. Thus, for the same amount of PVD clogging, the more scattered the clogged sections
over the PVD width, the less the effect it has on the rate of consolidation. This result
follows from the discussion in Section 4.4 because, for Case C, water travels less dis-
tance than for Case B. For Case D, water travels an even smaller distance. However,
this is true when the PVD is not clogged at its tip. In the latter case, the effect is most
pronounced as has already been discussed in Sections 4.3 and 4.4.
Since the deviations in values of U for Cases C and D are negligible and less critical
compared to that for Case B, Cases C and D are not considered further.
100
No clogging
Case D
Case C
Case B
Case A Case A
50
Enlarged
sx /sy = 1.0
sx /b = 10.0
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 13. Variation of the degree of consolidation, U, with the time factor, T, for 50%
PVD clogging at different positions.

4.6 Comparison of Numerical and Analytical Solutions for a Clogged PVD
When the PVD gets clogged from its tip (Case A), its effective width is reduced (Fig-
ure 12a). This type of clogging is equivalent to a reduction of the PVD size. Thus, the
value of n (Equation 12) changes for the PVD. Analytical solutions were obtained for
different values of n calculated from the reduced PVD size corresponding to 55, 75, and
95% clogging. The analytical and numerical results are compared in Figures 14, 15, and
16. The curves for corresponding percentages of clogging for Case B and for the no-
clogging condition of the PVD are also plotted in Figures 14, 15, and 16. As discussed
in Section 4.2, the rate of consolidation is slower for the analytical case than that for
Case A at lesser time durations and vice versa at greater time durations. However, with
an increase in n, the rates of consolidation for the two cases become more or less equal
at lesser times, while the difference increases at greater times. In all of these cases, the
rates of consolidation for the analytical solution are faster than that for Case B.
4.7 Variation of Excess Pore Water Pressure
To investigate the reason for the differences in the average degree of consolidation
values, U, for Cases A and B, the variations of excess pore water pressure (as a percent-
age of the initial excess pore water pressure) with time at four points (selected at the
center of Zones A, B, C, and D, namely Points 1, 2, 3, and 4 in Figure 4) were studied
(Figure 17). The rate of dissipation of pore water pressure is almost the same for Points
1 and 3. Being the closest to the PVD, the rate of dissipation for Point 4 is strikingly
fast while that for Point 2 is the slowest, it being located farthest from the PVD. Figure
18 shows the change in the rate of dissipation of pore water pressure for Points 1, 2, and
100
sx /sy = 1.0
sx /b = 10.0 No clogging
n = 36.16
Numerical
(Case A)
50 Numerical (Case B)
Analytical
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 14. Comparison of analytical and numerical solutions for 55% PVD clogging.

100
Degree of consolidation, U (%) sx /sy = 1.0
sx /b = 10.0
n = 61.10
No clogging Numerical
(Case A)
50
Numerical (Case B) Analytical
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 15. Comparison of the analytical and numerical solutions for 75% PVD clogging.
100
sx /sy = 1.0
n = 196.87
Numerical
(Case A)
50 Numerical (Case B)
Analytical
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 16. Comparison of analytical with numerical solutions for 95% clogging.

100
Point 1 A B
Point 3
1 2
Pore water pressure (%)
D
Point 4 4 3 C
50 Domain of analysis
sx /sy = 1.0 Point 2

sx /b = 10.0
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 17. Variation of pore water pressures at Points 1, 2, 3, and 4 for no PVD clogging
condition.
100
Point 1 (Case A) sx /sy = 1.0
Point 1 Point 1 (Case B) sx /b = 10.0
(no clogging)
Pore water pressure (%)
Clogged PVD
Point 4 (Case A) sections
Point 2
Point 2 (Case B)
(no clogging)
50
Point 2 Case A
(Case A) Case B
CL
Point 4
(no clogging) Point 4
(Case B)
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 18. Variation of pore water pressures at Points 1, 2, and 4 for 55% PVD clogging
(Cases A and B).

