ORGANISATION PROFILE

Bharti Airtel Services Limited

234, Phase-III Okhla Industrial Estate, New Delhi-20

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 PROJECT REPORT ON

Transmission –System in the C-NOC

(Central-Network Operations Centre - Service Assurance)

Submitted to: - Mr.Sameer Kumar

(System Engg.)

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 PROJECT REPORT ON

Transmission –System in the C-NOC

(Central-Network Operations Centre - Service Assurance)

Submitted to: - Mr.Rajesh Phadnis

(Head of C-NOC)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As it is rightly said “The successful realization of the project is an outgrowth of a

consolidated effort of the people from disparate fronts. It is only with their support and
guidance that the developer could meet the end.” So I would like to thank all the
members of TRANSMISSION SYSTEM C- NOC team for their full cooperation and
help during my Training.

I wish to extend my sincere gratitude towards Mr. Sameer Kumar (Assistant

manager), Mr.Praveen Kumar, Mr. Arun Khillan (Head of system engg.) and Mr.
Rajesh Phadnis (PTO of C - NOC) for giving me this opportunity to undergo training in
System engg. department.

I am also grateful towards Mr. Gaurav kumar, Mr. Shailendra kumar, Mr. Hardev
Singh (Sr. Engineers) & Mr. Vikas Anchal, Mr. Deepak Rana, Mr. Amit Mudgal
(Engineers) & all other members of the System engg department for making me
understand various aspects of System engg..

Last but not the least I am thankful to all those persons with whom I have interacted and
who directly or indirectly contributed significantly to the successful completion of my
training.

MAYANK KURRA

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 TRAINING OBJECTIVE

1. To get exposed to the industrial environment.

2. To provide a basic understanding of the culture, work ethics and trade related work
practices at the Organization, i.e. Bharti Telnet Ltd., with which the trainee was
associated for a period of Six weeks.

3. To provide an opportunity to observe the processes, procedures and standards that the
industry uses to ensure quality, productivity and economy of the products or services that
it undertakes.

4. To relate his current level of knowledge with the industrial experience:

5. In the form of generating reports on the basis of his observation.

6.Generate a model of its operations or processes or work flow.

7. Propose alternative models, strategies or methodologies that can be more efficient,

economical or better suited in terms of any specific parameter.

8. Give analysis or justification for the new model, strategy or methodology.

INTRODUCTION: BHARTI ENTERPRISES :-

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Bharti Enterprises has been at the forefront of technology and has revolutionized
telecommunications with its and has revolutionized telecommunications with its world-
class products and services world-class products and services Established in 1985, Bharti
has been a pioneering force in the telecom sector with many firsts and innovations to its
credit, ranging from being the first mobile service in Delhi, first private basic telephone
service provider in the country, first Indian company to provide comprehensive telecom
services outside India in Seychelles and first private sector service provider to launch
National Long Distance Services in India. As of June 30, 2006, Bharti had
approximately 7 million total customers nearly 3.75 million mobile and 423,000 fixed
line customers.
Its services sector businesses include mobile operations in Andhra Pradesh, Chennai,
Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Kolkata, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh (West). In addition, it also
has fixed-line operations in the states of Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh, Haryana,
Delhi, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and nationwide broadband and long distance
networks.
Bharti has recently launched International long distance services by offering data
transmission services and voice transmission. The Company is also implemented a
submarine cable project connecting Chennai-Singapore for providing international
bandwidth
Bharti Enterprises also manufactures and exports telephone terminals and cordless
phones. Apart from being the largest manufacturer of telephone instruments, it is also the
first telecom company to export its products to the USA.
Bharti provides a range of telecom services and solutions from customer premise
equipment to customized data solutions, Bharti comes with an entire range spanning the
entire spectrum of telephony. And all this is made possible with:
Touchtel - the largest network of private fixed line telephone service and solutions in
India.

Airtel - India's leading cellular service.

Bharti Broadband end-to-end telecom solutions.

Mantra - the first ISP with its own gateways.

Network i2i - India's first international submarine cable.

IndiaOne- India's first private long distance operator.

Beetel - India's number one push button telephone brand.

Bharti Enterprises has set industry standards in all the areas of its operation.

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Bharti Airtel has reported its net profit for the quarter ended 30 June 2006 (Q1FY07) at
Rs755 crore, a growth of 48 per cent from the corresponding quarter of last year. As per
the un-audited results announced recently, the company registered consolidated total
revenues for the quarter at Rs 3,856 crore, an increase of 53 per cent.

ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Connecting India- Growing Presence

1999 Pre-4th Post-4th

Licensed License
Number of Mobile Circles 2 6 15
Number of Fixed-Line Circles 1 1 6
Population covered in our licensed 2% 16% 58%
area (%)
Area covered in our licensed areas 2% 16% 56%
(%)
Wireless Coverage Area (% of 16% 38% 93%
Mobile Customers covered)

BHARTI AIRTEL LIMITED :-

Bharti Airtel Limited, a part of Bharti Enterprises, is India's leading provider of

telecommunications services. The businesses at Bharti Tele-Ventures have been

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structured into two main strategic business groups - the MOBILITY Leaders business
group and the INFOTEL Leaders business group. The Mobility business group provides
GSM mobile services across India in twenty three telecom circles, while the Infotel
business group provides broadband & telephone services, long distance services and
enterprise services. All these services are provided under the Airtel brand.
Bharti Tele-Ventures is one of India's leading private sector providers of
telecommunications services based on an aggregate of 16,561,699 customers as
of November 30, 2007, consisting of 15,416,002 GSM mobile and 1,145,697 broadband
& telephone customers.
Bharti is the first private operator to have established satellite based Gateway for internet
access and has established its fibre gateway on Network-I2I-first private submarine cable,
owned by Bharti and Singtel.
Bharti provides complete telephone services and solutions ranging from DSL broadband
Internet access, Leased lines, ISDN services, Unified messaging solutions, a state of the
art high speed communication network capable of handling voice, data and video.
Partners:
The Company has a strategic alliance with SingTel. The investment made by SingTel is
one of the largest investments made in the world outside Singapore, in the company. The
company’s mobile network partners include Ericsson, Nokia, Siemens and IT
partners include IBM.

INTRODUCTION: NETWORKS:-

What is a Network?

A network is simply a group of two or more Personal Computers linked together.

There are many types of computer networks, including:
Local-area networks (LANs) : The computers are geographically close together
(that is, in the same building).
Wide-area networks (WANs) : The computers are farther apart and are connected by
telephone lines or radio waves.

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Campus-area networks (CANs): The computers are within a limited geographic area,
such as a campus or military base.
Metropolitan-area networks MANs): A data network designed for a town or city.
Home-area networks (HANs): A network contained within a user's home that connects a
person's digital devices.

In addition to these types, the following characteristics are also used to categorize
different types of networks:
Topology: The geometric arrangement of a computer system. Common topologies
include a bus, star, and ring. See the Network topology diagrams in the Quick
Reference section of Webopedia.

Protocol: The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the
network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is called
Ethernet. Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the IBM token-ring network .
Architecture: Networks can be broadly classified as using either a peer-to-peer or
client/server architecture.

INTERNET

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A global network connecting millions of computers. More than 100 countries are
linked into exchanges of data, news and opinions. Unlike online services, which are
centrally controlled, the Internet is decentralized by design. Each Internet computer,
called a host, is independent. Its operators can choose which Internet services to use and
which local services to make available to the global Internet community. Remarkably,
this anarchy by design works exceedingly well.

INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES:
The various Internet technologies used are:
1. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
2. Leased Lines
3. Dial up
4. Wireless Services
5. Mobile Services

REVIEW OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

Support Systems
Generally all Telecommunication system can be modeled with a few basic blocks:

1. Access
A means to connect to users, convert their talk into electronic signals and vice versa.
Access equipment would mean how easily and reliably the customer gets a connection.

2. Switch

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A means to connect A to B while there are a thousands other connections between A to Z
possible. Switch would mean how many subscribers can be connected.

3. Transport
A means to carry traffic & signals between several switches & also between switch &
access equipment. It also means ,what bandwidth he gets. (how fast does he download)

4. Services:
like Caller ID - SMS – Call diverting-Call forwarding –voice mail-sms, wake-up call, call
debar, Auto answering - R world – On line flight / railway ticket booking – getting a
flight
boarding pass -, Operation support system that’s what network operators need to
operate their networks efficiently and effectively.

5. Signaling:
Analog to railway transport - Train has left at this particular time –if any problem /path
failure-conveying to HQ. In case of link failure, which alternate path to be followed.
And finally OSS decides how efficiently you run the network, repair faults, raise correct
bills, etc.

In modern telecommunication, there is an increasing realisation that Transport is as

important as building block - as any other like Switch or Services. Transport has traveled
it’s distance from being merely the physical connectivity to being an performance
enabler. Why is that so evident today. Because as technology evolves, there is increasing
demand for:

1. More & more bandwidth :-

- can we give new connections as & when required –no waiting time –no limit More
users, more frequent use.
- availability of unlimited talk time without system getting hunged – more frequent use
- more information & data to be carried, so more bandwidth.

2. More flexibility:-

- Can we have voice & data & video on the same line, at the same time,
- Can we get more download speed with increasing uploading speed,
- Can we provide 100 or 500 number in a sequence (corporate connections)

3. More Quality & Reliability :-

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-Mere transmission is not good enough, quality of voice or video is also important.
- Reliability of service – Uninterrupted continuous service for 24 hrs & 365 days / year.
Our MTTR should be measured in minutes & not in hrs.-Availability of Protection path
- Can we reduce waiting time to zero – i.e operator should not say –You are in the Queue
for STD or Local calls
- i.e. at Hospital or Hotel – should not say Come tomorrow
- i.e. can we provide the service as & when required.

What is Data communications?

Data communications (often called datacomm) implies the exchange of data, generally
defined as a group of facts or statistics. In today’s digital networks, datacomm actually
refers to facts, statistics, and any other information that is digitally encoded and
intelligible to various network devices (i.e., computers, terminals, word processors,
microcomputers, etc.).Datacomm The movement of encoded information by means of
electric transmissionsystems via one or more data links according to a protocol. Put
simply, the process of communicating information in binary form between two points in a
network.Protocol The rules for communicating between like processes, giving a means to
control the orderly communication of information between stations on a data link. Put
simply, the rules used to govern communication between two points in a network.

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The Physical Layer:-

Cooperative communication across a data network requires device compatibility

onvarious levels. These levels are outlined in the International Standards
Organization(ISO) seven-layer reference model. The reference model is called the ISO
Open SystemsInterconnection (OSI). Its purpose is to describe data communications
architectures. OSI is not a protocol nor does it specify the use of any particular protocol.
However, it does define a consistent language and boundaries for establishing protocols
so that systems that follow these rules are “open” to one another and able to
communicate. Each layer in the OSI model is responsible for a particular function and
depends on information from the layers directly above and below it in order to perform
that function. The table below describes the functions of each of the seven layers of the
OSI model.

