IEEE Guide For Application For Monitoring Equipment To Liquid Immersed Transformers and Components

IEEE Guide for Application for
Monitoring Equipment to
Liquid-Immersed Transformers
and Components
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Sponsored by the
Transformers Committee
IEEE
3 Park Avenue IEEE Std C57.143-2012
New York, NY 10016-5997
USA
19 December 2012
Authorized licensed use limited to: IEEE Xplore. Downloaded on March 27,2015 at 19:00:10 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
and Components
Sponsor
Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Approved 5 December 2012
IEEE-SA Standards Board
Abstract: Identification of the key parameters that can be monitored for obtaining an indication of
the condition of liquid-immersed transformers is covered by this guide. It also covers risk/benefit
analysis, sensor application, and monitoring systems application. This guide does not cover
interpretation of monitoring results.
Keywords: IEEE C57.143, liquid-immersed transformers, transformer monitoring
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iv
Copyright 2012 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.143-2012, IEEE Guide for Application for Monitoring
Equipment to Liquid-Immersed Transformers and Components.
For many decades, transformer users have sought ways to assess the general condition of electrical power
apparatus and identify specific problems. Over the years, diagnostic tests have been developed, based on
available technology. In the last few years, a sophisticated means has evolved for collecting a great deal of
diagnostic information while the equipment is in service.
Periodic off-line diagnostic tests still play an important role in industry. However, continuous or on-
line monitoring can overcome some of the fundamental limitations of off-line tests, in that it can increase
the performance and reliability of substation power apparatus, it can reduce maintenance costs, and it can
aid in the optimization of apparatus operations and maintenance procedures and help manage the growing
risk of an aging population of transformers and components.
Starting in the 1980s, industry and electric utilities shifted their strategies and resources from construction
and expansion, to maintenance and diagnostics for the plants that were built in the development boom of
the 1960s and 1970s. Maintenance records were retrieved, tabulated, and analyzed; databases were created.
Maintenance technology evolved through the following four levels:
Corrective: Ensuring that equipment is operating and functional

Preventive: Optimizing the performance of the equipment
Predictive: Diagnosing impending downtime for maintenance
Strategic/optimization: Operational controls and corporate wide asset management
Today, plant optimization systems have become fairly common, and the leading edge of technology is now
focused on predictive maintenance systems. However, the monitoring of transformers and other electrical
apparatus has several challenges: the reliability of the electronic equipment, cost of the monitors,
continuing development of the sensors and monitoring systems, performance under harsh field conditions,
lack of availability of field expertise, data collection, and interpretation.
This guide describes most of the continuous on-line monitoring and diagnostic methods that are in common
practice at the time this guide was written, and provides additional information in the case of developing
techniques. This guide addresses transformer operational parameters that can be monitored and the risks
and benefits of the monitoring. It also provides specification considerations for monitoring hardware,
software, and communication systems. For the purposes of this guide, the term transformer refers, but is
not limited to: generator step-up transformers; autotransformers; phase-shifting transformers; regulating
transformers; intertie transmission transformers; DC converter transformers; instrument transformers;
retail, customer, or industrial service transformers;, and shunt, series, and saturable reactors.
v
Participants
At the time this guide was completed, the On-Line Monitoring Guide Working Group had the following
membership:
Donald Chu, Chair

Andre Lux, Vice-chair
Tony Pink Secretary
Jacques Aubin James Graham Mark Rivers

Carlo Arpino Bill Griesacker Oleg Roizman
Derek Ashby Jack Hammers Surinder Sandhu
Ron Barker John Harley Ewald Schweiger
David Barnard Gary Hoffman Devki Sharma
William Bartley Rowland James, Jr. H. Jin Sim
Claude Beauchemin Virendra Jhonsa Brian Sparling
Jeff Benach Claude Kane Thomas Spitzer
Zalya Berler C. J. Kalra Bengt-Olof Stenestam
Enrique Betancourt Joseph Kelly Craig Stiegemeier
Tom Breckenridge Dong Kim Christoper Sullivan
Kent Brown John Lackey Jim Thompson
Donald Cash Stanley Lindgren Robert Thompson
Luiz Cheim Thomas Lundquist Robert Tillman
Bill Chiu Michael W. Martin Greg Troxell
John Crouse Terence J. Martin Luke Vanderzel
William Darovny Phillip McClure Richard Van Neste
Dieter Dohnal Doug McCullough Roger Verdolin
Donald Fallon Paul Mushill Herman Vogel
Pierre Feghali Russell Nordman David Wallach
George Forrest Arturo Nunez Joe Watson
Michael Franchek Remi Pages Roger Wicks
James Gardner Paul Pillitteri Shuzhen Xu
Andreas Garnitschnig Thomas Prevost Peter Zhao
The following members of the balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have voted for
approval, disapproval, or abstention.
Mohamed Abdel Khalek Bill Chiu Randall Groves

William Ackerman C. Clair Claiborne Bal Gupta
Michael Adams Larry Coffeen Said Hachichi
Donald Angell Craig Colopy John Harley
Stan Arnot Jerry Corkran J. Harlow
Carlo Arpino John Crouse David Harris
Jacques Aubin Willaim Darovny Roger Hayes
Barry Beaster Dieter Dohnal Joshua Herz
Claude Beauchemin Gary Donner Gary Heuston
Jeffrey Benach Donald Dunn Gary Hoffman
W. J. Bil Bergman Gary Engmann Philip Hopkinson
Enrique Betancourt James Fairris Catherine Hurley
Steven Bezner Donald Fallon R. Jackson
Wallace Binder Rabiz Foda Rowland James
Thomas Blackburn Joseph Foldi Wayne Johnson
William Bloethe George Forrest Lars Juhlin
W. Boettger Marcel Fortin Laszlo Kadar
Paul Boman Fredric Friend C. Kalra
Dietrich Bonmann George Frimpong Gael Kennedy
Steven Brockschink Jalal Gohari Sheldon Kennedy
Antonio Cardoso Edwin Goodwin Joseph L. Koepfinger
Arvind K. Chaudhary James Graham Alexander Kraetge
vi
Jim Kulchisky Bansi Patel Ewald Schweiger
Saumen Kundu Shawn Patterson Lubomir Sevov
John Lackey Wesley Patterson Hamid Sharifnia
Chung-Yiu Lam J. Patton Devki Sharma
Stephen Lambert Brian Penny Gil Shultz
Thomas La Rose Alan Peterson Hyeong Sim
S. Lindgren Christopher Petrola Charles Simmons
Hua Liu Paul Pillitteri James Smith
Thomas Lundquist Tony Pink Brian Sparling
Greg Luri Donald Platts Thomas Spitzer
J. Dennis Marlow Alvaro Portillo Nagu Srinivas
Terence Martin Lewis Powell Gary Stoedter
John Matthews Gustav Preininger James Thompson
Omar Mazzoni Tom Prevost Eric Udren
James McBride Jean-Christophe Riboud A. John Vandermaar
Phillip McClure Johannes Rickmann Richard VanNeste
William McDermid Michael Roberts John Vergis
Joseph Melanson Charles Rogers David Wallach
Gary Michel Oleg Roizman Barry Ward
C. Michael Miller Zoltan Roman Joe Watson
Daniel Mulkey Marnie Roussell Kenneth White
Jerry Murphy Thomas Rozek Roger Wicks
Ryan Musgrove Sukhbir Sachdev Alan Wilks
Paul Mushill Dinesh Sankarakurup John Wilson
Michael S. Newman Bartien Sayogo Jian Yu
Joe Nims Hugh Zhu
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this standard on 5 December 2012, it had the following
membership:
Richard H. Hulett, Chair
John Kulick, Vice Chair
Robert M. Grow, Past Chair
Konstantinos Karachalios, Secretary
Satish Aggarwal Alexander Gelman Oleg Logvinov

Masayuki Ariyoshi Paul Houz Ted Olsen
Peter Balma Jim Hughes Gary Robinson
William Bartley Young Kyun Kim Jon Walter Rosdahl
Ted Burse Joseph L. Koepfinger* Mike Seavey
Clint Chaplin David J. Law Yatin Trivedi
Wael Diab Thomas Lee Phil Winston
Jean-Philippe Faure Hung Ling Yu Yuan
* Member Emeritus
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative
Michael Janezic, NIST Representative
Catherine Berger
IEEE Standards Senior Program Manager, Document Development
Erin Spiewak
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Technical Program Development
vii
Contents
1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 1
2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 2
3. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 3
4. Surveillance needs of high-voltage transformers and accessories .............................................................. 4
4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................ 4