4 for 55% clogging for Cases A and B. The curves for Point 3 are omitted since the re-
sponse of Points 1 and 3 are very similar. For all of the points, the dissipation of pore
water pressure is faster for Case B than that for Case A. At Point 4, this difference is
the maximum. For Case A clogging, the accumulation of water in Zone D is the maxi-
mum and, as a result, the rate of consolidation is slower.
4.8 Sequential Clogging
The clogging considered thus far occurs from the beginning of consolidation; how-
ever, it is likely that clogging occurs after the start of consolidation and during flow into
the PVD. To study this phenomena, 55% PVD clogging from the tip (Case A) at T =
0.01, 0.05, and 0.1, respectively, were simulated and the curves plotted in Figure 19
along with the curves for 55% clogging from T = 0 and for the no PVD clogging condi-
tion. The effect of clogging is immediately reflected in the U values at different times;
however, all of the clogging curves merge into one at large time factors. For example,
the value of T for 95% consolidation is approximately 1.4 for all of the curves. Thus,
irrespective of the time when a PVD becomes clogged, for the same amount of clog-
ging, the time required for 90% consolidation or more to occur is practically the same.
4.9 Effect of PVD Spacing
The PVD spacing considered thus far is 1 m 1 m (sx sy ). To study the effect of
PVD spacing, three additional PVD spacings were considered (1.25 m 1 m, 1.5 m
100
sx /sy = 1.0
50 55% clogging at T = 0.1
55% clogging
at T = 0.05
55% clogging
at T = 0.01
Initial 55% clogging
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

Time factor, T
Figure 19. Study of sequential PVD clogging (55%) for Case A.

1 m, and 2 m 1 m) for the case of 55% PVD clogging from the tip (Case A). Figure
20 shows the effect of PVD spacing on U for no clogging and 55% clogging. The curves
for no clogging and 55% clogging for all of the PVD spacings form two bands. As sx in-
creases, the rate of consolidation decreases for both the no clogging and 55% PVD clog-
ging conditions; however, it is interesting to note that the decrease in U values from no
clogging to 55% clogging is practically the same for all PVD spacings. For example, at
T = 1.0, the decrease in U values are 6.2, 6.2, 6.4, and 6.6% for PVD spacings of 1 m
1 m, 1.25 m 1 m, 1.5 m 1 m, and 2 m 1 m, respectively. For T = 0.3, the decrease
in U values are 10.0, 11.2, 11.0, and 9.8%, respectively, for the PVD spacings considered.
Thus, the clogging effect is practically the same for the PVD spacings considered.
4.10 Effect of Smear (Without and With Clogging)
The numerical and analytical results for the no clogging condition considering
smear are compared in Figure 21. The curves are in good agreement, and the minor
deviations are the result of differences in the shapes of zones of influence, as discussed
in Section 4.2. Figure 22 shows the effect of smear and clogging on the average degree
of consolidation-time factor (U - T) relationships. As before, 55% clogging from the
tip of the PVD (Case A) and a spacing of 1 m 1 m were considered. The difference
in U values between no clogging and 55% clogging for the case with smear (16.0% at
T = 1.0) is greater than that without smear (6.2% at T = 1.0). Thus, the presence of a
smear zone further decreases the rate of consolidation.
100
sx /sy = 1.0
sx /sy = 2.0
sx /sy = 1.25
sx /sy = 1.50
50
No clogging
55% clogging (Case A)
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 20. Variation of the degree of consolidation, U, with PVD spacing.

100
sx /sy = 1.0
sx /b = 10.0
n = 17.04
m = 0.245
khs /kh = 0.2
50 Analytical
Numerical
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
Figure 21. Comparison of analytical with numerical solutions considering the smear
zone.
100
sx /sy = 1.0 No clogging
without smear
sx /b = 10.0
khs /kh = 0.2
55% clogging
with smear
(Case A)
50 55% clogging
without smear
(Case A)
No clogging
with smear
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Time factor, T
Figure 22. Effect of smear on PVD clogging.