Layer Description of Function :-

1. Physical Layer- Concerned with the transmission of the bitstream. Deals with the
mechanical and electrical characteristics of accessing the physical medium.

2.Data Link Layer- Sends data in frames across the physical link. Concerned with error
control, synchronization, and flow control.

3. Network Layer -Responsible for establishing, maintaining and terminating

connections. Controls routing and flow/congestion control. Isolates the upper layers from
the task of interfacing with transmission and switching equipment.

4. Transport Layer Provides reliable, transparent transfer of data between end points.
Responsible for maintaining the quality of service: throughput, transit delay, and ratio of
lost data units to data units transmitted.

5. Session Layer- Establishes, manages and terminates sessions (connections)between

communicating applications. Provides the control structure for these connections.
Determines and regulates full duplex / half duplex / simplex operation.

6. Presentation Layer- Provides information about the syntax and data format used
by an application to the session layer so that the communicating applications can make
any necessary syntax conversions.

7. Application Layer- Allows application programs to interface with the OSI

environment and provides distributed information services (file transfer, e-mail, terminal
emulation, distributed database operations).

Data Network Types :-

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Categorically, three types of networks are used to transfer data:
Public Network A network run by a telephone company, value added networkoperator,
government agency, specifically to serve the needsof the general public. This type of
network is shared amongmany users, any one of which can establish communications
with any other user by use of a dial or push-button telephone.It is referred to as the public
switched telephone network(PSTN) in the United Kingdom.

Private Network A network installed, operated, and maintained by a privateagency for

users within that organization. Occasionally largerorganizations will provide bandwidth
to users outside thecompany. This helps defer the cost of maintenance.

Public Data Network Commonly called a PDN, this network is operated by the
government or a private agency for the purpose of providingdata transmission services to
the public. This type of networktransmits packets (data messages). Packets from different
sources are interleaved and sent to their destination over virtualcircuits. PDNs may be
either a packet-switched network suchas X.25, or a digital network such as DDS.

ANALOG - DIGITAL CONVERSION:-

Human Voice ranges from 300 - 3300 Hz, --- - -Maximum 4000 HzNyquist Principle.- to
be sampled at least at double that rate for recreation
So 8000 samples / second for each voice signal. =1 sample / every 125 micro sec. = 8 bit
lData capacity reqd. per individua = 8bits/sec. x 8000 samples = 64,000 bits/sec.
= 64 kbps = Data Speed

Total data transferred per second = 32 channels x (64,000 bits/sec)

Band width = 2,048,000 bits / second = 2.048 Mbps = E1

01110010100011101110
We need to take atleast 8000 samples to faithfully recreate human voice,meaning one
sample takes 125 µs - to transmit.Each sample time duration of 125 microseconds is
called FRAME (e.g. train)
As we take a 8 bit / sample - we get 64,000 bits/seconds = 64 kbps - to be transmitted per
second.
A single channel of Voice needs 64 kbps to communicate.- known as Data Speed i.e. in a
second–Talking capacity -Data transfer capacity of each individual is 64kbps.This 64
kbps is called a DS0 (Digital Signal Zero). –Data speed of Individual
For Video conference we need 60 Mbps.- In Japan each gets 100Mbps,- In USA it is
2Mbps
125 micro sec. FRAME - -can be compared with - - - - - - - TRAIN

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– 32 channels - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -BOGGIE
– 8 bits = are comparable to - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -Passengers
. Time Division Multiplexing - TDM
During 125 micro seconds-Each person’s talk will be sampled for 3.9 micro seconds
only.
During rest of the time (121.1 microsecond) we can send 31 more signals each of 8 bits.
i.e.125 micro seconds is divided into 32 slots / channels & is called TDM
i.e. 32 person can talk – one by one - within 125 microseconds
i.e. When we bunch 32 DS0 &transmit them at the gap of 125 Microsecond.
Each channel is called as Eo.
Each frame E1 carries 32 E0 / channels - each channels of 8 bits .
Total data transferred per second = 32 x (8bits x 8000 samples/sec.)
Band width =2,048,000 bits / second = 2.048 Mbps = E1

\
Facets of Transport:

1. Media-
• Wireline Copper , Aluminium
• Wireless RF, µW ( Electromagnetic)
• Optical OFC

2.Topology –
(Pattern of connecting network element)
•Mesh - Local – links
•Star
•Bus - for LAN
•Ring

3. Technology
• Voice Communication PDH
• Modern Transport SDH, DWDM

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4 .Network Management

Main Pillars of Transport

MEDIA - Electromagnetic – Frequency generated & broadcasted by BTS
(870MHz ) is greater than Frequency generated & broadcasted by Mobile unit
(825MHz).so it gets synchronized with that of mobile – resulting in Wireless
transmissionTechnology.

Token Ring – Ring in which only one circulating Token - Token holder can speak ,
others are listners only –If token holder do not want to use, he has to pass it to next
fellow in the ring.

Ethernet – LAN - Network on smaller scale – Commercial complex-e.g.DAKC

IMT – Integrated mobile terminal e.g. FWT.

Network Management –

A ) Local Craft Terminal – Local panel through which nearby Mux are controlled - e.g in
Lab. we are controlling 4 transport equipment
through Laptop / Desk top.

B) Hyper Terminal - Dumb terminal – softwear through which response from the Mux
can be received.

C) Network management – All Mux & CT ( control terminal) in the network ( large scale
) can be controlled by SERVER at NNOC.

MEDIA :-

1) Light travels in OFC-multiple Reflections just like rebouncing of a ball.

2) Transmitter-EMW-Elect-Digital , Receiver = digital – Elect.- EMW
3) TIR = angle > Critical Angle & n1 > n2
4) OFC – Costruction – specification = core dia. / cladding dia.- comparisson with hair,
5) Useful Wavelength lie in Infra Red region i. e. 850 ë,1310 ë ,1550 ë
6) Losses : Absorbtion Ü 1/ ë , Scattering Ü 1/ ë4 & bending Ü ë
7) Loss = dB = -10log10 (P2/P1) POWER = dBm = -10log10 (P /1mw )
8) Types of Cables – (a) Material based (b) Mode based (c) refractive index based
9) Dispersion – multimode – Chromatic At R COM – dia. Reduced (SM) & step index
reduces
Chromatic disp.
10) G 652 - 0 disp. At 1310 – used at Access route - DWDM – 32 ë x 2.5 Gb at 1550
11) G-653 - 0 disp. At 1550
12) G-655 – 0 disp. above 1550 – NLD / Inter circle – DWDM – 80 ë x 10Gb at 1550

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Features of Microwave transmission :-

•Information can be sent over a difficult terrain

•Information carrying capacity (band width) of typ. 155 Mbps (STM-1)
• Each Link can carry signal over typ. 50km
• Multiple links can carry signal over 500 Km.
• Susceptible to Noise and Fading
•Quick Deployment possible ( If license for spectrum is available)

Features of Satellite transmission :-

• Information can be sent over a difficult terrain, even across oceans

e.g. Chennai to Andaman Nicobar islands
• Information carrying capacity (band width) of typ. 400Kbps
Depends on available Satellite capacity
Links can carry signal over 3000 Km.
• Susceptible to delay in transmission
•Quick Deployment possible ( If license and satellite BW is available)

Guided Media:-

Copper cables (UTP, STP, Co-ax, …)

•STP - Shielded Twisted Pair (Data Grade)
•UTP - Unshielded Twisted Pair (Data Grade)
•Coaxial - Used more with TV / VIDEO / LAN
• Simple and easy to use, least in cost
• Bandwidth-distance limitation, Attenuation, Interference.
• Maintenance problems

Optical Fiber Cable - (OFC):-

• Not so easy to use, costlier than copper cable

• Very high Bandwidth, very low Attenuation, No Interference, …
• Connecting is a high skill job
• Maintenance problems
Electrical signal are susceptible to EMI from any strong electrical source like a HT like, a
transformer/ contactor/ SMPS or even a µP based circuit. Extreme care is required to
design and implement the layout of electrical signal, type of cable, shielding, grounding,
etc. Copper wires are also susceptible to corrosive atmosphere. They are bulky and rigid.

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Optic Fiber Cable (OFC) :-

Advantages of Optical Fiber –

Distance:- The extremely low losses of modern telecom grade fiber enable distances of
50-100Km between repeaters to be routinely achieved.

Capacity/Bandwidth:- The information carrying capacity of optical fiber can be

enormous.G-652 has capacity 2.5Gbps/fiber/wave length. it/sec can provide the
equivalent of 30,000 individual telephone signals of 64kbit/sec and G-655 has capacity
10Gbps/fiber/wavelength (1000Gb/sec is now very close to being achieved).

Security:- Optical fiber systems do not radiate any signal, and hence have almost total
immunity to ‘wire tapping’. It can be done but is very difficult unless access to splices or
connectors is possible.

Immunity to Noise:- The glass optical fiber is a dielectric rather than a metal and thus
does not act as an antenna in the way metal conducting elements do. The fiber will not,
therefore suffer from inductive interference such as RFI Radio Interference - EMI
Electromagnetic Interference - EMP Electromagnetic Pulse.

This effective immunity to interference makes it possible to use fibers alongside or even
on power lines.

Long Life:- Fiber does not corrode like metal conductors.

Light Weight:- Optical fiber is remarkably light in weight. A 10Km stand of telecom
grade fiber on a shipping spool weighs less than 2kg whereas a 500m reel of co-ax copper
cable weighs 30kg.

Environmentally Friendly:- Manufactured from the most abundant material in the

earths crust. Comparatively small amounts of raw material are required therefore energy,
transport and process costs are reduced. By using fiber for communications the world’s
copper reserves are saved for other purposes.

Future Proof:- Maybe yes –maybe no. It is impossible to know, however the signs are
encouraging. It lasts a long time –we only use a small amount of its theoretical capacity
—as a result it is probably fair to say that fiber provides our most future proof
transmission medium.

Journey through the “Optical Tunnel” :-

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If we get a optical tunnel where once a light pulse enters at one end can only come out at
the other end, would serve our purpose. Well an OFC is just that. Transmission through a
OFC is like light ball traveling down a tunnel. It reflects several time on the “wall” before
reaching the end of the tunnel.
Train travels on railway track transfers the Passengers similarly
Wavelength travels on OFC transfer the Data / voice / video.

Advantages of OFC over other media like Cu wire are:-

1. Very low attenuation-Loss depends on length only –free from amount of data
Transmitted.
2. No Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).
3. No Bandwidth-distance relation, hence enormous large bandwidth available.-10Gbps
whereas Capacity of Cu wire is limited i.e. 34 Mbps.
4. OFC are far thinner in diameter.-smaller in size-light in weight.
5. Greater safety as difficult to join-High security.

Disadvantages are :-
1. OFC is costlier than Cu-wire.
2. OFC is fragile.
3. OFC are difficult to join.
4. OFC has it’s own set of losses – dispersion, absorption, etc

Optical Spectrum :-

The Optical Spectrum can be divided into three regions.

Ultra Violet: That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in which thelongest

wavelength is just below the visible spectrum, extending from approximately 4 nm to 400
nm.