4.2 Power transformers .............................................................................................................................. 4
4.3 Instrument transformers ....................................................................................................................... 6
4.4 Bushings .............................................................................................................................................. 8
4.5 Load tap changers .............................................................................................................................. 10
5. Monitored parameters ............................................................................................................................... 16
5.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 16

5.2 Dissolved gas-in oil analysis ............................................................................................................. 16
5.3 Moisture in oil ................................................................................................................................... 18
5.4 Partial discharge ................................................................................................................................ 19
5.5 Transformer temperatures .................................................................................................................. 21
5.6 Winding temperatures........................................................................................................................ 21
5.7 Load current and voltage ................................................................................................................... 22
5.8 Insulation power factor ...................................................................................................................... 23
5.9 Pump/Fan operation ........................................................................................................................... 23
5.10 Load tap changer (LTC) operations ................................................................................................. 24
5.11 Conservator membrane .................................................................................................................... 24
6. Monitoring systems and equipment .......................................................................................................... 25
6.1 Monitoring system description .......................................................................................................... 25

6.2 Sensors............................................................................................................................................... 25
6.3 Hardware specification ...................................................................................................................... 26
6.4 Signals ............................................................................................................................................... 27
6.5 Signal acquisition .............................................................................................................................. 27
6.6 Application of sensors ....................................................................................................................... 28
6.7 Installation considerations ................................................................................................................. 29
6.8 Control function ................................................................................................................................. 31
6.9 Selecting communications hardware and protocols ........................................................................... 31
6.10 Data application ............................................................................................................................... 32
6.11 Selection criterion for on-line monitoring system ........................................................................... 33
6.12 On-line diagnostics for transformers ............................................................................................... 33
7. Cost benefits ............................................................................................................................................. 34
7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 34

7.2 Inspection and maintenance costs ...................................................................................................... 35
7.3 Failure resolution cost........................................................................................................................ 36
7.4 Reinforcement of overload capability................................................................................................ 43
7.5 Deferring transformer replacement .................................................................................................... 46
viii
7.6 Monitoring system cost...................................................................................................................... 47
7.7 Global evaluation ............................................................................................................................... 47
Annex A (informative) Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 48
Annex B (informative) Bushing power factor and capacitance ................................................................... 54
B.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 54

B.2 Current sum method .......................................................................................................................... 54
B.3 Tan method .................................................................................................................................... 55
B.4 Relative Power Factor/Tan ............................................................................................................. 55
Annex C (informative) Partial discharge: electrical and acoustic methods ................................................. 57
C.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 57

C.2 Electrical PD ..................................................................................................................................... 57
C.3 Acoustic PD ...................................................................................................................................... 59
Annex D (informative) Direct winding temperature ................................................................................... 62
D.1 Fluorescence decay time ................................................................................................................... 62

D.2 Distributed temperature sensor ......................................................................................................... 66
Annex E (informative) Communications protocols for on-line monitoring equipment............................... 68
E.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 68

E.2 The role and requirements of a protocol............................................................................................ 68
E.3 Protocol selection .............................................................................................................................. 69
E.4 Recommended practice ..................................................................................................................... 70
E.5 Communication hardware considerations ......................................................................................... 72
ix
and Components
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1. Overview
On-line monitoring of power transformers and associated accessories is becoming an essential feature of
electric utility systems. The justification for on-line monitoring is driven by the need to increase the
availability of power transformers, re-direction of time and/or operational-based maintenance to condition-
based maintenance, asset and life management and failure cause analysis.
1.1 Scope
This guide covers identification of the key parameters that can be monitored for obtaining an indication of
the condition of liquid-immersed transformers. It also covers risk/benefit analysis, sensor application, and
monitoring systems application. This guide does not cover interpretation of monitoring results.
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this document is to provide guidance to those who specify, apply, install and use on-line
monitoring equipment on liquid-immersed power transformers and their components.
1
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
IEEE Guide for Application for Monitoring Equipment to Liquid-Immersed Transformers and Components
2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of
the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
IEC 60599, Guide to the Interpretation of Dissolved and Free Gases Analysis. 1
IEEE Std C37.90.1, IEEE Standard Surge Withstand Capability (SWC) Tests for Relays and Relay
Systems Associated with Electric Power Apparatus. 2, 3
IEEE Std C37.90.2, IEEE Standard Surge Withstand Capability of Relay Systems to Radiated
Electromagnetic Interference from Transceivers.
IEEE Std C57.12.80, IEEE Standard Terminology for Power and Distribution Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.12.90, IEEE Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers and IEEE Guide for Short-Circuit Testing of Distribution and Power
Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.13.3, IEEE Guide to Grounding Instrument Transformer Secondary Circuits and Cases.
IEEE Std C57.104, IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.148, IEEE Standard for Control Cabinets for Power Transformers.
IEEE Std 1379, IEEE Recommended Practice for Data Communications Between Remote Terminal
Units and Electronic Devices in Substations.
1
IEC publications are available from the Sales Department of the International Electrotechnical Commission, Case Postale 131, 3, rue
de Varemb, CH-1211, Genve 20, Switzerland/Suisse (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States
from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA
(http:// www.ansi.org/).
2
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ
08854, USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
3
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
2
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
3. Definitions
For the purposes of this guide, the following terms and definitions apply. The IEEE Standards Dictionary
Online should be consulted for terms not defined in this clause. 4
data acquisition unit (DAU): A data acquisition unit (DAU) collects data from one or more sensors and/or
IEDs. Data acquisition includes signal conditioning and analog-to-digital conversion. The information from
the DAU is passed on to be processed, or the DAU can be polled directly for its information. See also:
remote terminal unit (RTU).
data warehouse: A data warehouse provides data storage functions for future reference and can also
provide a source of information to maintenance, work management, other programs and systems, and
advanced system analysis.
de-energized tap changer (DETC): Tap changer designed to be operated only when the transformer is de-
energized.
diagnostic: Interpretation of the data supplied by the monitoring system.
dielectric phase angle: The angular difference in phase between the sinusoidal alternating voltage applied
to a dielectric and the component of the resulting alternating current having the same period as the voltage.
dissolved gas-in-oil analysis (DGA): A method of determining the quantities and type of gasses that are
dissolved in insulating fluids for the purpose of determining incipient faults.
dissipation factor: (A) The ratio of energy dissipated to the energy stored in an element for one cycle. (B)
(Dielectric) The cotangent of the phase angle between a sinusoidal voltage applied across a dielectric (or
combination of dielectrics) and the resulting current through the dielectric system. (C) The tangent of the
dielectric loss angle.
NOTEFor small values of dielectric loss, angle dissipation factor is virtually equal to the insulation power factor
(PF). See IEEE Std C57.19.03. 5
failure cause analysis: Failure cause analysis (FCA) is the diagnosis of failures or malfunctions. In terms
of on-line monitoring, FCA uses the monitored parameters to draw a conclusion as to the cause of the
failure or malfunction and thus replace or supplement the troubleshooting phase of corrective maintenance.
intelligent electronic device (IED): An IED is a device with internal processing capabilities and can be
described as a smart sensor providing monitoring and/or control functions.
intrusive: Opening and/or exposing the interior of a transformer or its components for the purpose of
inspecting, maintaining, or installing sensors for data collection.
load tap changer (LTC): A selective switch device, which may include current interrupting contactors,
used to change transformer taps with the transformer energized and carrying load. Syn: on-load tap
changer (IEC). See IEEE Std C57.12.80, IEEE Standard Terminology for Power and Distribution
Transformers.
non-intrusive: Without opening or exposing the interior of a transformer or its components.
on-line: While equipment or system is electrically energized.
on load tap changer (OLTC): See load tap changer.
partial discharge (PD): An electrical discharge that only partially penetrates or bridges the insulation
between electrical components and may or may not occur adjacent to a conductor.
power factor: The cosine of the dielectric phase angle (or the tangent of the dielectric loss angle).
4
IEEE Standards Dictionary Online subscription is available at:
http://www.ieee.org/portal/innovate/products/standard/standards_dictionary.html.
5
Notes in text, tables, and figures are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement the standard.
3
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
remote terminal unit (RTU): An RTU is a device that collects data, codes the data into a format that is
transmittable and transmits the data back to a central station, or master. An RTU can also collect
information from the master device and implements processes that are directed by the master.
tan delta: The tangent of the dielectric loss angle (power factor).
tap changer under load (TCUL): See: load tap changer.
4. Surveillance needs of high-voltage transformers and accessories
4.1 General
The surveillance needs defined in this clause includes both power transformers and instrument
transformers. Although the materials, failure modes, and diagnostic methods are similar, the size and cost
differences can present unique issues.
4.2 Power transformers
Transformer problems can be characterized as those that arise from manufacturing defects, those derived
from deterioration processes, and those induced by operating conditions that exceed the capability of the
transformer. These conditions may take many years to develop into a problem or failure. However, in some
cases undesirable consequences may develop rapidly.
Deterioration processes relating to aging are accelerated by mechanical, thermal, and voltage stresses.
Elevated temperature, along with oxygen content, moisture content, and other contaminants significantly
contributes to accelerated insulation degradation. The rate of deterioration may be compounded by the
presence of contaminants and by mechanical or electro-mechanical wear. Characteristics of the
deterioration processes include sludge accumulation, weakened mechanical strength of insulation materials
such as paper wrapped on conductor, and shrinkage of materials that provide mechanical support.
Overheating of insulation that has high water content can cause gas bubbles in the insulating fluid. The
bubbles can cause serious reduction in dielectric strength of the insulating structure, which could result in
an eventual dielectric failure.
Continuous monitoring permits timely remedial action. Premature action could result in wasted valuable
maintenance resources; late action could result in costly consequences (e.g., equipment failure). Higher
loading may be tolerated, as continuous automated evaluation may alert users of conditions that could
result in failure or excessive aging of critical insulation structures and/or transformer components.
Degradation processes and/or operating conditions also play a significant role in premature failure of
transformer ancillary components. Such items include bushings, load tap changers (tap changers under
load), and de-energized tap changers.
Table 1 lists the major transformer components along with their associated failure mechanisms and the
parameters that can be monitored on-line to detect abnormalities. Thorough manual analysis and/or
automated analytics, the diagnosis of the failure mechanism, may be made. This table is not all inclusive.
Additional details are presented in later clauses.
4
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Table 1 Main transformer components, failure mechanisms, and measured signals
Component Phenomenon Measured signals Diagnostic