5 CONCLUSIONS
Band-shaped prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) can be successfully used, along

with preloading, for improving soft soil deposits; however, there are operational prob-
lems when using PVDs, one of which is clogging. Fine soil particles may become en-
trapped within the fibers of the geotextile filter/sleeve thereby clogging the filter pores.
As a result, the pore water has a decreased surface area in which to enter the PVD and
the consolidation process is retarded. In this paper, the effect of clogging of the PVD
filter sleeve on the consolidation process was numerically simulated and studied. The
variation of the average degree of consolidation with time factors was plotted for differ-
ent amounts of PVD clogging. The effects of smear and PVD spacing were also ana-
lysed. Based on the results of the study, the following conclusions can be made:
1. Clogging of PVDs hinders the consolidation process of soils. The larger the amount
of clogging, the slower the degree of consolidation.
2. The consolidation process is increasingly retarded when the PVD is clogged at its
tip than when it is clogged at any intermediate position along its width. Depending
upon where the clogging has occurred, the same amount of clogging may lead to dif-
ferent rates of consolidation.
3. The time required to reach 90% or more of total consolidation settlement is practi-
cally the same whether clogging occurs at the commencement of consolidation or
after some time. Thus, the total time required to reach 90% of consolidation or more
is independent of the time when the PVD becomes clogged.
4. Due to clogging of the PVD geotextile filter/sleeve, the PVD spacing (for the spac-
ings considered) has a negligible effect on retarding the rate of consolidation.
5. The presence of a smear zone coupled with the effect of clogging results in enhanced
retardation of the rate of consolidation.
REFERENCES
Aboshi, H. and Inoue, T., 1986, Prediction of Consolidation Settlement of Clay Layer,
Especially in the Case of Soil Stabilization by Sand Drains, Proceedings of IEM -
Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Joint Symposium
on Geotechnical Problems, pp. 31-40.
Akagi, T., 1977, Effect of Mandrel-Driven Sand Drains on Strength, Proceedings of
the Ninth International Conference of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
Vol. 1, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 3-6.
Akagi, T., 1994, Hydraulic Applications of Geosynthetics to Filtration and Drainage
Problems with Special Reference to Prefabricated Band-Shaped Drains, Keynote
Lecture, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Geotextiles, Geomem-
branes and Related Products, Vol. 4, Singapore, pp. 1339-1359.
Akai, H., Yano, T. and Hwang, F.Y., 1981, Laboratory Tests on the Consolidation Ef-
fect due to Installation of Sand Drains, Sixth Annual Meeting of the Japanese Society
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, pp. 233-236. (in Japanese)