Visible Light: Electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye; wavelengths of 400-
700 nm.

Infrared (IR): The region of the electromagnetic spectrum bounded by the long
wavelength, extreme of the visible spectrum (about 0.7 µm) and the shortest microwaves
(about 0.1 µm).

Propagation Of Light In Fiber :-

Total internal reflection:- Total internal reflection is the phenomenon by which an optical
fiber guides light. If light incident at any angle more than the Critical Angle at the
interface between the core and cladding (Refractive index of Core > Refractive index of
Cladding ) such that it will be entirely reflected back in the Core (none is transmitted into

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the cladding where it is lost). The critical angle depends on the material of core and the
cladding. It can be summarized that the important concept of fiber optic communication
technology is: When light travels from a medium with higher refractive index ( Core) to a
medium with lower refractive index (Cladding )and if it strikes the boundary at an angle
more than a critical angle, all light will be reflected back to the incident medium (Core).
This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.

Fiber Geometry:-

Core: The core of an optical fiber – is a glass rod - denotes the central part of the fiber
where the majority of the light propagates.

Cladding: The cladding of an optical fiber surrounds the core and has a Refractive Index
lower than that of core. This difference in refractive index allows total internal reflection
to occur within the fiber core. & avoids the entry into the Cladding .Total internal
reflection is the phenomenon by which light propagates in optical fiber.

Coating is made up of PVC material-available in different colours as per ITU code

Attenuation - ( Losses ) :-

Loss is the measure of the reduction in signal magnitude, or loss of power of a optic
pulse, along a length of fiber. When the loss is described per km, it is known as
Attenuation. Attenuation in fiber optic cabling is usually expressed in decibels per unit
per length of cable (i.e. dB/km) at a specified wavelength. Attenuation depends on length
of a fiber & also on Link components like splice Joints - connectors etc.

Attenuation describes how energy is lost or dissipated. Loss is the cost of moving
something, like charges or particles or light pulses. Attenuation / Losses are due to -
Impure- non uniform material , joints i.e. Splicing Attenuation in fiber optic cabling is
usually expressed in decibels per unit length of cable (i.e. dB/km) at a specified
wavelength.

Attenuation = 10log10(Iout / Iin)

Where,
out = outgoing intensity (intensity is measured in Watt/.m-2 )I in = ingoing intensity
(Watt/.m-2)
Research & Developement
1980 – 100dB / km
1990 – 6dB / km

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2005 – 0.18 dB / km

Sources of Attenuation in Fibers :-

Absorption –
Caused by impurities in the glass, and any atomic defects in the glass increases
dramatically above 1700 nm. The peak absorption occurs at approx.1400nmë -
proportional to 1 / ë

Scattering –
Scattering is caused by small variations in the density of glass . Loss of optical energy
due to imperfections / in homogeneities (localized density variations). And therefore act
as scattering objects. - proportional to 1 / ë4

Geometric Effects –
Bending losses increases with increase in Wavelength. Effects of 2 cm radius bend at
three wavelengths - 1310 nm = < 0.1 dB loss
1550 nm = 2 dB loss
1625 nm = 6 dB loss

Classification Of Fibers :-

• Refractive Index Classification

• Mode Classification

Mode of the Fiber:-

•The Core is limited between 7-9 µm for Single Mode Fiber

•This would allow only 1 mode to pass (for 1310nm/ 1550 nm)
• A part of the light energy would even spill over into the cladding!
•The Core is limited between 50-62.5 µm for Multi Mode Fiber
125 µm

The most effective means of limiting the number of modes is to reduce the core diameter.
While a core with 50 µm dia is sure to be Multimode, a core of 7-9 µm would allow only
1 mode. The number of modes however depends on the wavelength, so while 7-9 µm is
Single mode for 1310 nm or higher wavelengths, it maybe allowing
more than one mode at lower wavelengths.

Multimode fiber (MM) :-

Light travels in diff. Path:-

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Core diameter varies - 50 to 62.5 µ-meter. Mode Depends on - Wave length Core
diameter - Refractive Index n1 & n2.

Modes do not depend on Length of Fiber:-

Primarily used for intra-office application Equipments & cables are less expensive than
single mode .

Single mode fiber (SM):-

• Only one mode (ray) propagates Light travells in Only one Path / mode.
• Core diameter is about 7-9 micro-Meter.
• Primarily used for long dist.. applications.
•Equipments & Cables required are costly

B - Mode Classification:-

Multimode fiber:-
Multimode fiber allows multiple modes of light to ropagate along its length at various
angles and orientations to the central xis. Conventional sizes of multimode fiber are
62.5/125µm or 50/125µm. .g. G-652- SM – for city network - of various make - like
Corning(Germany) – Sterlite-RPG – Finolex – Tamilnadu Telecom Ltd (TTL) – BEOL
(Birla Erricson Optical Ltd.)
Conventionally, the size of a fiber is denoted by writing its core diameter &then writing
the cladding diameter (Both in µm) with a slash between them. For example: 50/125µm
fibers describe a fiber with a 50µm

Single mode fiber:-

A single mode fiber has a small core. Only one ray of light is expected to pass through.
This highly parallel beam is incident alongthe axis of the fiber. Single mode fiber allows
a single mode of light topropagate along its core efficiently. Conventional sizes of single
mode fiberare 8/125µm, 8.3/125µm or 9/125µm.(core dia. / cladding dia). Single mode
fiber allows very high-speed transmission.e.g. – G 655 – SM – for NLD – of various
make – like Corning (Germany)-
Tyco ( USA) – OCC ( Farukowa-Japan) – OFS (USA)

Optical Fiber Standards:-

Designs of single-mode fiber have evolved over several decades. The three principle
types and their ITU-T specifications are:
• Non-dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF), G.652
-Minimum dispersion at 1310 nm
-Attenuation – Between 0.35 dB /km to 0.4 dB/km

. Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF), G.653

- Minimum dispersion at 1550 nm
-Non-linear amplification for various wavelengths - without DWDM

22
• Non-zero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZ-DSF), G.655
- Optimum dispersion at 1550 nm – 18 Pico second / (nm.km)
- Attenuation – Between 0. 18 dB /km to 0.21 dB/km.
- Linear amplification for various wavelengths – DWDM

As optical fiber use became more common and the needs for greater bandwidth and
distance increased,a third window, near 1550 nm, was exploited for single-mode
transmission. The third window, or C band,offered two advantages: it had much lower
attenuation (0.18 dB/km to 0.25dB.km.), and its operatingfrequency was the same as that
of the new Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs- Amplifies the pulse in optical state
only –doesn’t need to convert in elect. pulse.-Direct amplification). However, its
dispersioncharacteristics were severely limiting. This was overcome to a certain extent by
using narrower linewidthand higher power lasers. But because the third window had
lower attenuation than the 1310-nm window,manufacturers came up with the dispersion-
shifted fiber design, which moved the zero-dispersion point to the 1550-nm region.
Although this solution now meant that the lowest optical attenuation and the zero-
dispersion pointscoincided in the 1550-nm window, it turned out that there are
destructive nonlinearities in optical fiber near the zero-dispersion point for which there is
no effective compensation. Because of this limitation, these fibers are not suitable for
DWDM applications.
The third type, non-zero dispersion-shifted fiber, is designed specifically to meet the
needs of DWDM applications. The aim of this design is to make the dispersion low in the
1550-nm region, but not zero.
This strategy effectively introduces a controlled amount of dispersion, which counters
nonlinear effects such as four-wave mixing (see the “Other Nonlinear Effects” section on
page 2-11) that can hinder the performance of DWDM systems.

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) :-

Traditionally, digital transmission systems and hierarchies have been based on

multiplexing signals which are plesiochronous (running at almost the same speed). Also,
various parts of the world use different hierarchies which lead to problems of
international interworking, for example, between those countries using 1.544 Mbit/s
systems (U.S.A. and Japan) and those using the 2.048 Mbit/s system.
To recover a 64 kbit/s channel from a 140 Mbit/s PDH signal, it is necessary to
demultiplex the signal all the way down to the 2 Mbit/s level before the location of the 64
kbit/s channel can be identified. PDH requires "steps" (140-34, 34-8, 8-2 demultiplex; 2-
8, 8-34, 34-140 multiplex) to drop out or add an individual speech or data channel. This
is due to the bit-stuffing used at each level.

23
 140 Mb/s 140 Mb/s
140-34 DEMUX 34-140 MUX

34 Mb/s 34 Mb/s

34-8 DEMUX 8-34 MUX

8 Mb/s 8 Mb/s

8-2 DEMUX 2-8 MUX

2 Mb/s

Drop & Add

Figure 1 PDH multiplexing by steps, showing add/drop function

Limitations of PDH Network:-

The main limitations of PDH are:

•Inability to identify individual channels in a higher-order bit stream;
•Insufficient capacity for network management;
•Most PDH network management is proprietary;
•There is no standardised definition of PDH bit rates greater than 140 Mbit/s; and,
•There are different hierarchies in use around the world. Specialized interface equipment
is
required to interwork the two hierarchies

What is SDH?

This document is intended as an introductory guide to the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

(SDH) multiplexing standard. Standards in the telecommunications field are always
evolving. Information in this SDH prime. is based on the latest information available
from the ITU-T standardisation organization.
Use this primer as an introduction to the technology of SDH. Consult the actual material
from ITU-T, paying particular attention to the latest revision, if more detailed information
is required.
For help in understanding the language of SDH telecommunications, a comprehensive
List of Terms appears at the end of this document.

Introduction :-

24
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is a standard for telecommunications transport
formulated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), previously called the
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT).
SDH was first introduced into the telecommunications network in 1992 and has been
deployed at rapid rates since then. It is deployed at all levels of the network
infrastructure, including the access network, and the long-distance trunk network. It is
based on overlaying a synchronous multiplexed signal onto a light stream transmitted
over fibre-optic cable. SDH is also defined for use on radio relay links, satellite links, and
at electrical interfaces between equipment.
The comprehensive SDH standard is expected to provide the transport infrastructure for
worldwide telecommunications for at least the next two or three decades.
The increased configuration flexibility and bandwidth availability of SDH provides
significant advantages over the older telecommunications system.
These advantages include: A reduction in equipment requirements and an increase in
network reliability.The provision of overhead and payload bytes - the overhead bytes
permitting management of the payload bytes on an individual basis and facilitating
centralised fault sectionalisation.
The definition of a synchronous multiplexing format for carrying lower-level digital
signals (such as 2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s, 140 Mbit/s) which greatly simplifies the interface to
digital switches, digital cross-connects, and add-drop multiplexers.
The availability of a set of generic standards, which enable products from different
vendors to be connected and inter-operated. The definition of a flexible architecture
capable of accommodating future applications, with a variety of transmission rates.In
brief, SDH defines synchronous transport modules (STMs) for the fibre-optic based
transmission hierarchy.