leading to failure interpretation
Magnetic Legs Overheating of laminations Top and bottom temperatures
circuit Yokes and/or core joints Ambient temperature Temperature
Excitation currents analysis
Hydrogen or multi-gas PD model
Gas accumulation relay Gas analysis
Infrared scan
Core ground lead Loss of core ground Hydrogen or multi-gas Gas analysis
Magnetic shield Unintentional core and shield Gas accumulation relay
grounds create problems and Core hotspot PD model
discharges Acoustical and electrical PD
Infrared scan
Winding Major: General overheating Winding temperature Direct measurement
insulation phase-to-phase Top and bottom oil temperatures Thermal model
winding-to-winding Ambient temperature
winding-to-ground Line currents
Hydrogen or multi-gas Gas analysis
Gas accumulation relay
Infrared scan
Local overheating Hydrogen or multi-gas Gas analysis
Minor: Excessive moisture Top and bottom oil temperatures Moisture analysis
turn-to-turn Ambient temperature
layer-to-layer Moisture in oil
disk-to-disk Oil temperature at moisture
measurement location
Line current
Winding Temperature
Bubble generation Winding temperature Moisture and
Top and bottom oil temperatures thermal model
Ambient temperature Gas models
Total percent dissolved gas-in-oil
Electrical PD
Acoustical PD
Line Currents
Moisture in oil
Oil temperature at moisture
Overloading of transformer Line currents Moisture and
Winding temperature thermal model
Moisture in oil
Top and bottom temperatures
Ambient temperature
Line currents
Infrared scan
Partial discharge Hydrogen or multi-gas Gas analysis
Gas accumulation relay PD analysis
Acoustical and electrical PD
Liquid insulation Moisture contamination Top and bottom oil temperatures Moisture model
Ambient temperature
Moisture in oil
Arcing Hydrogen Gas analysis
Acetylene
Gas accumulation relay
Partial discharge Hydrogen or multi-gas Gas analysis
Gas accumulation relay PD model
Acoustical or electrical PD
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Table 1Main transformer components, failure mechanisms, and measured signals

(continued)