Ali, F.H., 1991, The Flow Behavior of Deformed Prefabricated Vertical Drains, Geo-
textiles and Geomembranes, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 235-248.
Barron, R.A., 1948, Consolidation of Fine Grained Soils by Drain Wells, Transac-
tions of American Society for Civil Engineers, Vol. 113, No. 2346, pp. 718-724.
Bergado, D.T., Asakami, H., Alfaro, M.C. and Balasubramaniam, A.S., 1991, Smear
Effect of Vertical Drains on Soft Bangkok Clay, Journal of Geotechnical Engineer-
ing, Vol. 117, No. 10, pp. 1509-1529.
Casagrande, L. and Poulos, S., 1969, On the Effectiveness of Sand Drains, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 6, August 1969, pp. 287-326.
Das, B.M., 1983, Advanced Soil Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, New
York, USA, 511 p.
Dastidar, A.G., Gupta, S. and Ghosh, T.K., 1969, Application of Sandwick in a Hous-
ing Project, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference of Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 2, Mexico, pp. 59-64.
Forrester, K., 1982, Accelerating Settlement by Vertical Drains, Department of Main
Roads, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
Hansbo, S., 1979, Consolidation of Clay by Band-Shaped Prefabricated Drains,
Ground Engineering, Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 16-25.
Hansbo, S., 1981, Consolidation of Fine Grained Soils by Prefabricated Drains, Pro-
ceedings of the Tenth International Conference of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Balkema, Vol. 3, Stockholm, Sweden, June 1981, pp. 677-682.
Hausmann, M.R., 1990, Engineering Principles of Ground Modification, McGraw-
Hill, Inc., New York, New York, USA, 632 p.
Holtz, R.D., 1987, Preloading with Prefabricated Vertical Strip Drains, Soft Soil Sta-
bilization Using Geosynthetics, Koerner, R.M., Editor, Elsevier Applied Science,
1988, Proceedings of the First Geosynthetic Research Institute Seminar, held in Phil-
adelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, October 1987, pp. 109-131.
Holtz, R. and Holm, G., 1973, Excavation and Sampling Around Some Drains at Ska-
Edeby, Sweden, Scandinavian Geotechnical Meeting, Trondheim, Norwegian Geo-
technical Institute, pp. 79-85.
Jamiolkowski, M., Lancellotta, R. and Wolski, W., 1983, Precompression and Speed-
ing up Consolidation, General Report Speciality Session 6, Proceedings of the
Eighth European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Bal-
kema, Vol. 3, Helsinki, Finland, May 1983, pp. 1201-1226.
Johnson, S.J., 1970, Foundation Precompression with Vertical Sand Drains, Journal
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, Vol. 96, No. 1, pp. 145-175.
Kamon, M., Pradhan, T.B.S., Suwa, S., Hongo, T., Akai, T. and Imanishi, H., 1994,
The Evaluation of Discharge Capacity of Prefabricated Band-Shaped Drains, Pro-
ceedings of a Symposium on Geotextile Test Methods, Japanese Society of Soil Me-
chanics and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 77-82. (in Japanese)
Kjellman, W., 1948, Accelerating Consolidation of Fine-Grained Soils by Means of
Cardboard Wicks, Proceedings of the Second International Conference of Soil Me-
chanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 2, London, United Kingdom, pp. 302-305.

Lawrence, C.A. and Koerner, R.M., 1988, Flow Behavior of Kinked Strip Drains,
Geosynthetics for Soil Improvement, Holtz, R.D., Editor, ASCE Geotechnical Spe-
cial Publication No. 18, Proceedings of a symposium held in Nashville, Tennessee,
USA, May 1988, pp. 22-39.
Madhav, M.R., Park, Y.M. and Miura, N., 1993, Modelling and Study of Smear Zones
Around Band Shaped Drains, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 135-147.
McDonald, P., 1985, Settlement of Fills on Soft Clay with Vertical Drains, Proceed-
ings of the Eleventh International Conference of Soil Mechanics and Foundation En-
gineering, Balkema, San Francisco, California, USA, August 1985, pp. 2213-2216.
Mesri, G., Lo, D.O.K. and Feng, T.W., 1994, Settlement of Embankments on Soft
Clays, Keynote Lecture, Predicted and Measured Behavior of Five Spread Footings
on Sand, Briaud, J-L. and Gibbens, R., Editors, ASCE, proceedings of the Prediction
Symposium during the Settlement 94 ASCE Conference at Texas A&M University,
College Station, Texas, USA, June 1994.
Miura, N., Park, Y. and Madhav, M.R., 1993, Fundamental Study on Drainage Perfor-
mance of Plastic Board Drains, Journal of the Japanese Society of Civil Engineers,
483/III-25, pp. 31-40. (in Japanese)
Onoue, A., 1991, Permeability of Disturbed Zone Around Vertical Drains, 26 th Annu-
al Meeting of Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, pp.
2015-2018. (in Japanese)
NOTATIONS
Basic SI units are given in parentheses.
b = width of PVD (m)