Background :-

Before SDH, the first generations of fibre-optic systems in the public telephone network
used proprietary architectures, equipment, line codes, multiplexing formats, and
maintenance procedures. The users of this equipment wanted standards so they could mix
and match equipment from different suppliers. The task of creating such a standard was
taken up in 1984 by the Exchange Carriers Standards Association (ECSA) in the U.S. to
establish a standard for connecting one fibre system to another. In the late stages of the
development, the CCITT became involved so that a single international standard might
be developed for fibre interconnect between telephone networks of different countries.
The resulting international standard is known as Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH).

Synchronisation of Digital Signals :-

To understand correctly the concepts and details of SDH, it is important to be clear about
the meaning of Synchronous, Plesiochronous, and Asynchronous.

25
In a set of Synchronous signals, the digital transitions in the signals occur at exactly the
same rate. There may however be a phase difference between the transitions of the two
signals, and this would lie within specified limits. These phase differences may be due to
propagation time delays, or wander introduced in the transmission network. In a
synchronous network, all the clocks are traceable to one Primary Reference Clock (PRC).
The accuracy of the PRC is better than ± 1 in 1011 and is derived from a cesium atomic
standard.
If two digital signals are Plesiochronous, then their transitions occur at "almost" the
same rate, with any variation being constrained within tight limits. These limits are set
down in ITU-T recommendation G.811. For example, if two networks need to interwork,
their clocks may be derived from two different PRCs. Although these clocks are
extremely accurate, there is a small frequency difference between one clock and the
other. This is known as a plesiochronous difference.
In the case of Asynchronous signals, the transitions of the signals do not necessarily
occur at the same nominal rate. Asynchronous, in this case, means that the difference
between two clocks is much greater than a plesiochronous difference. For example, if two
clocks are derived from free-running quartz oscillators, they could be described as
asynchronous.

SDH Advantages:-

The primary reason for the creation of SDH was to provide a long-term solution for an
optical mid-span meet between vendors, that is, to allow equipment from different
vendors to communicate with each other. This ability is referred to as multi-vendor
interworking and allows one SDH-compatible network element to communicate with
another, and to replace several network elements, which may have previously existed
solely for interface purposes.
The second major advantage of SDH is the fact that it is synchronous. Currently, most
fibre and multiplex systems are plesiochronous. This means that the timing may vary
from equipment to equipment because they are synchronised from different network
clocks. In order to multiplex this type of signal, a process known as bit-stuffing is used.
Bit-stuffing adds extra bits to bring all input signals up to some common bit-rate, thereby
requiring multi-stage multiplexing and demultiplexing. Because SDH is synchronous, it
allows single-stage multiplexing and demultiplexing. This single-stage multiplexing
eliminates hardware complexity, thus decreasing the cost of equipment while improving
signal quality.
In plesiochronous networks, an entire signal had to be demultiplexed in order to access a
particular channel, then the non-accessed channels had to be re-multiplexed back together
in order to be sent further along the network to their proper destination. In SDH format,
only those channels that are required at a particular point are demultiplexed, thereby
eliminating the need for back-to-back multiplexing. In other words, SDH makes
individual channels “visible” and they can easily be added and dropped.

Basic SDH Signal:-

26
The basic format of an SDH signal allows it to carry many different services in its Virtual
Container (VC) because it is bandwidth-flexible. This capability will allow for such
things as the transmission of high-speed, packet-switched services, ATM, contribution
video and distribution video. However, SDH still permits transport and networking at the
2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s and
140 Mbit/s levels, accommodating the existing digital hierarchy signals. In addition, SDH
supports the transport of signals based on the 1.5 Mbit/s hierarchy.
Transmission Hierarchies :-
Following ANSI’s development of the SONET standard, the ITU-T undertook to define a
standard that would address interworking between the 2048 kbit/s and 1554 kbit/s
transmission hierarchies. That effort culminated in 1989 with ITU-T’s publication of the
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) standards.
The tables below compare the Non-synchronous and Synchronous transmission
hierarchies.

Table 1. Non-Synchronous Hierarchy

Signal Digital Bit Channels
Rate
64 kbit/s 64 kbit/s One 64 kbit/s
E1 2.048 Mbit/s 32 E0
E2 8.448 Mbit/s 128 E0
E3 34.368 Mbit/s 16 E1
E4 139.264 64 E1
Mbit/s

Table 2. SDH Hierarchy

Bit Rate Abbr. SDH SDH Capacity
51.840 Mbit/s 51 Mbit/s STM-0 21 E1
155.520 Mbit/s 155 Mbit/s STM-1 63 E1 or 1 E4
622.080 Mbit/s 622 Mbit/s STM-4 252 E1 or 4 E4
2488.320 Mbit/s 2.4 Gbit/s STM-16 1008 E1 or 16 E4
9953.280 Mbit/s 10 Gbit/s STM-64 4032 E1 or 64 E4
STM = Synchronous Transport Module

Why Synchronise? :-

Synchronous versus Asynchronous

Traditionally, transmission systems have been asynchronous, with each terminal in the
network running on its own recovered clock timing. In digital transmission, "timing" is
one of the most fundamental operations.

27
Since these clocks are not synchronised, large variations can occur in the clock rate and
thus the signal bit rate. For example, a E3 signal specified at 34 Mbit/s ± 20 ppm (parts
per million) can produce a timing difference of up to 1789 bit/s between one incoming E3
signal and another.
Asynchronous multiplexing uses multiple stages. Signals such as asynchronous E1s (2
Mbit/s) are multiplexed (bit-interleaving), extra bits are added (bit-stuffing) to account
for the variations of each individual stream and are combined with other bits (framing
bits) to form an E2 (8 Mbit/s) stream. Bit-interleaving and bit-stuffing is used again to
multiplex up to E3 (34 Mbit/s). The E1s are neither visible nor accessible within an E3
frame. E3s are multiplexed up to higher rates in the same manner. At the higher
asynchronous rate, they cannot be accessed without demultiplexing.
In a synchronous system, such as SDH, the average frequency of all clocks in the system
will be the same. Every slave clock can be traced back to a highly stable reference clock.
Thus, the STM-1 rate remains at a nominal 155.52 Mbit/s, allowing many synchronous
STM-1 signals to be multiplexed without any bit-stuffing. Thus, the STM-1s are easily
accessed at a higher
STM−N rate.
Low-speed synchronous virtual container (VC) signals are also simple to interleave and
transport at higher rates. At low speeds, 2.048 Mbit/s E1 signals are transported within
synchronous
VC-12 signals which run at a constant rate of 2.304 Mbit/s. Single-step multiplexing up
to
STM-1 requires no bit-stuffing and VCs are easily accessed.
A mechanism known as "pointers" accommodates differences in the reference source
frequencies and phase wander, and so prevents data loss during synchronisation failures.
This is discussed in more detail later in this primer
.
Synchronisation Hierarchy
Digital switches and digital cross-connect systems are commonly employed in the digital
network synchronisation hierarchy. The network is organized with a master-slave
relationship with clocks of the higher level nodes feeding timing signals to clocks of the
lower level nodes. All nodes can be traced up to a Primary Reference Clock (PRC).

Synchronising SDH
The internal clock of an SDH terminal may derive its timing signal from a
Synchronisation Supply Unit (SSU) used by switching systems and other equipment.
Thus, this terminal can serve as a master for other SDH nodes, providing timing on its
outgoing STM−N signal. Other SDH nodes will operate in a slave mode with their
internal clocks timed by the incoming STM−N signal. Present standards specify that an
SDH network must ultimately be able to derive its timing from a Primary Reference
Clock (PRC).
This is a time of great change for Timing and Synchronisation in the network and there
are many challenges for operators and suppliers - and many issues to resolve:
Synchronisation networks are changing with the introduction of SDH; the historical
PDH-based sync network will be replaced by an SDH-based architecture.New equipment,

28
network timing, and sync standards have been developed (Tektronix is contributing
expertise at ITU and ETSI).
Transport networks are evolving and hybrid SDH/PDH has specific problems due to the
quantisation of network phase variation as pointer justifications.New services like video
and ATM depend on excellent timing and network sync to deliver good Quality of
Service.Jitter/Wander measurement technology is changing from analogue to digital,
leading to dramatically new instrument capabilities.New test equipment standards are
being developed (Tektronix is taking a leading role at ITU).

Overview of SONET:-

In 1985, Bellcore proposed the idea of an optical carrier-to-carrier interface that would
allow the interconnection of different manufacturers’ optical equipment. This was based
on a hierarchy of digital rates, all formed by the interleaving of a basic rate signal. The
idea of a Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET) attracted the interest of carriers,

Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs) and manufacturers alike and quickly
gained momentum. Interest in SONET by CCITT (now the International
Telecommunication Union – ITU-T) expanded its scope from a domestic to an
international standard. By 1988, the ANSI committee had successfully integrated the
changes requested by the ITU-T and were well on their way toward the issuance of the
new standard. When fiber optical cables were initially deployed as a medium for high-
speed digital transport, the lack of standards led to widespread deployment of proprietary
optical interfaces. This meant that fiber optic transmission equipment from one
manufacturer could not interface with equipment from any of the other manufacturers.
Service providers were required to select a single vendor for deployment throughout the
network, and then were locked into the network control and monitoring capabilities of
that manufacturer. Although this technology satisfied the bandwidth needs of the network
for several years, it became evident that this arrangement could not support the future
needs of the industry because of the limited interconnection capabilities. Today, the
SONET standard is contained in the ANSI specification T1.105 Digital Hierarchy –
Optical Interface Rates & Formats Specifications (SONET), and technical
recommendations are found in Bellcore TR-NWT-000253 Synchronous Optical
Network(SONET) Transport Systems: Common Generic Criteria .

SONET Technical Recommendations :-

Bellcore
TR-253 Generic Requirements
TR-303 Loop Carriers
TR-499
TR-496 ADM

29
ANSI
T1.105.xx Rates, Formats, etc...
T1.106 Optical Interfaces
T1.204 OAM&P

SONET Advantages :-

The SONET specifications define optional carrier (OC) interfaces and their electrical
equivalents to allow transmission of lower-rate signals at a common rate. Some of the
benefits of SONET are:
• Currently uses fiber optics as the primary transmission medium.
• Allows for dynamic drop and insert capabilities on the payload, without the delay or
additional hardware associated with demultiplexing and remultiplexing the higher rate
signal.
• Synchronous Networking: Plesiochronous capability allows integration with existing
synchronized networks. Timing may be extracted from an external source, or from the
received optical line signal.
• Speed: SONET allows for transmission rates from 51.84 Mb/s to the theoretical upper
limit of 13.2 Gb/s.
• Network Management: Bandwidth can be managed to the DS0 level to provide
maximum control of bandwidth regardless of the carrier system.
• Transport of Higher Order Services: SONET provides the flexibility to map and
transport many types of services, including ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), SMDS
(Switched Multimegabit Data Service), BISDN (Broadband Integrated Services Digital
Networks), and FDDI (Fiber Data Distributed Interface).