Cooling Fan(s) and/or Electrical failures of pumps Motor (fan, pump) currents Thermal Model
System Pump(s) and fans Pump flow Gas analysis
Mechanical failure Top oil temperature Pumps/fans model
Winding temperature
Dissolved gas-in-oil
Bearing wear detector
Standard mechanical vibration
Infrared scan
Ambient temperature
Cooling controls Failure or inaccuracy of Ambient temperature Thermal model
temperature sensors Top oil temperature
Pumps and fans running in Winding temperature
reverse Load current
Cooling control voltage
Cooling supply voltage
Radiators and Internal or external blocking Top and bottom oil Thermal model
coolers of radiators resulting in poor temperatures Oil and winding
heat exchange Winding temperature temperature forecasting
Ambient temperature
Line currents
Inlet and outlet radiator
temperatures
Main Tank Gaskets Oil level drops, exposing the Oil level Oil leak detection
Weld seams windings Nitrogen pressure Nitrogen consumed or
Moisture contamination leak detection
Bushings See Table 2
LTC See Table 3
4.3 Instrument transformers
4.3.1 General
As used in this guide, the term instrument transformers includes oil-filled current transformers, voltage
transformers, and capacitive coupled voltage transformers (CCVT) since the degradation processes, failure
mechanisms, and parameters that are monitored are similar for all three classes of equipment. The
techniques available to monitor instrument transformers on-line may be focused on fewer possible
degradation mechanisms than those that can be monitored on power transformers.
4.3.2 Failure mechanisms associated with instrument transformers
While the failure rates of instrument transformers around the world are generally low, failures are often
catastrophic, leaving little evidence to determine the cause of the fault. Nevertheless, mechanisms listed in
4.3.2.1 through 4.3.2.4 have been observed and identified as probable causes of failure.
4.3.2.1 Moisture ingress
Moisture ingress is commonly identified as a cause of failure of instrument transformers. The ingress of
moisture into the instrument transformer may be through loss of integrity of a mechanical seal (e.g.,
gaskets). The moisture migrates into the oil and oil/paper insulation (which increases the losses in the
insulating materials) and failure then follows. This would appear to be a particular problem if the moisture
penetrates to certain high stress regions within the instrument transformer. The increase in the dielectric
losses will be detected as a change in the power factor of the material and will also appear as increased
moisture levels in oil.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
4.3.2.2 Partial discharge
The insulation of instrument transformers may have voids within it. Such voids will discharge if subjected
to a high enough electric field. Such partial discharges may produce aggressive chemical by-products that
then enlarge the size of the void causing an increase in the energy of the discharge within the void.
Eventually, these small partial discharges may degrade individual insulation layers resulting in dielectric
breakdown. Such a developing fault may be detected in two ways. The first is the observance of a change in
the capacitance of the device (through the shorting of one stress grading layer), which may also reflect as a
change in tan delta; and the second is an increase in the partial discharge levels associated with the failing
item.
4.3.2.3 Overvoltages
Overvoltage produced by induced lightning surges is also a failure mechanism, particularly due to a close
lightning strike. More recently, the observance of fast rise time transients (Trise~100 ns) in substations
during disconnect switch operations has led to concerns that these transients may cause damage to the
insulation of current transformers. There is significant speculation that current transformers do not perform
well when exposed to a number of disconnect switch operations in quick succession. Switching operation
generated fast transients are a suspected cause of failures. More needs to be understood about the stress
distribution within the current transformer under these conditions. Switching overvoltages are a further
source of overstressing that may lead to insulation failure.
In order to address failures due to the mechanisms outlined above, experience seems to indicate that
incipient faults are probably detectable and preventable while instantaneous faults due to damage caused by
lightning strikes will be difficult to prevent.
4.3.2.4 Through faults
Another possible cause of damage to current transformer insulation is high primary current due to through
faults. It is currently not known whether damage is caused to current transformers under these conditions
and additional information is required before this mechanism may be considered a probable cause of
failure.
4.3.3 Instrument transformer on-line monitoring methods
4.3.3.1 General
On-line techniques for the measurement of relative tan delta and relative capacitance by comparing
individual units against a larger population of similar units have been utilized by a number of utilities with
reports of some success in identifying suspect units. On-line partial discharge measurement techniques may
provide important additional information as to the condition of the insulation within the instrument
transformer. This subclause reviews applicable methods to on-line monitoring of instrument transformers.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
4.3.3.2 Relative tan delta and relative capacitance measurements
Off-line partial discharge and tan delta monitoring are well established techniques. On-line monitoring
techniques are available that replicate off-line testing to measure relative tan delta and capacitance and
partial discharge under normal operating conditions.
One method for obtaining these parameters on-line is the sum current method. The sum current method
uses the sums of the voltage and current phasors. This sum is zero in a symmetrical three-phase system.
The analysis of condition can be performed by vectorially adding currents from the capacitance or power
factor taps. If the system voltages are perfectly balanced, the sum current will equal zero. Compensation
circuits are used to make adjustments if there are differences in designs and specifications for the individual
instrument transformers.
On HVCTs and CCVTs, test taps are usually present to perform off-line power factor and capacitance tests.
Sensors can be installed at these test taps and provide the signals necessary for on-line monitoring.
On electromagnetic PTs, voltage signals from the secondary of the PTs can be summed to monitor the turns
ratio. The vector sum should be zero. Changes in the turn ratio, core problems, etc. can then be detected.
Use of the proper senor can also allow periodic or continuous partial discharge measurements.
4.3.3.3 On-line gas analysis
Some dissolved gas monitoring technologies that have been applied widely to power transformers where
the oil is in circulation may also be applied to instrument transformers. However, in instrument
transformers the oil is confined and limited in volume, which affects sensor selection and operation.
Installation may require factory modifications, depending on the type of sensor that is installed (Boisseau
and Tantin [B9], Boisseau, Tantin, and Despiney [B10], Cummings, et. al.[B18]).
4.3.3.4 On-line partial discharge measurements
On-line partial discharge detection methods used with power transformers are also applicable to instrument
transformers.
4.3.3.5 Tank pressure measurement
Due to partial discharge activity inside the tank, gases can be formed that result in a pressure increase after
the gases saturate the oil. A threshold pressure switch may be used to perform this measurement. The
operation of this sensor is possible with an inflatable bellows that is placed between the expansion device
and the enclosure. The installation of the device typically requires factory modification. In some
applications, pressure sensors take a considerable amount of time (on the order of months) to detect any
significant pressure change. The sensitivity of this type of measurement is less than that of hydrogen and
partial discharge sensors (Boisseau and Tantin [B9]). Pressure sensors are also available that mount on the
drain valve (Cummings, et. al. [B18]).
4.4 Bushings
4.4.1 General
Bushings are subjected to high dielectric and thermal stresses, which may lead to bushing failures. Bushing
failures cause outages and many times transformer failures. The methods of detecting deterioration of
bushing insulation have been well understood for decades and are addressed in IEEE Std C57.12.90.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Traditionally off-line diagnostics are very effective at discovering problems. The challenge facing a
maintenance engineer is that some failure modes can develop and occur between scheduled test intervals.
Since on-line monitoring of power-factor and capacitance can be performed continuously, and with the
same sensitivity as the off-line measurement, deciding whether to apply an on-line system is reduced to an
economic exercise of weighing the direct and strategic benefits with the cost. On-line monitoring of the
bushings provides data during all weather conditions, loads, and at rated voltage, with the same sensitivity
as an off-line measurement.
The two most common bushing failure mechanisms are moisture contamination and partial discharge. First,
moisture usually enters the bushing via deterioration of gasket material, loose terminals, or cracks, resulting
in an increase in the dielectric-loss and insulation power factor. The first indication of this type of problem
is an initial increase in power factor. As the deterioration progresses, increases in capacitance will be
observed. Second, tracking over the surface or burning through the condenser core is typically associated
with partial discharge.
Measurement of power factor and capacitance is a useful and reliable diagnostic indicator. A very sensitive
method for obtaining these parameters on-line is the sum current method. The basic principle of the sum
current method is based on the fact that the sums of the voltage and current phasors are zero in a
symmetrical three-phase system. Therefore, analysis of bushing condition can be performed by vectorially
adding currents from the capacitance or power factor taps. If the bushings have the same specifications and
the system voltages are perfectly balanced, the sum current will equal zero.
On-line monitoring techniques are available that replicate off-line testing to measure relative tan delta
under energized conditions. Current comparator capacitance bridges and other commercial instruments are
available that are suitable for both grounded specimen and ungrounded specimen measurements under field
conditions. Another method of testing bushings on-line is the sum current method using leakage currents
from monitored bushings.
Details on two techniques used for on-line monitoring of high-voltage bushings are discussed in detail in
Annex B.
Table 2 Bushings failure mechanisms and measured signals
Condenser Core Moisture ingress Sum of currents Change in power factor
Poor oil impregnation Tan Delta/Power Factor
Wrinkled paper Temperature dependency
Delaminating of paper PD
Oil Moisture Sum of currents Increase in bushing power

Contamination Tan Delta/Power Factor factor
Thermal degradation Temperature dependency
Internal Porcelain Surface Aging Sum of currents Change in power factor

Deposits settling in lower porcelain Tan Delta/Power Factor Change in capacitance as
PD layers short
Negative temperature correlation
Taps Grounded tap ungrounded Sum of currents Change in capacitance
Shorted electrodes Tan Delta/Power Factor
PD
External Porcelain Surface Contamination Sum of currents Change in power factor
Surface discharge Tan Delta/Power Factor
PD
Conductor Loose connections on top and/or Sum of currents Change in power factor
bottom of bushing Tan Delta/Power Factor
Circulating currents in head Temperature dependency
Cracks in conductor
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
4.5 Load tap changers
4.5.1 General
Maintenance costs for load tap changers (LTC) result from several causes. The reasons include:
misalignments, poor design, manufacturing defects, material defects, high loads, abnormal number of tap
changes, mechanical failures, coking caused by contact heating and moisture ingress. LTC failures account
for a significant portion of transformer failures (Bengtsson [B4], Bengtsson, et al. [B5]).
LTC contact wear occurs as the LTC operates to maintain a desired voltage with varying loads. This
mechanical erosion is a normal operating characteristic, but the rate can be accelerated by improper
application, faulty installation, and overloads. If an excessive wear situation is not corrected, the contacts
may burn open or weld together. Monitoring a combination of parameters suitable for a particular LTC
design can help avoid such failures.
LTC failures can be combinations of mechanical, electrical, or thermal faults. Failures that are mechanical
in nature include failures of springs, bearings, shafts, motors, and drive mechanisms. Faults that are
electrical in nature and can result in a detectable thermal condition can be attributed to coking of contacts,
burning of contacts and/or transition resistors, and insulation problems (Bengtsson [B4]).
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Table 3 On-Load tap changer components, failure mechanisms, and measured signals