Ch = coefficient of consolidation for flow in horizontal direction (m2/s)
de = equivalent diameter of unit cell (m)
ds = equivalent diameter of smear zone (m)
dw = equivalent diameter of PVD (m)
F = function of n (Equation 11) (m)
i = hydraulic gradient (dimensionless)
kh = coefficient of horizontal permeability for undisturbed zone (m/s)
khs = coefficient of horizontal permeability for smear zone (m/s)
m = ratio of equivalent diameter of smear zone to PVD (dimensionless)
n = ratio of equivalent diameter of unit cell to PVD (dimensionless)
Q = discharge velocity (m/s)
qw = discharge capacity = Q/i (m/s)
sx , sy = PVD spacing along x and y directions, respectively (m)
T = time factor (dimensionless)
Tinitial = initial time factor, Figure 7 (dimensionless)

Tmaximum = maximum time factor, Figure 7 (dimensionless)

t = time (s)
U = average degree of consolidation (%)
u = excess pore water pressure (N/m2)
u(x, y, T) = excess pore water pressure at any point in entire domain at any time
factor, T (N/m2)
uini = initial excess pore water pressure at any point in entire domain (N/m2)
w = thickness of PVD (m)
x, y = distance coordinates (m)
e = constant for Zones A, B, and C (Equation 5) (dimensionless)
i = constant for Zone D (Equation 6) (dimensionless)
s, se , si
= step lengths in finite difference discretisation (m)
Vector
= direction of unit normal vector on any boundary

APPENDIX
The equations for Boundaries a, b, c, and d (Figure 4), obtained by imposing a Neu-
mann boundary condition to Equation 4, respectively, are:
e 1
u t+t
i, j = 2ut+t t+t t+t
i+1, j + u i, j+1 + u i, j1 + ut (A-1)
1 + 4 e 1 + 4 e i, j
e 1
u t+t
i, j = ut+t + ut+t t+t
i1, j + 2u i, j1 + ut (A-2)
1 + 4 e i+1, j 1 + 4 e i, j
e 1
u t+t
i, j = 2ut+t t+t t+t
i1, j + u i, j+1 + u i, j1 + ut (A-3)
1 + 4 e 1 + 4 e i, j
e 1
u t+t
i, j = ut+t + ut+t t+t
i1, j + 2u i, j+1 + ut (A-4)
1 + 4 e i+1, j 1 + 4 e i, j
For points lying on Boundary within the interior of Zone D, Equation A-1 is appli-
cable, but only by replacing e with i . For the corner points, Points (i), (ii), and (iii),
the equations are, respectively:
e 1
u t+t
i, j = 2ut+t t+t
i+1, j + 2u i, j1 + ut (A-5)
1 + 4 e 1 + 4 e i, j
e 1
u t+t
i, j = 2ut+t t+t
i1, j + 2u i, j1 + ut (A-6)
1 + 4 e 1 + 4 e i, j
e 1
u t+t
i, j = 2ut+t t+t
i1, j + 2u i, j+1 + ut (A-7)
1 + 4 e 1 + 4 e i, j
The equations for points lying on Boundary d, an inter-zone boundary, are:

e
u t+t = u t+t + i u t+t t+t
i1, j + ea u i, j+1 + ia u i, j1
t+t
i, j
1 + 2 i + ei i i+1, j
e
+ ut (A-8)
1 + 2 i + ei i, j
and equations for Boundary c are obtained by interchanging i and j. For Points (iv), (v),
and (vi), however, the equations are different. The equations for Points (iv) and (vi) can
be obtained by imposing a Neumann boundary condition to Equation A-8 using the
same method as for Equations A-1 to A-4. For Point (v):

u t+t 1 u t+t + ia u t+t

i1, j + ea u i, j+1 + ia u i, j1
t+t t+t
=
i, j
1 + 4 ei ea i+1, j
+ 1 ut (A-9)
1 + 4 ei i, j
In Equations A-8 and A-9, the terms ei , ea , and ia are given by

C h t
ei = (A-10)
s e s i
C h t
ea = (A-11)
s e s a
C h t
ia = (A-12)
s i s a
where sa is given by:
s e + s i
s a = (A-13)
2
The equations for all other points are the same as Equation 4. When the PVD is
clogged, Equation A-4 is used for the clogged points with i replacing e .
To incorporate the effect of smear, the equations for the smear boundaries, Bound-
aries pq and qr (Figure 8), were modified to give the following equation for Boundary
pq (except the end points):
ut+t =
e