Ethernet over SONET/SDH :-

EoS represents a group of industry standard specifications for optimal transport of

Ethernet through SONET/SDH. Ethernet and SONET/SDH are the two primary link
technologies used in the network communications while Ethernet in the LAN and
SONET/SDH in the Telco/PTT WAN. However, Ethernet rates do not match
SONET/SDH rates and Ethernet traffic can not be effectively carried over the
SONET/SDH network directly. Ethernet over SONET/SDH (EoS) technologies address
this problem and turn the Sonet/SDH MAN/WAN infrastructure backbone into a
transparent Ethernet segment for attached servers and clients. Packet over SONET/SDH

(PoS), the traditional transmission of IP data over Sonet frames via PPP, is gradually
replaced by EoS in many cases.
EoS specifications account for the mapping, aligning, bandwidth management,
sequencing and delay compensation of the individual channels. The core technologies in

30
the EoS architectures are the encapsulation schemes to match Ethernet and SONET/SDH
rates effectively and manage bandwidth usage. Currently, there are a few encapsulation
techniques used: virtual concatenation (VC) and the link capacity adjustment scheme
(LCAS) techniques, the generic framing procedure (GFP) and link access procedure for
SDH (LAPS) technique.

NETWORK OPERATION CENTRE :-

What is a NOC?
A network operations center (NOC), is an organizational unit that:
•Handles day-to-day monitoring of the network
•Serves as a point of contact for customers, internal and external
•Creates, processes, and sometimes resolves events that arise in the network .

Managed services and C-Noc overview :-

Customers are looking for outsourcing complete network, including management to

service provider so that that customer can focus more on their core business. Service
providers is asked to take care of network devices, network links, their performance,
network requirement forecasting etc… contract between customer and service provider to
be driven by SLA signed for services rather that individual components of network as
bandwidth, hardware, software etc… customer signed end to end management would like
to have continuous track of CE to CESLA parameters.
The task of provisioning the customers is done by NOC. By provisioning we mean the
creation of PVC(Permanent Virtual Circuit) which is a must for the users to connect to
the network. These PVCs are created for all the customers no matter which DSLAM they
are using be it Siemens, UT, Ericsson.

IP ADDRESSING:-

The Internet has grown larger than anyone ever imagined it could be. Although the exact
size is unknown, the current estimate is that there are about 100 million hosts and more
than 350 million users actively on the Internet. That is more than the entire population of
the United States! In fact, the rate of growth has been such that the Internet is effectively
doubling in size each year.
So what does the size of the Internet have to do with NAT? Everything! For a computer
to communicate with other computers and Web servers on the Internet, it must have an IP
address. An IP address (IP stands for Internet Protocol) is a unique 32-bit number that

31
identifies the location of your computer on a network. Basically, it works like your street
address -- as a way to find out exactly where you are and deliver information to you. JWE
WILL multicasting, testing or other special uses.
With the explosion of the Internet and the increase in home networks and business
networks, the number of available IP addresses is simply not enough. The obvious
solution is to redesign the address format to allow for more possible addresses. This is
being developed (called IPv6), but will take several years to implement because it
requires modification of the entire infrastructure of the Internet.

COMMON ERRORS IN NOC FOR WHICH THE CUSTOMERS

CALL ON A REGULAR BASIS :-

ERROR 691
1. Username does not exist
Check for username if it exists in the database. If not then search for it in DSL (north)
and encrypt it and push to LDAP. If it already exists in LDAP then delete it from the
database through user deletion and zip net and create it again manually.
2. Check for password
Password mismatch: Enter the username in the LDAP and verify if the user is entering
the correct username and password. If not then give the correct password. If yes then
verify if it is being authenticated from the server side by giving the commands mentioned
below on the telnet session.
Test aaa ppp <email id> <password>
If he is being authenticated then this means that the user is typing the wrong password.
If not then check whether the PVC has been made and whether its tag is confirmed.
Check out if any person is logged in by typing the following command:
Subscriber’s username <username>
If yes then log out the other subscribers by typing the command mentioned below:
Log out subscribers username<username>
If the problem still persists then check customer login status and delete radius sessions as
session hangs out sometimes.
3. Interface mismatch
Ask for his ip address.
Find out the correct interface through the command mentioned below on the ERX router:
Sh ip route <ip address>
Copy the interface and insert it inside the text box of the dynamic user updation.
4. Check for touchtelindia.net
The spelling of the email address or the field in it may be wrong.
5. Other reasons
a) Local address pool may be missing in LDAP.Give it inside the text box of the option
update local pool along with user id.

32
b) Package plan may be missing then policies won’t be implemented. So the
authentication failure exists.
Put the username in the textbox of option update rate plan.

ERROR 678
1.Check if the PVC has been made or not. If not then make it.
2.If the problem still persists then confirm the tag by locking and unlocking the cards.
Siemens
Making of PVC
1.Ask for the RSU and the tag.
2.Find the RSU in the main DSLAM sheet and copy corresponding interface.
3.Find that particular interface in erx2 notepad in case of interfaces (2/3,3/2,3/3,5/0,5/1)
and rest of them in erx1 notepad.
4.Now change the last 3 digits of the interface by asking the tag and ensure that the total
no. of digits are 8.
5.Copy the command from erx notepad and paste it on erx router.
In case of username being created for the first time, fill up the following entries in the
CAF:
a) Username
b) VPI
c) VCI
d) Interface
And encrypt and push to LDAP.Forward it in the OPS or installation as required.
In case of Ericsson and UT
1.Just fill the username.
2.Encrypt and push to LDAP.
3.Forward it to the required deptt.
Manual Creation of the user id
This is done incase JavaScript error comes up or if the entry is missing in LDAP and after
pushing to LDAP still the same error comes up. The following has to be done to resolve
this issue:
1.Go to zip net.
2.Give username and the region.
3.Click on continue.
4.A form appears.
5.Enter the required entries by seeing the record in DSL (north) CAF.
The following entries are to be filled:
a). First name
b). Middle name
c). Last name
d). Username
e). Password (Account id in CAF)
f). Package plan
g). Mail id username@touchtelindia.net
6.Click the register button.
7.Check if not its entry is there in LDAP.

33
LOCK AND UNLOCK (Tag confirmation)
Siemens
1.Goto remote desktop.
2.Click on EMHIX5300 serva del.
3.Click on SNMP port.
4.Find for required region obtained from RSU in the main DSLAM sheet and the ip
address given in the main DSLAM sheet corresponding to the RSU
5.Click on the card for siemens.
6.Now lock the port by clicking on ADSL local.
7.Ask the user if his modem is off or not. If yes then the user’s tag is the one that he told.
8.If not then click on update status.
9.Make the user write all the active ports.
10.Now unlock the port determined through the calculations.
11.Again make the user write all the active ports again.
12.On comparing the 2 lists there will be one port missing which is the correct port of the
user.
NOTE: If on locking the users tag the modem does not go off then ask him to get his tag
confirmed from MDF.
CARD AND PORT CALCULATION (For siemens)
1. Take the last 3 digits of the tag.
2. Subtract 31 from it as the first 31 cards are used for controlling purposes.
3. Then again subtract the host entry of the previous card from the result.The following is
the required port: For eg:Given tag is S10200

Now the following calculations give the correct port no.

1.200-31=169
2.169 lie in the third card.
3.So 128 is subtracted from 169 and we get 41.
4.Therefore, the 41st port of the third card will be locked and confirmed.
In siemens, there are 15 cards in total with 64 ports in each of the cards.
Slot (card) Card range
1 1-64
2 65-128
3 129-192
4 193-256
5 257-320
6 321-384
7 385-448
8 449-512
9 513-576
10 577-640
11 641-704
12 705-768
13 769-832
14 833-896
15 897-960

34
COMMISSIONING AND PROVISIONING OF NEW SITES :

SIEMENS
For commissioning and expansion of new sites, SDH technology is used. SDH gives an
Ethernet drop both at the MSU n the RSU end. In case of SIEMENS at the RSU end
siemens dslam is connected to SDH DDF on w/c an Ethernet drop has been given by
SDH. This SDH DDF is connected to a fiber mgt system (FMS) w/c passes the optical
signal to the MUX whose o/p is an electrical signal E1.This E1 then passes to DDF
(SDH) w/c in turn goes to a DDF n then finally terminates onto the STM cards of the
ATM switch. Once we have the E1s coming to the ATM switch, E1s for that particular
siemens dslam at that particular site is up n the users connected to that dslam are now in
the n/w. The ATM switch is further connected to the BRAS (ERX) w/c through the
routers goes to the customer’s end.

UT
In case of UT the E1 passes from the DDF (SDH) to the central terminal (CT). On the
central terminal we have the EOE cards. One EOE card can support 8E1s.4E1s are
dedicated for 1 site, but at our end 2E1s are used for 1 site and the other 2E1s are
reserved in case there is some traffic.
ERICSSON
In case of Ericsson, E1s from the SDH DDF goes to the FE toE1 converter. Thus the E1s
are through and the users for that particular RSU are in the network.

ETHERNET DROP
It is a 2mb link given by the SDH on both the MSU and the RSU end. This Ethernet drop
is given by the SDH at the RSU (DDF) from where it is brought to the DDF at the MSU
and finally to the ATM switch, EOE cards at the central terminal or to the FE to E1
converters as the case may be.

E1 LINE :
E1 is the European format for digital transmission. E1 carries signals at 2 Mbps (32
channels at 64Kbps, with 2 channels reserved for signaling and controlling

EOE CARDS :

35
The cards on which the E1s for UT are terminated are known as the EOE cards i.e.
Ethernet to E1.There is fiber connectivity between the EOE cards at the MSU end and the
EOE cards at the RSU end. One EOE card supports 8E1s.4E1s are dedicated for 1 site.
But only 2E1s are used for 1 site. The other 2E1s are reserved in case there is some
traffic.

TYPES OF DSLAMS /CARDS

BHARTI uses cards from 3 different vendors:
1.SIEMENS
2.UT
3.ERICSSON

SIEMENS
There are 3 types of cards:
1.Low density: These support cards that have 2 slots of 32 ports each. Siemens have
stopped making these cards.
2.Medium high density: These support cards have 4 slots of 64 ports each.
3.High density: These support cards have 15 slots of 64 ports each.

Frame Format Structure :-

The STM-1 frame is the basic transmission format for SDH. The frame lasts for
125 microseconds, therefore, there are 8000 frames per second.
The STM-1 frame consists of overhead plus a virtual container capacity. The first 9
columns of each frame make up the Section Overhead, and the last 261 columns make up
the Virtual Container (VC) capacity. The VC plus the pointers (H1, H2, H3 bytes) is
called the AU (Administrative Unit).
Carried within the VC capacity, which has its own frame structure of 9 rows and 261
columns, is the Path Overhead and the Container. The first column is for Path Overhead,
it is followed by the payload container, which can itself carry other containers.
Virtual Containers can have any phase alignment within the Administrative Unit, and this
alignment is indicated by the Pointer in row four, as will be described later in the
Pointers section. Within the Section Overhead, the first three rows are used for the
Regenerator Section Overhead, and the last 5 rows are used for the Multiplex Section
Overhead

36
The STM frame is transmitted in a byte-serial fashion, row-by-row, and is scrambled
immediately prior to transmission to ensure adequate clock timing content for
downstream regenerators.