Diverter switch Overheating of contacts (coking) Direct contact temperature sensor Temperature differential
and/or Excessive contact wear Diverter switch compartment model
Selector switch Loose or worn contacts temperature Contact wear model
and/or Transitional impedance burn out Selector switch compartment Gas trending
Reversing switch Barrier board tracking and cracking temperature Reversing switch inactivity
Main tank temperature Excessive LTC movements
Ambient temperature
Line currents
Tap position indication
Dissolved gas-in-oil
Sudden pressure relay status
Pressure relief device status
Drive mechanism Mechanical defect Torque on the LTC driven shaft Torque analysis model
Broken linkage LTC motor torque Motor current index model
Binding of contacts LTC motor current Average motor current
Worn gears Relay timing Excessive number of
AC supply failure Position Indication operations
Defective brake AC supply
Relay malfunction Motor run time
Weak Springs
Geneva wheel adjustment
Motor failure
Insulating fluid Moisture contamination Ambient temperature Moisture model
RS moisture in oil (including oil
temperature at measured point)
Arcing Hydrogen Gas trending
Acetylene Gas ratio
Partial discharge Hydrogen Gas trending
Acoustical or electrical PD Gas ratio
Vibration analysis
PD model
Overheating Hydrogen Gas trending
Ethylene Gas ratio
Methane
Ethane
Oil filtration system/pump Electrical failures of pump Pump motor current Filter clogged
filter Plugged filter Pressure differential Leak
Low flow Pump Binding/Failure
LTC control Switch not in auto Control switch position Excessive number of tap
Loss of control power Control power supply changes
Control instrument failure Tap position/counter
Energizing in off-tap position Off tap sensor
Current sensor
Bridging resistor Overheating Temperature LTC differential
Arcing Hydrogen temperature
Acetylene Gas trending
Ethylene Gas ratio
Rapid pressure rise
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
4.5.2 Mechanical diagnostics for load tap changers
4.5.2.1 General
A variety of diagnostic algorithms for LTCs can be implemented using drive motor torque or motor current
information. Mechanical and control problems can be detected because additional friction, contact binding,
mechanical brake operation, extended LTC operation times, and other anomalies significantly impact
torque and current.
A signature, or event record, can be captured each time the tap changer moves to a different tap. This event
record can be either motor torque or a vibro-acoustic pattern and motor current as a function of time. The
signature can then be examined by several methods to detect mechanical and, in the case of vibro-acoustic
patterns, electrical (arcing) problems. The following mechanical parameters can be analyzed.
4.5.2.2 Initial peak torque or current
Initial current inrush and starting torque are related to mechanical static friction and backlash in the
linkages. Monitoring this peak value and duration of the event can provide a useful diagnostic. Consistently
changing values over a period of time may be cause for concern.
4.5.2.3 Running torque or motor current
Running current or torque provides a measure of dynamic friction and also helps detect binding. Motor
current measurement is most effective for those LTC types in which the motor directly drives the
mechanical linkages. Torque or force sensors measuring drive force will yield the desired information.
It is also possible to determine the torque curve by measuring the active power of the motor. Figure 1 is a
sample torque curve for a resistance-type tap changer for a motor in acceptable operating condition.
Anomalies in the torque curve can be detected by using a system that performs a separate assessment of the
individual functions of a switching operation.
Several common LTC designs employ a motor to charge a spring that may supply energy to move the
linkages during a tap change. In this case, motor current measurement will only detect problems with the
motor and/or spring charging mechanism.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Torque
Time
Figure 1 Sample torque curve
4.5.2.4 Motor current index
The area under the motor current curve is called the motor index. This index characterizes the initial inrush,
average running conditions, and total running time. A similar index based on torque can be used. Not all
types of tap changer operations have similar index values. An operation through neutral can have a
significantly higher index as the reversing switch is operated. Similarly, tap changer raise or lower
operations can have different index values depending on whether the previous operation was a raise or a
lower. This is related primarily to linkage backlash. Figure 2 shows an example of the motor current curve
for a LTC, and Figure 3 shows an example of the motor current index.
Sequential controls and other operational issues should also be considered. For example, the index will be
very large if the tap changer moves more than one step during an operation. The index will be very small if
the controls call for a tap change and then rescind the request before seal-in. All of these situations should
be considered when performing diagnostics based on motor current or torque measurements.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Motor Current During a Tap Change Event
15
12
9
A
6
0 1 2 3 4
Time [seconds]
Figure 2 Sample load tap changer motor current during a tap changing event
Motor Index in [Ampere Cycles]
800
600
Index
400
200
0 Tap Change Events
Figure 3 Sample motor current index curve
4.5.2.5 Contact wear
Contact wear can be monitored if tap changer current is known. Contact design and the material differences
between contact suppliers can impact expected contact wear. Various algorithms that incorporate tap
current are used to quantify contact wear.
As the contact wear in the diverter switch is dependent to a large extent on the transformer tap current to be
switched, information on the tap current has to be provided (e.g., bushing-type current transformer).
4.5.2.6 Position and operating range determination
Technologies are available to determine the exact position of the tap selector switch. This information
could be used to determine if an operation through neutral has occurred or if control problems exist.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
4.5.3 Thermal diagnostics for on-load tap changers
4.5.3.1 General
Temperature profiles for reactive-type tap changers are normally influenced by weather conditions, cooling
bank status, location, and type of sensor and electrical load. The following electrical/thermal parameters
can be monitored.
4.5.3.2 Differential temperature
Differential temperature refers to the temperature difference between the main tank and LTC compartment.
Typically, the main tank temperature will be higher than the tap changer compartment temperature. This is
referenced in Figure 4.
Many factors influence differential temperature. Excessive losses caused by misaligned, worn or defective
contacts, or coking in the tap changer may be detectable. However, the LTC temperature can exceed main
tank temperature periodically under normal conditions. Hourly variations in electrical load, weather
conditions, and cooling bank activation may result in a main tank temperature below the tap changer
temperature.
Top Oil Temperature LTC Temperature
60
50
Temperature C
40
30
20
Sun Tue Thu Sat Mon Wed Fri Sun
Tim e
Figure 4 Sample differential temperature measurement
There are several methods to distinguish between normal and abnormal differential temperatures. Analytic
techniques such as trending, slope, rolling averages, temperature index, timers, or similar methods may be
used.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
4.5.4 Vibro-acoustic monitoring
The vibrations caused by various mechanical movements during a tap changing operation may be analyzed
for signs of change. This gives continuous information of the transition time as well as an indication of
contact wear and detection of sudden mechanical faults (Bengtsson, et al. [B5]).
Every operation of the tap changer mechanism produces a characteristic acoustic wave that propagates
through the oil and structure of the transformer. The design structure of a transformer together with its core,
windings, leads, and tank has a strong influence on the acoustic pattern. Due to these variations, some
monitoring systems may be tuned to account for these variations. Field measurements show that in the case
of a properly functioning tap changer, for a given operation, this vibration pattern proves to be very
repeatable in time.
LTC operation can be analyzed by comparing the acoustic signature with the running average
representative of recent operations. Experience has shown that electrical problems are detected more
frequently than those that are mechanical in nature (Foata, Aubin, and Rajotte [B31]).
4.5.5 Dissolved gas-in-oil analysis
Users have found dissolved gas-in-oil analysis (DGA) to be very useful to identify just-in-time LTC
maintenance needs and many have developed databases to correlate gases with before and after
maintenance for their particular LTC population. Increased hot-metal gases, methane, ethane and
especially ethylene, which are produced in problem LTCs, can be measured and used to identify incipient
faults in LTCs. When arcing occurs temperatures are high enough to produce acetylene (plus hydrogen)