1 1 + k hs u t+t + 1 1 + k hs ut+t + ut+t + k hs ut+t

i, j 2 i+1, j 2 i1, j i, j+1
k kh kh k h i, j1
1 + 2e 1 + hs
kh
+ 1 uti, j (A-14)
1 + 2e k
1 + hs
kh

and the equation for Boundary qr can be obtained by interchanging i and j in Equation
A-14. The equations for Points p and r can be obtained by imposing a Neumann bound-
ary condition to Equation A-14 using the same method as for Equations A-1 to A-4. For
the corner point, Point q, the equation is:
ut+t =
e
ut+t 1
i+1, j + 2 1 + k

k hs t+t
u i1, j + u t+t 1
i, j+1 + 2 1 + k

k hs t+t
ui, j1

i, j
k h h
1 + e 3 + hs
kh
1 uti, j
+ (A-15)
1 + e k
3 + hs
kh


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Technical Paper by D. Basu and M.R.

EFFECT OF PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAIN

ABSTRACT: Ground treatment of soft soil deposits by prefabricated vertical drains

KEYWORDS: Clogging, Consolidation, Soft soil, Ground improvement,

AUTHORS: D. Basu, Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian

PUBLICATION: Geosynthetics International is published by the Industrial Fabrics

REFERENCE: Basu, D. and Madhav, M.R., 2000, Effect of Prefabricated Vertical

GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3 189

190 GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3

2 PROBLEM DEFINITION AND FORMULATION

2.1 Problem Definition

GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3 191

Figure 1. Area of influence of a single PVD.

2.2 Governing and Corresponding Finite Difference Equations

In this study, the Terzaghi-Rendulic theory of consolidation was assumed to be valid,

192 GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3

Figure 2. Convention followed for the finite difference discretisation.

2.3 Domain of Analysis, Discretisation, and Boundary and Initial Conditions

GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3 193

zone, x and y were taken to be equal in each zone. Hence, if x = y = s, Equation

For points in Zones A, B, and C, s was taken to be se = 25 mm and the working

For points in Zone D, Equation 4 is valid with e being replaced by i where:

194 GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3

For points on Boundaries , , , and , a Neumann boundary condition was im-

GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3 195

2.4 Model for PVD Clogging

2.5 Degree of Consolidation and Time Factor

Section of the PVD

Figure 6. Numerical modeling of PVD clogging.

196 GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3

2.6 Analysis Considering the Smear Zone

Input de , Tinitial , Tmaximum , and T

Set u(i, j) values of unclogged PVD nodes to 0

Increase T from Tinitial to Tmaximum in steps of T

Solve set of simultaneous equations by Gauss Siedel iterative technique

Store u(i, j) values for use in next step

If U 99.99%, exit loop

End loop for T

Figure 7. Basic algorithm used for the numerical study.

GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3 197

3 COMPARISON WITH THE ANALYTICAL SOLUTION

3.1 Comparison Without the Smear Zone

198 GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3

where b and w are the PVD width and thickness, respectively.

3.2 Comparison With the Smear Zone

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Test of Convergence

GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3 199

4.2 Comparison of Numerical and Analytical Solutions for an Unclogged PVD

4.3 Clogging from the Tip of the PVD

200 GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3

4.4 Clogging from the Center of the PVD

GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3 201

Clogged Clogged PVD

202 GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3

GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3 203

4.6 Comparison of Numerical and Analytical Solutions for a Clogged PVD

4.7 Variation of Excess Pore Water Pressure

204 GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3

Numerical (Case B) Analytical

GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3 205

sx /sy = 1.0 Point 2

206 GEOSYNTHETICS INTERNATIONAL S 2000, VOL. 7, NO. 3

4.8 Sequential Clogging