Frame = 125µ s Frame = 125µ s Frame = 125µ s

1 byte = One 64 kbit/s channel
STM-1 = 270 Columns (2430 bytes)

1
Regenerator
2 Section
Overhead
3 Administrative Unit
Pointers 4 H1 H2 H3
H1H1H1 H2 H2 H2H3 H3H3
Capacity of the 9 Rows
5 Virtual Container
6 Multiplex +
7
Section
Overhead
Pointers
8
9

Overhead width = 9 columns

Figure 2 STM-1 Frame Structure

Virtual Container :-

SDH supports a concept called virtual containers (VC). Through the use of pointers and
offset values, VCs can be carried in the SDH payload as independent data packages. VCs
are used to transport lower-speed tributary signals. The figure below illustrates the
location of a VC-4 within the STM-1 frame. Note that it can start (indicated by the J1
path overhead byte) at any point within the STM-1 frame. The start location of the J1
byte is indicated by the pointer byte values.
Virtual containers can also be concatenated to provide more capacity in a flexible
fashion.
The following table lists the names and some of the parameters of the virtual containers.

Table 3. Virtual Containers (VC).

SDH Digital Bit Rate Size of VC
VC-11 1.728 Mbit/s 9 rows, 3 columns
VC-12 2.304 Mbit/s 9 rows, 4 columns
VC-2 6.912 Mbit/s 9 rows, 12 columns
VC-3 48.960 Mbit/s 9 rows, 85 columns
VC-4 150.336 Mbit/s 9 rows. 261 columns

37
 Frame = 125 µ s Frame = 125 µ s Frame = 125 µ s
STM-1 = 270 Columns

1 A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0/
Regenerator Z0

Section 2 B1 E1 F1

Overhead 3 D1 D2 D3
9 Rows

Pointers 4 H1 B2 B2 H2 H2 H2 H3 H3 H3

5 B2 K1 K2
J1 Unidad Administrativa
B3
6 D4 D5 D6

Multiplex C2
Bounded by 270 columns
Section 7
D7 D8 D9
G1

Overhead 8 D10 D11 D12

F2 Wrap-around within SDH frame
H4
9 S1 M1 E2
F3

K3
N1

Figure 3 Virtual Container

SDH Overhead :-

The SDH standard was developed using a client/server layer approach. The overhead and
transport functions are divided into layers. They are the:
• Regenerator Section,
• Multiplex Section.
• Path.
The layers have a hierarchical relationship, with each layer building on the services
provided by all the lower layers.

38
 Path
Multiplex Section Multiplex Section

Regenerator Section Regenerator Section

REG ADM REG

PTE PTE

Path Section Multiplex Section Section Path

Termination Termination Termination Termination Termination

Legend
PTE= Path Terminating Element
Service (2Mbit/s,140Mbit/s ...) Service
REG= Regenerator
Mapping Mapping
ADM= Add/Drop Multiplexer
Demapping Demapping

Figure 4 Regenerator Section, Multiplex Section, Path

The next pages detail the different SDH overhead information, specifically:
Regenerator Section Overhead;
Multiplex Overhead; and,
Path Overhead.

Regenerator Section Overhead :-

The Regenerator Section Overhead contains only the information required for the
elements located at both ends of a section. This might be two regenerators, a piece of line
terminating equipment and a regenerator, or two pieces of line terminating equipment.

STM-1

J0/Z0

B2 B2

Figure 5 STM-1 Section Regenerator Overhead

39
The Regenerator Section Overhead is found in the first three rows of Columns 1 - 9 of
the
STM-1 frame. Byte by byte, the Regenerator Section Overhead consists of:

Byte Description
A1 and A2 Framing bytes - These two bytes indicate the beginning of the STM- 1
frame. The A1, A2 bytes are unscrambled. A1 has the binary value
11110110, and A2 has the binary value 00101000. The frame alignment
word of an STM-N frame is composed of (3 x N) A1 bytes followed by
(3 x N) A2 bytes.
J0 Regenerator Section (RS) Trace message (ex-C1). It is used to
transmit a Section Access Point Identifier so that a section receiver can
verify its continued connection to the intended transmitter. The coding
of the J0 byte is the same as for J1 and J2 bytes. This byte is defined
only for STM-1 number 1 of an STM-N signal.
Z0 These bytes, which are located at positions S[1,6N+2] to S[1,7N] of an
STM-N signal (N > 1), are reserved for future international
standardisation.
B1 RS bit interleaved parity code (BIP-8) byte - This is a parity code
(even parity), used to check for transmission errors over a regenerator
section. Its value is calculated over all bits of the previous STM-N frame
after scrambling, then placed in the B1 byte of STM-1 before
scrambling. Therefore, this byte is defined only for STM-1 number 1 of
an STM-N signal.
E1 RS orderwire byte - This byte is allocated to be used as a local
orderwire channel for voice communication between regenerators, cross-
connects, and remote terminal locations.
F1 RS user channel byte - This byte is set aside for the users’ purposes; it
terminates at all section terminating equipment within a line; that is, it
can be read and/or written to at each section terminating equipment in
that line.
D1, D2, D3 RS data communications channel (DCC) bytes - Together, these three
bytes form a 192 kbit/s message channel providing a message-based
channel for Operations, Administration and Maintenance (OAM)
between pieces of section terminating equipment. The channel can be
used from a central location for alarms, control, monitoring,
administration and other communication needs. It is available for
internally generated, externally generated, or manufacturer-specific
messages.

Multiplex Section Overhead:-

40
The Multiplex Section Overhead contains the information required between the multiplex
section termination equipment at each end of the Multiplex section (that is, between
consecutive network elements excluding the regenerators).

STM-1

J0/Z0

B2 B2

Multiplex
Section

Figure 6 STM-1 Multiplex Section Overhead

The Multiplex Section Overhead is found in Rows 5 to 9 of Columns 1 - 9 of the STM-

1 frame. Byte by byte, the Multiplex Section Overhead consists of:

Byte Description
B2 Multiplex Section (MS) bit interleaved parity code (MS BIP-24) byte - This
bit interleaved parity 24 code is used to determine if a transmission error has
occurred over a multiplex section. It is even parity, and is calculated over all
bits of the MS Overhead and the STM-N frame of the previous STM-N frame
before scrambling. The value is placed in the B2 bytes of the MS Overhead
before scrambling. These bytes are provided for all STM-1 signals in an STM-
N signal.
K1 and K2 Automatic Protection Switching (APS channel) bytes - These two bytes are
used for MSP (Multiplex Section Protection) signaling between multiplex level
entities for
bi-directional automatic protection switching and for communicating Alarm
Indication Signal (AIS) and Remote Defect Indication (RDI) conditions.
D4 to D12 MS data communications channel (DCC) bytes - These 9 bytes form a 576
kbit/s message channel from a central location for OAM information (alarms,
control, maintenance, remote provisioning, monitoring, administration and other
communication needs). This message channel is available for internally
generated, externally generated, and manufacturer specific messages. A
protocol analyzer is required to access the MS-DCC information.
S1 S1 byte is used for synchronisation 1000 G.812 local
information. Bits 1 to 4 of this S1 byte 1001 Reserved
are used to carry the synchronisation 1010 Reserved
messages. The following is the 1011 Synchronous Equipment Timing

41
 assignment of bit patterns to the four
synchronisation levels agreed to Source (SETS)
within ITU-T. 1100 Reserved
0000 Quality unknown (existing sync. 1101 Reserved
1110 Reserved
network) 1111 Do not use for synchronisation.
0001 Reserved This message may be emulated
0010 G.811 by
0011 Reserved equipment failures and will be
0100 G.812 transit emulated by a Multiplex Section
0101 Reserved AIS signal.
0110 Reserved
0111 Reserved
M1 The M1 byte of an STM-1 or the first STM-1 of an STM-N is used for a MS
layer remote error indication (MS-REI). Bits 2 to 8 of the M1 byte are used to
carry the error count of the interleaved bit blocks that the MS BIP-8 has
detected to be in error at the far end of the section. This value is truncated at 255
for STM-N >4.
E2 MS orderwire byte - This orderwire byte provides a 64 kbit/s channel between
multiplex entities for an express orderwire. It is a voice channel for use by
crafts persons and will be ignored as it passes through the regenerators.

Higher-Order Path Overhead (VC-4/ VC-3) :-

The Path Overhead is assigned to, and transported with the Virtual Container from the
time it is created by path terminating equipment until the payload is demultiplexed at the
termination point in a piece of path terminating equipment.

42
 1 J1 J1 VC-n Path Trace
2 B3 B3 Path BIP-8
3 C2 C2 Path Signal Label
4 G1 G1 Path Status
5 F2 F2 Path User Channel
6 H4 H4 TU Multiframe Indicator
7 F3 F3 Path User Channel (ex-Z3)
8 K3 K3 Automatic Protection Switching (ex-Z4)
9 N1 N1 Network Operator (ex-Z5)

Path Overhead

Figure 7 Higher-Order Path Overhead (VC-4/VC-3)

The Path Overhead is found in Rows 1 to 9 of the first column of the VC-4 or VC-3.
Byte by byte, the Path Overhead consists of:

J1 Higher-Order VC-n path trace byte - This user-programmable byte repetitively

transmits a 15-byte, plus 1-byte CRC-7 E.164 format string. A 64-byte free-format
string is also permitted. This allows the receiving terminal in a path to verify its
continued connection to the intended transmitting terminal.
B3 Path bit interleaved parity code (Path BIP-8) byte - This is a parity code (even),
used to determine if a transmission error has occurred over a path. Its value is
calculated over all the bits of the previous virtual container before scrambling.
C2 Path signal label byte - This byte 0001 0010 - 140 Mbit/s/s into C-4 async
specifies the mapping type in the VC-n. 0001 0011 - ATM mapping
Standard binary values for C2 are: 0001 0100 - MAN (DQDB) mapping
0000 0000 - unequipped 0001 0101 - FDDI mapping
0000 0001- equipped, non-specific 1111 1110 - Test signal, O.181 specific
0000 0010 - TUG structure mapping
0000 0011 - Locked TU-n 1111 1111 - VC-AIS
0000 0100 - 34 Mbit/s or 45 Mbit/s into

C-3 async
G1 Path status byte - This byte is used to convey the path terminating status and
performance back to the originating path terminating equipment. Therefore the
bi-directional path in its entirety can be monitored, from either end of the path.

43
F2 Path user channel byte - This byte is used for user communication between path
elements.
H4 Tributary Unit (TU) multiframe indicator byte - This byte provides a
generalized multiframe indicator for payload containers. At present, it is used only
for tributary unit structured payloads. A 4-value incrementing count (0-3) is used
to indicate the frame number within a 2 Mbit/s multiframe structure.
F3 This byte is allocated for communication purposes between path elements and is
payload dependent.
K3 APS signalling is provided in K3 (b1-b4) bits, allocated for protection at the VC-
4/3 path levels.
K3 (b5-b8) bits are allocated for future use. These bits have no defined value. The
receiver is required to ignore their content.
N1 Network operator byte - This byte is allocated to provide a Higher-Order
Tandem Connection Monitoring (HO-TCM) function.