from breakdown of the oil. Oil acts as a coolant and the oil temperature drops rapidly as distance from the
arcing site increases. At lower temperatures hot-metal gases are produced. Thus, all of the fault gases,
hydrogen, methane, ethane, ethylene, and acetylene are produced when arcing occurs. Total gas
concentrations are design, load and operation-count dependent and vary with time. Loss of gases to the
atmosphere also has a major impact on individual gas concentrations. Gas concentration ratios are thus a
more reliable indication of an incipient problem than individual gas concentrations. See IEEE Std C57.139
[B56].
5. Monitored parameters
5.1 General
This clause contains an overview of the parameters that are typically monitored for transformers and their
components. A brief description is given for each parameter.
5.2 Dissolved gas-in-oil analysis
Periodic dissolved gas-in-oil analysis (DGA) is in wide-spread use and is often compared to a blood test in
its diagnostic value. However, on-line monitoring of the individual gases is much more revealing, like a
continuous stress test under full voltage, temperature, and load. This can expand the usefulness of DGA
from a periodic maintenance tool to an automated continuous condition assessment. Single-gas and
multiple-gas monitors provide early-warning detection and varying degrees of additional diagnostic
benefits. Gassing behavior tends to be unique for individual transformers due to age, specific operating
conditions, and internal characteristics. Trending and rate-of-change (ROC) of gases makes it possible to
see gas-generation events as they happen, despite high levels of accumulated gases, not possible through
periodic DGA. Worldwide experiences using on-line DGA increasingly show that all types of faults
thermal, low-energy discharge, high-energy discharge, and partial dischargecan be identified at an early
stage. Identifying type and severity of a developing fault makes timely decisions possible for critical
installations.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
5.2.1 Monitored parameters
Techniques have evolved for obtaining oil samples, along with laboratory methods to separate the gases
from the oil for testing, typically using gas chromatography to determine individual gas quantities. Industry
guides, IEEE Std C57.104 and IEC 60599, provide detailed information. With accumulation of field
experience such guides are expected to cover on-line in addition to periodic DGA. Gases of interest are
listed in Table 4. In general the various combustible gases are related to the degradation of insulating
materials at different temperatures. Although chemistry suggests a predominant temperature range for each
combustible gas, high temperature faults are cooled by surrounding oil so that lower temperatures gases are
generated away from the fault. Relative quantities (ratios) of the various gases can be more meaningful than
absolute values. Also, there are many variables, including fault-location and oil-circulation rate, that tend to
affect specific gas concentrations at any sampling location, particularly during a developing fault.
Table 4 Gases typically found in transformer insulating liquid (see IEEE Std C57.104)
Gas Chemical formula
Nitrogen N2
Oxygen O2
Hydrogena H2
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Carbon Monoxidea CO
Methanea CH4
Ethanea C2H6
Ethylenea C2H4
Acetylenea C2H2
a
Denotes combustible gas.
A conventional unscheduled oil sample is often taken for laboratory analysis as a sanity check after an
alarm condition is reported. It is important that such a sample be taken from the same sampling location as
the on-line monitor (e.g., a port provided in the oil sampling line going to the on-line monitor).
Considerable confusion can result by taking such a sample from a drain valve whereas the on-line sampling
is from the top oil or an active cooling loop. Also important is that accuracy and repeatability for both the
on-line monitor and the conventional oil-sampling-to-results process be traceable to a reliable standard.
Round robin tests have repeatedly shown high variability between laboratories (including samples taken
at the same location and time). (Anderson and Hinshaw [B1].)
5.2.2 Gas-sensing technologies
Systems based on fuel cell/catalytic technology, solid state sensor and thermal conductivity detection
(TCD) have been developed. Fuel cell and TCD methods use membrane technologies to separate dissolved
gases from the transformer oil and produce voltage signals proportional to the amount of dissolved gases
measured. Solid state sensing elements could be used either with a membrane or directly immersed in oil,
depending on their construction. The fuel-cell/catalytic sensor provides a composite signal of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide, together with small amounts of other hydrocarbon gases. TCD technology and solid state
sensors measure specifically hydrogen. Hydrogen is produced to some degree in all transformer faults
involving oil. Carbon monoxide is produced in faults involving paper. These systems have been successful
in providing early warning of incipient faults in transformers.
Multi-gas on-line DGA monitors based on gas chromatography can detect all key gases listed in Table 4.
Another system has been developed using membrane extraction technology combined with Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) sensing. (Chu, Badaly, and Slemon [B14].) A third system
measures gases using photo-acoustic spectroscopy (PAS). Infrared based analyzers, such as photo-acoustic
spectroscopy systems and FTIR, are unable to measure hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These systems will
use an alternative method to measure these gases. One approach is to use a galvanic cell to measure oxygen
and a semi-conductor sensor to measure hydrogen (Chu, Badaly, and Slemon [B13], Chu, Badaly, and
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Slemon [B14]). All systems were designed to provide sufficient dissolved gas data ensuring that analysis
and interpretation of faults could take place on-line.
All sensors have been targeted toward measuring the gases that can be produced inside transformers. All
sensors are designed to provide on-line access to data that can then be used to indicate the need for further
sampling of the insulating oil. The oil is then analyzed in the laboratory to confirm the monitoring data.
5.3 Moisture in oil
Excessive moisture is detrimental for transformer operation. It affects dielectric integrity of liquid/paper
system, insulation life, and transformer loading capability. Moisture is a major cause of many failures and
can lead to partial discharges, bubble formation, dielectric breakdown, and deterioration of insulating liquid
and paper.
Measurement of water dissolved in oil is usually carried out with proven on-line technology (Oommen
[B69], Oommen [B76]). The majority of sensors used for moisture in oil monitoring are relative humidity
sensors, which respond to a change of relative humidity (RH) in the oil in a same fashion as these sensors
respond to the change in relative humidity in the air. RH sensors are normally based on the thin film
polymer capacitive material. When used in liquid, the relative humidity is often called relative saturation
(RS). There are other moisture parameters of interest, which could be directly measured or determined from
RS reading and temperature at the point of measurement. Among the most frequently used parameters are
moisture content of oil in parts per million (PPM) and water activity. Definitions and practical implications
for various moisture parameters can be found in Sokolov, et al. [B78] and Roizman, Davydov, and Ward
[B77].
In most moisture-in-oil instruments, a conversion from RS to PPM is performed using a built-in formula
incorporating the so-called solubility coefficients.
CAUTION
The formula is only valid for an average new mineral oil and may not be adequate for service aged oils and other
insulating liquids like silicon and ester liquids. A high level of error may be introduced by not considering the actual
water in oil solubility characteristic.
About 99% of all water present in a conventional transformer is concentrated in solid insulation and known
as water-in-paper. Therefore, determination of moisture in paper is of primary importance. However, in
present practice, moisture in the solid insulation cannot be directly measured, but is inferred by the
moisture measurement in oil. Moisture in cellulose insulation is not distributed evenly and varies
considerably from top to bottom. Another consideration is that moisture in pressboard barriers can be
significantly higher than moisture in winding paper because of the temperature difference between these
two elements. The top of the winding is the hottest part while the bottom part of pressboard barriers is at
the coolest temperature of the bottom oil. Because water absorption characteristics of oil and paper is
dependent on temperature, the water content in the barrier can be significantly higher than the water content
in winding paper.
CAUTION
No single value of moisture content of solid insulation should be considered reliable when estimating from a reading of
a single moisture-in-oil sensor. There is always a range of moisture values attributed to a particular solid insulation