Lower-Order Path Overhead (VC-2/VC-1) :-

The bytes V5, J2, N2 and K4 are allocated to the VC-2/VC-1 POH. The V5 byte is the
first byte of the multiframe and its position is indicated by the TU-2/TU-1 pointer. The
V5 byte provides the functions of error checking, signal label, and path status of the VC-
2/VC-1 paths. The bit assignments for the V5 byte are illustrated in the figure below.

BIP-2 REI RFI Signal Label RDI

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

BIP Bit Interleaved Parity

REI Remote Error Indication
RFI Remote Failure Indication
RDI Remote Defect Indication
Figure 8 Lower-Order Path Overhead − V5 Byte

Bits 1 and 2 of the V5 byte are allocated for error performance monitoring. A Bit
Interleaved Parity (BIP) scheme is specified.
Bit 3 is a VC-2/VC-1 path Remote Error Indication (LP-REI) that is set to one and sent
back towards a VC-2/VC-1 path originator if one or more errors were detected by the
BIP-2, and is otherwise set to zero.
Bits 4 is a VC-2/VC-1 path Remote Failure Indication (LP-RFI). This bit is set to one if a
failure is declared, otherwise it is set to zero. A failure is a defect that persists beyond the
maximum time allocated to the transmission system protection mechanisms.
Bits 5 through 7 provide a VC-2/VC-1 signal label.

44
Virtual Container path REI coding: 0 = 0 errors
1 = 1 or more errors
The Virtual Container path Signal Label coding follows:
b5 b6 b7 Description
0 0 0 Unequipped or supervisory-
unequipped
0 0 1 Equipped - non-specific
0 1 0 Asynchronous
0 1 1 Bit synchronous
1 0 0 Byte synchronous
1 0 1 Reserved for future use
1 1 0 Test signal, O.181 specific mapping
1 1 1 VC-AIS
Bit 8 is set to 1 to indicate a VC-2/VC-1 path Remote Defect Indication (LP-RDI),
otherwise it is set to zero.

Byte J2 is used to transmit repetitively a Lower-Order Access Path Identifier so that a

path receiving terminal can verify its continued connection to the intended transmitter. A
16-byte frame is defined for the transmission of Path Access Point Identifiers. This 16-
byte frame is identical to the 16-byte frame of the byte J1.
Byte N2 is allocated to provide a Lower-Order Tandem Connection Monitoring (LO-
TCM) function.
Byte K4 - Bits 1 through 4 are allocated for APS signalling for protection at the Lower-
Order path level. Bits 5 through 7 are reserved for optional use.

SDH Anomalies, Defects, Failures and Alarms :-

The SDH frame structure has been designed to contain a large amount of overhead
information. The overhead information provides for a variety of management and other
functions such as:
Alarm Indication Signals (AIS);
Error performance monitoring using BIP-n;
Pointer adjustment information;
Path status;
Path Trace;
Section Trace;
Remote Defect, Error, and Failure Indications;
Signal labels;
New Data Flag indications;
Data Communications Channels (DCC);
Automatic Protection Switching (APS) control;
Orderwire; and,

Synchronisation Status Message.

45
Much of this overhead information is involved with alarm and in-service monitoring of
the particular SDH sections. Table 4 and Figure 9, that follow the definitions, list the
criteria for errors and the performance monitoring for errors.

Definitions

Anomaly - The smallest discrepancy which can be observed between the actual and
desired characteristics of an item. The occurrence of a single anomaly does not constitute
an interruption in the ability to perform a required function. Examples of SDH Anomalies
are: B1 BIP; B2 BIP; Path B3 BIP; REI; and, Pattern Bit.
Defect - The density of anomalies has reached a level where the ability to perform a
required function has been interrupted. Defects are used as input for performance
monitoring, the control of consequent actions, and the determination of fault cause.
Examples of SDH Defects are:
Out-of-Frame; AIS; RDI; LOP; LOP; and LOM.
Failure - The inability of a function to perform a required action persisted beyond a
maximum time allocated.
Alarm - The maintenance signal used in the digital network to alert downstream
equipment that a defect or equipment failure has been detected.

46
Table 4. Anomalies, Defects, Failures, Alarms
Abbr. Description Criteria
LOS Loss of Signal LOS is raised when the synchronous signal (STM-N) level
drops below the threshold at which a BER of 1 in 103 is
predicted. It could be due to a cut cable, excessive
attenuation of the signal or equipment fault.
The LOS state will clear when two consecutive framing
patterns are received and no new LOS condition is detected.
OOF Out of Frame OOF state occurs when several consecutive SDH frames are
alignment received with invalid (errored) framing patterns (A1 and A2
bytes). The maximum time to detect OOF is 625
microseconds.
OOF state clears within 250 microseconds when two
consecutive SDH frames are received with valid framing
patterns.
LOF Loss of Frame LOF state occurs when the OOF state exists for a specified
alignment time in microseconds.
The LOF state clears when an in frame condition exists
continuously for a specified time in microseconds.
The time for detection and clearance is normally 3
milliseconds.
LOP Loss of Pointer LOP state occurs when N consecutive invalid pointers are
received or "N" consecutive New Data Flags (NDF) are
received (other than in a concatenation indicator), where N =
8,9 or 10.
LOP state is cleared when three equal valid pointers or three
consecutive AIS indications are received.

LOP can be identified as:

AU-LOP (Administrative Unit Loss of Pointer)
TU-LOP (Tributary Unit Loss of Pointer)
AIS Alarm Indication AIS is an all-ONES characteristic or adapted information
Signal signal. It is generated to replace the normal traffic signal
when it contains a defect condition in order to prevent
consequential downstream failures being declared or alarms
being raised.

AIS can be identified as:

MS-AIS (Multiplex Section Alarm Indication Signal)
AU-AIS (Administrative Unit Alarm Indication Signal)
TU-AIS (Tributary Unit Alarm Indication Signal)
REI Remote Error An indication returned to a transmitting node (source) that
Indication an errored block has been detected at the receiving node
(sink). This indication was previously known as FEBE (Far

47
 End Block Error).

REI can be identified as:

MS-REI (Multiplex Section Remote Error Indication)
HP-REI (Higher-order Path Remote Error Indication)
LP-REI (Lower-order Path Remote Error Indication)
RDI Remote Defect A signal returned to the transmitting Terminating Equipment
Indication upon detecting a Loss of Signal, Loss of Frame, or AIS
defect. RDI was previously known as FERF (Far End
Receiver Failure).

RDI can be identified as:

MS-RDI (Multiplex Section Remote Defect Indication)
HP-RDI (Higher-order Path Remote Defect Indication)
LP-RDI (Lower-order Path Remote Defect Indication)
RFI Remote Failure A failure is a defect that persists beyond the maximum time
Indication allocated to the transmission system protection mechanisms.
When this situation occurs, an RFI is sent to the far end and
will initiate a path protection switch if this function has been
provisioned.

RFI can be identified as:

LP-RFI (Lower-order Path Remote Failure Indication)
B1 error B1 error Parity errors evaluated by byte B1 (BIP-8) of an STM-N
shall be monitored. If any of the eight parity checks fail, the
corresponding block is assumed to be in error
B2 error B2 error Parity errors evaluated by byte B2 (BIP-24 x N) of an STM-
N shall be monitored. If any of the N x 24 parity checks fail,
the corresponding block is assumed to be in error
B3 error B3 error Parity errors evaluated by byte B3 (BIP-8) of a VC-n
(n=3,4) shall be monitored. If any of the eight parity checks
fail, the corresponding block is assumed to be in error
BIP-2 BIP-2 error Parity errors contained in bits 1 and 2 (BIP-2) of byte V5 of
error an
VC-m (m=11,12,2) shall be monitored. If any of the two
parity checks fail, the corresponding block is assumed to be
in error.
LSS Loss of Sequence Synchronisation
Bit error measurements using pseudo-random sequences can only be performed if the
reference sequence produced on the receiving side of the test set-up is correctly
synchronised to the sequence coming from the object under test. In order to achieve
compatible measurement results, it is necessary that the sequence synchronisation
characteristics are specified. The following requirement is applicable to all ITU-T
O.150 Recommendations dealing with error performance measurements using
pseudo-random sequences.

48
 Sequence synchronisation shall be considered to be lost and resynchronisation shall
be started if:
the bit error ratio is ≥ 0.20 during an integration interval of 1 second; or
it can be unambiguously identified that the test sequence and the reference sequence
are out of phase.
NOTE – One method to recognize the out-of-phase condition is the evaluation of the
error pattern resulting from the bit-by-bit comparison. If the error pattern has the
same structure as the pseudo-random test sequence, the out-of-phase condition is
reached.

SDH Error Performance Monitoring :-

Error performance monitoring in the SDH is based on Bit-Interleaved-Parity (BIP)

checks calculated on a frame-by-frame basis. These BIP checks are inserted in the
Regenerator Section Overhead, Multiplex Section Overhead and Path Overheads.
In addition, Higher-Order Path Terminating Equipment (HO PTE) and Lower-Order Path
Terminating Equipment (LO PTE) produce Remote Error Indications (REI) based on
errors detected in the HO Path and LO Path BIP respectively. The REI signals are sent
back to the equipment at the originating end of a path.

Lower Order Path

Higher Order Path

Multiplex Section (MSOH)

Regenerator Section (RSOH)

LO PTE HO PTE MSTE RSTE RSTE RSTE MSTE HO PTE LO PTE

LOS LOS LOS
LOF LOF LOF LOP LOP Tributary
AIS

RDI MS MS AU-AIS TU-AIS

(K2) AIS AIS (H1,H2) (V1,V2)
RDI
(K2)
RDI RDI
(G1) (G1)
RDI
(V5) RDI
(V5)

Alarm Transmission

Alarm Detection

Figure 9 Interaction between defects and errors in forward and backward directions,
according to the different SDH levels.

49
SDH Pointer:-

SDH provides payload pointers to permit differences in the phase and frequency of the
Virtual Containers (VC-n) with respect to the STM-N frame. Lower-order pointers are
also provided to permit phase differences between VC-1/VC-2 and the higher-order VC-
3/VC-4.

AU-3 H1 H1 H1 H2 H2 H2 H3 H3 H3
1= All 1s
AU-4 H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3 H3 Y= 1001SS11
(S bits unspecified)

Figure 10 Pointer 9-byte structure

H1 and H2 Pointer bytes - These two bytes, the VC payload pointer, specify the location
of the VC frame. It is used to align the VC and STM-1 Section Overheads in
an STM-N signal, to perform frequency justification, and to indicate STM-1
concatenation.
H3 Pointer action byte - This byte is used for frequency justification. Depending
on the pointer value, the byte is used to adjust the fill input buffers. The byte
only carries valid information in the event of negative justification, otherwise
it is not defined.

One of SDH’s main advantages is that it is synchronous. On a frame by frame basis, the
payload pointer indicates the offset between the VC container and the STM-1 frame by
identifying the location of the first byte of the VC in the container. In other words, the
VC is allowed to “float” within the STM-N frame capacity.
To make this possible, within each STM-1 frame, there is a pointer, known as the VC
Payload Pointer, that indicates where the actual payload container starts. For a VC-4
payload, this pointer is located in columns 1 and 4 of the fourth row of the Section
Overhead. The bytes H1 and H2 (two 8-bit bytes) of the Overhead can be viewed as one
value.
The pointer value indicates the offset in bytes from the pointer to the first byte of the VC,
which is the J0 byte. Because the Section Overhead bytes are not counted, and starting
points are at 3-byte increments for a VC-4 payload, the possible range is:
Total STM-1 bytes - Section Overhead bytes = Pointer value range,
for example, (2430-81)/3 = 783 valid pointer positions

That is, the value of the pointer has a range of 0 to 782. For example, if the VC-4 Payload
Pointer has a value of 0, then the VC-4 begins in the byte adjacent to the H3 byte of the

50
Overhead; if the Payload Pointer has a value of 87, then the VC-4 begins in the byte
adjacent to the K2 byte of the Overhead in the next row.
The pointer value, which is a binary number, is carried in bits 7 through 16 of the pointer
word. The first four bits of the VC-n payload pointer make provision for indicating a
change in the VC, and thus an arbitrary change in the value of the pointer. These four
bits, the N-bits, are known as the New Data Flag. The VC pointer value that accompanies
the New Data Flag will indicate the new offset.

DTE/DCE Concepts :-

To fully understand the importance of the physical layer, various concepts will be defined
over the next several pages. The first concept is Data Terminating Equipment (DTE) and
Data Communications Equipment (DCE).
DTE This device converts information into data signals for transmission, or reconverts
the received data signals into user information. A DTE could be a host computer, front-
end processor (FEP), terminal, printer, controller, etc. It is a piece of equipment that, as
the name implies, terminates the data for a higher level of processing.

DCE This device is required to establish, maintain, and terminate a connection. ADCE
also performs signal conversion required for communications between the DTE and the
communication line. Typically, the DCE supplies the clock; however there are cases
when this is not possible or desirable. Certain data arrangements require that clocking for
the transmitted data be supplied by the DTE. This would require the DCE to phase-lock
to an external clock source. This source would be provided from the DTE or another
modem. A DCE could be a modem, Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit
(CSU/DSU), Packet Assembler/Disassembler (PAD), uncombined multiplexer port, etc.

.
Virtual Concatenation (VC):-

VC allows for non-standard SONET/SDH multiplexing in order to address the bandwidth

mismatch problem between Ethernet and SONET/SDH. Using virtual concatenation, the
SONET/SDH transport pipes may be “right-sized” for Ethernet transport. Virtual
Concatenation allows SONET channels to be multiplexed together in arbitrary
arrangements, which permits custom-sized SONET pipes to be created that are any
multiple of the basic rates. Virtual concatenation is valid for STS-1 rates as well as for
Virtual Tributary (VT) rates. All the intelligence to handle virtual concatenation is
located at the endpoints of the connections, so each SONET channel may be routed
independently through the network without it requiring any knowledge of the virtual
concatenation. In this manner, virtually concatenated channels may be deployed on the
existing SONET/SDH network with a simple endpoint upgrade. All the equipment
currently in the center of the network need not be aware of the virtual concatenation.

Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS):-

51
A supporting technology to the Virtual Concatenation, LCAS dynamically changes the
amount a bandwidth used for a virtual concatenated channel and provides “tuning” of the
allocated bandwidth depends on customer needs. LCAS is also useful for fault tolerance
and protection since the protocol has the ability to remove failed links from the Virtually
Concatenated Group (VCG). Using Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS),
signaling messages are exchanged within the SONET overhead in order to change the
number of tributaries being used by a VCG. The number of tributaries may be either
reduced or increased, and the resulting bandwidth change may be applied without loss of
data in the absence of network errors.

Link Access Procedure for SDH (LAPS):-

Type of high-level data link controller (HDLC), LAPS includes data link service and
protocol specification used in transporting IP packets over SDH networks. LAPS
provides a point-to-point unacknowledged connectionless service over SONET/SDH.
LAPS enables the encapsulation of IPv6, IPv4, PPP, and other higher-layer protocols.

Generic Framing Procedure (GFP):-

Another key encapsulation scheme in EoS and more robust technology than LAPS, GFP
maps Ethernet packet data into an octet-synchronous transport such as SONET. GFP has
adapted the cell delineation protocol used by ATM to encapsulate variable length
packets. A fixed amount of overhead is required by the GFP encapsulation that is
independent of the contents of the packets. In contrast to HDLC whose overhead is data
dependent, the fixed amount of overhead per packet allows deterministic matching of
bandwidth between the Ethernet stream and the virtually concatenated SONET stream.
Within GFP, there are two different mapping modes defined: frame based mapping and
transparent mapping. Each mode is optimized for providing different services.

EQUIPMENT DETAILS:-

There are many types of MULTIPLEXER (equipment) are used in the C- NOC to
provide the different service to the Customers. Some of these equipment are:
XDM-2000
XDM-1000
XDM-100
BG-40
BG-20
Ulan
From these equipment some equipment details are given below:

BG-40 Equipment Overview:-

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BG-40 is a compact STM-1/STM-4-compatible multiservice transmission system
offering powerful expansion capabilities. Within its 2 U (88 mm) height, it can provide a
maximum of 88 E1 services, or 10 E3/DS-3 services, or 36 10BaseT/100BaseT Ethernet
services. It also supports six 155 Mbps optical or electrical interfaces, or two 622 Mbps
optical interfaces and two 155 Mbps optical or electrical interfaces simultaneously.
According to actual networking needs, it can be flexibly configured as TM, ADM, and
multi-ADM. In addition, it supports a variety of complete and flexible network-level
protection.
The BG-40 supports two power supply modes: -48 VDC and 220 VAC. In combination
with its multiservice access capability, small size, and low cost, it can be deployed widely
in various carrier MAN access layers and private communication networks.

Function Structure:-

BG-40 equipment is designed with a multi-ADM framework, upon which a flexible

service connection system can be constructed with the cross-connect matrix as the center.
The overall structure consists of the control/communication unit, synchronous timing
processing unit, service cross-connect matrix, overhead cross-connect matrix, line
interface, tributary interface, auxiliary interface unit, power processor, and more. The
function structural diagram is shown in the following figure.
4/3/1
Cross-connect
Mechanical Description :-

BG-40 equipment is of high integrity. The height of the integrated equipment is 2 U (88
mm), so that it takes a smaller space in the equipment room. The dimensions of the BG-
40 are 88 mm × 432 mm × 300 mm(height × width × depth).

System Functions and Characteristics :-

BG-40 equipment provides the following functionality:

1. Cross-connect capability with a cross-connect capacity of 12 VC-4 × 12 VC-4.

2. The cross-connect matrix of the BG-40 supports full-capacity, nonblocking

VC-4/VC-3/VC-12-level cross connections. It provides cross-connect dispatch of inter-
line, line-tributary, and inter-tributary VC-4/VC-3/VC-12-level services. In addition, it
supports such cross-connect modes as bidirectional, unidirectional, broadcast, and
loopback.

CHARTERSTICS :-

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•System access capabilities:
•One to six 155 Mbps optical interfaces
•One to six 155 Mbps electrical interfaces
•One to three 622 Mbps optical interfaces
•8/16/32/40/63/72/80/88 channels of E1 services
•3/6/8/10 channels of E3/DS-3 services
•4/12/16/20/24/28/32/36 channels of 10BaseT/100BaseT Ethernet
services
•2/4 channels of GbE Ethernet services
•8/16/24 FXO/RD interfaces
•8/16/24 FXS/FXD interfaces
•6/12/18 2W/4W interfaces
•6/12/18 4W E&M interfaces
•8/16/24 V.24 transparent interfaces
•2/4/6 V.24 asynchronous interfaces with programmable control signals
•1/2/4 V.24 synchronous interfaces with programmable control signals
•2/4/6 V.35 interfaces
•Two 10BaseT Ethernet interfaces (with a bandwidth of 2.048 Mbps)
For the 155 Mbps or 622 Mbps optical interface, multiple distance specifications are
provided.

BG-20 Equipment Overview :-

The BG-20 is a compact STM-1/STM-4-compatible multiservice transmission system

offering powerful expansion capabilities. BG-20 is a multipurpose SDH network element
that supports ring, chain, and mesh network topologies, as well as interoperability with
the BG-40 and XDM systems.

Function Structure :-

BG-20 equipment is designed with a multi-ADM framework, upon which a flexible

service connection system can be constructed with the cross-connect matrix as the center.
The overall structure consists of the control/communication unit, synchronous timing
processing unit, service cross-connect matrix, overhead cross-connect matrix, line
interface, tributary interface, auxiliary interface unit, power processor, and more.

Mechanical Description :-

BG-20B equipment is of high integrity. The height of the integrated equipment is 1 U (44
mm), so that it takes a smaller space in the equipment room.

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The dimensions of the BG-20B are 44 mm (1 U) x 430 mm x 240 mm (height × width ×
depth). The dimensions of the BG-20E are 88 mm (2 U) x 430 mm x 240 mm (height ×
width × depth).

System Functions and Characteristics :-

BG-20 equipment provides the following features and functionality, regardless

of the release version:
•Miniature MSPP element.
•Supports chain, ring, and mesh topologies.
•ADM1/4, TM1/4, HUB/aggregation configurable.
•L1 and L2 Ethernet service.
•Power consumption: 60 W for BG-20B and 150 W for BG-20E.
•Compact size: 1 U height for BG-20B.
•Interoperability with the BG-40 and the XDM.
•Input voltage:-
•-48 VDC to -60 VDC dual feeding with over-/under-voltage alarm and shut down.
•98 VAC to 240 VAC single feeding.
•Physical external interfaces:-
•2 x STM-1/4 SFP-based interfaces.
•21/42/63 x E1 (balanced or unbalanced, 19/20 x E1 with 2/1 clear channels).
•6 x FE.
•3 x E3/DS-3.
•2 Mbps and 2 MHz T3/T4, 1 x E1 (for OW), MNG, RS232, V.11, four alarm inputs, and
three alarm outputs.
•Cross connection:
•16 x 16 VC-4 at VC-4/VC-3/VC-12.
•16 x 16 E1 at DS-0 (for overhead, DCC, OW, and clear channels).

REFERENCE:-

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1. Modern digital and analog communication system (Sanjay Sharma)

2. Digital communication system (R.K. Salivahan)

3. TCP/IP Protocol Suite(Foruozan)

4. Electronic Device and circuit (boylsted)

5. User Manual (xdm-100, xdm-1000, BG-40, BG-20 etc.)

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THANK YOU

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