element.
Moisture continuously migrates from paper to oil and back due to temperature variations. This dynamic
process should be taken into account when estimating moisture content of solid insulation. Moisture
equilibrium diagrams have been extensively used for determination of water content of solid insulation
(Oommen [B74]).
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
CAUTION
Great care should be exercised when applying moisture equilibrium diagrams to infer moisture in solid insulation.
There is extensive literature on the use and misuse of moisture equilibrium charts (Sokolov, et al. [B78],
Roizman, Davydov, and Ward [B77], and Oommen [B73]), which should be consulted before using the
theory of moisture equilibrium. There is a strong correlation between moisture in oil and moisture in solid
insulation predominantly adsorbed on the surface of the conductor paper and pressboard barriers. Various
algorithms have been used to devise moisture available for exchange between oil and different parts of the
solid insulation (Roizman, Davydov, and Ward [B77], Noirhomme, et al. [B70], Zhou, Wu, and Liu [B87],
Koch, Kruger, Tenbohlen [B59]). Good judgment should be exercised when applying any of these
algorithms, as there are always assumptions and limitations that should be carefully considered.
During a rapid temperature decrease (e.g., unexpected shutdown), relative saturation of water in oil also
changes rapidly. At a low temperature after sudden change, the accuracy of RS measurement is
compromised by the fact that dynamic response is slower at low temperature than at high temperature and
underestimation of saturation point may occur. Technical specifications should be carefully examined to
adequately consider temperature effects on accuracy of relative saturation measurement.
5.4 Partial discharge
5.4.1 General
One cause of transformer failures is dielectric breakdown. Failure of the dielectric insulation inside
transformers is often preceded by partial discharge activity. A significant increase either in the partial
discharge (PD) level or in the rate of increase of partial discharge level can provide an early indication that
changes are evolving inside the transformer. Since partial discharge can deteriorate into complete
breakdown, it is desirable to monitor this parameter on-line. Partial discharges in oil will produce
hydrogen, plus lesser quantities of methane, dissolved in the oil. Intermittent sparking from a poorly
grounded part produces acetylene, typical for a low-energy discharge, and although it is not a partial
discharge, such events are detectable with PD systems. The dissolved hydrogen may or may not be
detected, depending on the location of the PD source and the time necessary for the oil to carry or transport
the dissolved hydrogen to the location of the sensor. The PD sources most commonly encountered are
related to moisture in the insulation, cavities in solid insulation, metallic particles, and gas bubbles
generated due to some fault condition.
The interpretation of detected PD activity is not straight-forward. No general rules exist that correlate the
remaining life of a transformer to PD activity. As part of the routine factory acceptance tests, most
transformers are tested to have a PD level below a specified value. From a monitoring and diagnostic view,
detection of PD above this level is therefore cause for an alarm but not generally for a tripping action.
These realities illustrate one of the many difficulties encountered in PD diagnosis in that the results need to
be interpreted with knowledge of the studied equipment. Two methods are used for measuring partial
discharges: electrical and acoustic. Both of these have attracted considerable attention, but neither is able to
yield an unambiguous PD measurement without additional procedures.
Electrical and acoustic PD detection each have advantages and disadvantages and can be complimentary
rather than exclusive.
5.4.1.1 Electrical method
The electrical signals from PD are in the form of a unipolar pulse with a rise time that can be as short as
nanoseconds (Morshuis [B69]). The pulse rise time at the origin is dependent upon the type of discharge.
Breakdown of an oil gap is a very fast process while a surface discharge may have up to ten times longer
duration. PD pulses have a wide frequency content at the origin. The high frequencies are attenuated when
the signal propagates through the equipment and the network and pulse shape is also modified due to
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
multiple reflections and exciting resonant frequencies of elementary circuits. The detected signal frequency
is dependent on the original signal, pulse propagation path to the sensing point, and the measurement
method.
Electrical PD detection methods are often hindered by electrical interference signals from surrounding
equipment and the network. Most common and most difficult noise sources are aerial corona discharges
and discharges to electrostatic shields that are not properly connected to either the HV bus or ground.
Discharges produced as a result of improperly connected electrostatic shields may be indicative of a serious
problem and should be addressed. On-line PD sensing technologies should have methods to minimize the
influence of such signals.
The most common method for PD detection is to decouple the high frequency partial discharge signals
using sensors that are capacitively coupled to the HV bus (coupling capacitor). Most HV apparatus have a
natural capacitor built into the HV bushings or CTs have a convenient point for connection of the PD
instrument. Bushing test tap or CT shield leads are frequently used for partial discharge measurements
along with power frequency insulation tests.
The most popular method to interpret PD signals is to study their occurrence and amplitude as a function of
the power phase position; this is called phase-resolved PD analysis (PRPDA). This method can provide
valuable insight into the type of PD problem present.
The best method of noise detection in field measurements employs the use of multiple sensors. Use of a
single sensor model in the field is unlikely to produce satisfactory results. If several sensors of different
types or at different locations are employed, the possibilities to reduce external influences are greatly
enhanced. Generally, the multi-sensor approach can be split into two processes: separate detection of
external signals and energy flow measurements.
Energy-flow measurements use both an inductive and a capacitive sensor to measure current and voltage in
the PD pulse (Morshuis [B29], Eriksson, Leijon, and Bengtsson [B80], Wenzel, Borsi, and Gockenbach
[B82]). By the tuning of the signals from the two sensors, they may be reliably multiplied and the polarity
of the resulting energy pulse determines whether the signal originated inside the apparatus or outside.
A modern PD instrument should employ both processes of the multi-sensor approach allowing the
comparison of PD pulse magnitude from different sensors and pulses polarity for energy flow
measurements.
5.4.1.2 Acoustic methods
Acoustic emissions (AE) are transient elastic waves in the range of ultrasound, usually between 20 kHz and
1 MHz, generated by the rapid release of energy from a source. Partial discharges are pulse-like and cause
mechanical stress waves (acoustic waves) to propagate within the transformer. If the stress waves propagate
to the transformer tank wall, they may be detected with a transducer that is tuned to the right frequency. PD
sources can be located by measuring the relative time of arrival of acoustic waves at multiple transducer
locations
In typical applications, the signals from a group of externally-mounted acoustic sensors are collected
simultaneously and analyzed to detect and locate PD. However, as the acoustic signal propagates from the
PD source to the sensor, it will generally encounter different materials. Therefore, acoustic signals can only
be detected within a limited distance from the source. Consequently, the sensitivity for PD inside
transformer windings, for example, may be quite low.
Though not disturbed by signals from the electric network, external and internal influences in the form of
rain or wind and non-PD vibration sources like loose parts, cooling fans, and oil flow from transformer oil
circulating pumps will generate acoustic signals that interfere with the PD detection. These non-PD
acoustic signals may extend up to the 50 kHz to 100 kHz region. To diminish the effects of this
disturbance, acoustic sensors with sensitivity in the 150 kHz range are usually employed. Such sensors
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
may, however, have less sensitivity to PD signals than lower frequency sensors (Kruger, Gulski, and
Krivda [B34], Borsi, Glockenbach, and Wenzel [B11]).
5.4.2 Types of acoustic systems
Many different types of acoustic PD systems are in use to detect and/or locate PD. These generic systems
include the following:
Digital oscilloscopes with the ability to display multiple channels of waveforms. Data acquisition
units available for computers may be used if they fulfill these requirements. Features such as
averaging, peak detection, zoom, measurements and storage are very useful.
Transportable automated workstations with or without electrical PD triggers. These systems

identify, qualify and locate PD sources. The systems allow the acquisition and saving of multiple
AE signals. Results of tests can be displayed as graphs such as point plots, line graphs, bar graphs
or cluster graphs with multiple parameters or waveforms or the results of summations of data.
Permanently installed on-line continuous monitoring systems to detect and trend PD signals and
send that information to a remote location. Data gathering personnel are not usually present during
normal operation. These systems typically consist of multiple sensors, which are placed at
locations where faults may be anticipated based on past experience or highest probability of
problems occurring, and amplifier and data acquisition/processing systems that are able to transmit
collected data and/or warning alerts to locations outside the substation.
Acoustic systems may be combined with a high-frequency current transformer installed on the
case ground connection or a radio frequency transducer mounted inside the transformer. These
systems utilize the concurrence of an acoustic event and an electrical or radio frequency signal to
confirm that the acoustic signal is PD.
5.4.3 Combined methods
As a generalization of the electric multi-sensor systems discussed previously, there are a few descriptions
of combined electric and acoustic PD monitoring systems for transformers in the literature, see Wang et al.
[B80], Gupta et al. [B35] for examples. Rather elaborate software should, however, be employed to utilize
the potential sensitivity of these systems. If both the acoustic and the electric parts are designed with the
considerations above in mind and effective software constructed, systems like this will become very
effective.
5.5 Transformer temperatures
Overheating can cause transformer failures. Continuous measurement of the top oil temperature is an
important factor in maximizing the service life. Top oil temperature, ambient temperature, load (current),
fan/pump operations, and direct reading winding temperatures (if available) can be combined in algorithms
to predict hottest-spot temperature and top oil temperatures for defined conditions of ambient and load and
to manage the overall temperature conditions of the transformer.
5.6 Winding temperatures
There is a direct correlation between winding temperature and normally expected service life of a
transformer. The hottest spot temperature of the winding is one of a number of limiting factors for the load
capability of transformers. Insulation materials lose their mechanical strength with prolonged exposure to
excessive heat. This can result in tearing and displacement of the paper and dielectric breakdown that will
result in premature failures.
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Conventional analog winding temperature measurements are not made directly from the windings. The hot
spot winding temperature is simulated based on oil temperature and a gradient temperature added by a
heater. The heater, which is powered by the secondary of a current transformer, simulates the difference
between the top oil and average or winding hot spot temperatures. This method is described by Feser et al.
[B31], Fox [B34], and IEEE Std C57.91 [B53].
A method suitable for both new and existing transformers uses top oil temperature and winding load
current to determine the winding temperature. These are commonly called electronic temperature monitors
(ETM). The ETM calculates winding temperature, based on IEEE Std C57.91 [B53] guidelines. A digital
display provides a precise readout not subject to operator interpretation. This method is more accurate than
the heater method described in the second paragraph. Transformer parameters can be used to determine
thermal time constants. These time constants can be changed dynamically based on load and cooling
conditions. Rate of change information can also be utilized to further improve the winding temperature
accuracy. Depending on the sophistication of the temperature algorithm, accuracies comparable to
embedded fiber sensors can be achieved. This is a prevalent method of winding temperature monitoring
presently specified by users.
Another type of ETM uses the direct winding temperature measurement. The following two direct winding
temperature sensor types are available:
Optical fibers that measure the temperature at one point
Distributed optical fibers that measure the temperature along the length of the winding
Point sensing fiber optic probes are much more common having matured in terms of cost and reliability
since their early introduction in the 1980s. The direct measurement of winding temperature using point
fiber optic sensors is now commonly adopted by users. Signal conditioners are available for point optical
sensors with the necessary hardened electronics and simplified optical components that survive on-line
monitoring installations.
Distributed fiber optic temperature sensors are capable of measuring the temperature along the fiber as a
function of distance. They can replace a large number of discrete sensors and allow a real-time
measurement of the temperature distribution.
It is only practical to install fiber optic temperature sensors in the winding when the transformer is
manufactured or rebuilt/refurbished.
It should be noted that direct winding temperature sensors will only measure the temperature where the
sensor is placed. Due to the difficulty in identifying the location of the hottest spot, it is recommended to
use multiple sensors to measure the temperature at the expected hottest spot locations. Since the thermal
model is the foundation for both calculated winding hottest spot indication and for direct measurement
sensor location, it should be recognized that the accuracy of any methodology is limited by the accuracy of
the transformer manufacturers thermal model.
5.7 Load current and voltage
Maximum loading of transformers is restricted by the temperature to which the transformer and its
accessories can be exposed without excessive loss of transformer life. Continuous on-line monitoring of
current and voltage coupled with temperature measurements can provide a means to gauge thermal
performance. Load current and voltage monitoring can also automatically track the loading peaks of the
transformer, increase the accuracy of simulated computer load flow programs, provide individual load
profiles to assist in distribution system planning, and aid in dynamically loading the transformer.
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5.8 Insulation power factor
The dielectric loss in any insulation system is the power dissipated by the insulation when an ac voltage is
applied. All electrical insulation has a measurable quantity of dielectric loss, regardless of condition. Good
insulation usually has a very low loss. Normal aging of an insulating material will cause the dielectric loss
to increase. Contamination of insulation by moisture or chemical substances may cause losses to be higher
than normal. Physical damage from electrical stress or other outside forces also affects the level of losses.
When an ac voltage is applied to insulation, the leakage current flowing through the insulation has two
components, one resistive and the other capacitive. This is depicted in Figure 5. The power factor is a
dimensionless ratio of the resistive current (IR) to total current (IT) flowing through the insulation. The
dissipation factor, also known as tan delta test, is a dimensionless ratio of the resistive current to the
reactive current flowing through the insulation, and is the tangent of the angle. By convention, these factors
are usually expressed in percent. Recognize that the insulation power factor and dissipation factor are very
nearly equal when IR is much less than IC.
IC IT
IR
Figure 5 Power factor graphical representation
5.9 Pump/Fan operation
The most frequent failure mode of the cooling system is the failure of pumps and fans. The objective of
continuous on-line analysis of pumps and fans is to determine if they are on when they are supposed to be
on and are off when they are supposed to be off. This can be accomplished by monitoring pump oil flow
switches or measuring the currents drawn by pumps and fans and correlating them with the expected on/off
status. Normal operational modes may indicate rotation of fan blades and correct rotation of pump impeller.
Abnormal operational modes are usually the result of improper control or power wiring to those devices.
Pump failures due to malfunctioning bearings could be a source of metallic particles. The particles can be a
potential dielectric hazard. Sensors that detect bearing wear or increasing motor currents are available. The
ultrasonic sensors are embedded in the pump bearings and measure the thickness of the bearing, thus
determining if metal loss is occurring.
Furthermore, the on-line analysis should take into account the following:
The initial monitoring parameters are set for the cooling stages based on the original transformer
design. Any modifications to the cooling sequences or upgrades should be noted since this will
change the monitoring system output.
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The sensitivity of the diagnostic system is influenced by the number of motors that are measured
by each current sensor.
The amp draw of fans will fluctuate depending on the ambient temperature, wind direction and
supply voltage. Alarm settings should account for these normal fluctuations.
5.10 Load tap changer (LTC) operations
Load tap changers (LTC, OLTC, and TCUL) on transformers have been a constant source of problems for
most owners. High maintenance costs result from several causes as follows:
Misalignment of contacts
Poor design of the contacts
High loads
Excessive number of tap changes
Mechanical failures
Coking caused by contact heating
LTC contact wear occurs as the LTC operates to maintain a constant voltage with varying loads. This
mechanical erosion is a normal operating characteristic, but the rate can be accelerated by improper design,
faulty installation, and high loads. If an excessive wear situation is undetected, the contacts may burn open
or weld together. Monitoring a combination of parameters suitable for a particular LTC design can help
avoid such failures.
LTC failures are frequently dominated by faults that are mechanical in nature. These typically include
failures of springs, bearings, shafts, and drive mechanisms. Typical faults that are electrical in nature can be
attributed to coking of contacts, burning of transition resistors, and insulation problems (Bengtsson [B4],
CIGRE [B15]). Several parameters that are monitored for LTCs include: drive mechanism motor current,
temperature difference between the LTC compartment and the main tank, time since last through neutral,
accumulated contact wear, mechanism operating time, and mechanical vibrations. Deviations in the drive
mechanisms motor current, or its duration, could be indicative of certain types of mechanical faults. An
increase in the temperature difference between the LTC compartment and the main tank can be indicative
of coking of contacts and problems of either thermal or dielectric in nature. Coking of the reversing switch
is often the result of the reversing switch contact remaining in the same position for too long. By
monitoring the time since last through neutral, this potential cause can be identified. Accumulated contact
wear can be calculated based on the current interrupted by the LTC and accumulated for each individual
tap. Vibration monitoring is useful for the detection of mechanical and electrical faults, contact wear, and
tap changer transition time changes.
5.11 Conservator membrane
The conservator oil preservation system is designed as an expansion tank allowing the oil to expand and
contract, ensuring the main transformer tank is always full.
Conservator membranes are installed to isolate the transformer oil from the air. The membrane contracts
and expands with the oil providing a barrier to moisture and oxygen from the air to oil. When properly
installed and purged, a membrane system should not have air on the oil side or oil on the air side of the
membrane. A failed membrane could block the outlet from the conservator to the transformer tank. During
rapid cooling of the oil, a vacuum could occur resulting in the formation of gas bubbles in the transformer
oil.
Known methods of monitoring the integrity of the membrane to ensure that it has not been compromised
are listed in 5.11.1 and 5.11.2.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
5.11.1 Air detection method
A sensor system that detects the presence of air on the oil side of the membrane can be used to indicate
membrane failure.
5.11.2 Oil sensor method
A sensor system that detects the presence of oil on the air side of the membrane can be used to indicate a
membrane failure.
6. Monitoring systems and equipment
6.1 Monitoring system description
Transformer on-line monitoring equipment can vary depending on the number of parameters that are
monitored and the desired accessibility of the data. At the most basic level one can consider a temperature
gauge to be a monitor. The measured parameter (temperature) is communicated via a visual observation for
a substation inspector. Excessive temperatures are communicated via alarm activation.
In contrast, sophisticated on-line monitoring systems can monitor many parameters simultaneously. These
systems can be integrated into a complete substation system. Transformer problems, in the earliest stage,
are communicated directly to the substation engineer. This clause describes a variety of such systems.
The elements of an on-line transformer monitoring system typically consist of sensors, indication,
electronic hardware, hardware interconnection, communication interface, and data processing.
6.2 Sensors
6.2.1 General
Sensors measure electrical, chemical, and physical processes and convert the measurements to physical
signals. The type of output signal needs to be compatible with the receiving electronic hardware. Electrical
noise is a significant concern and should be considered in the design.
6.2.2 Indication
Display of the monitored information can be available at the transformer, in the control room and/or at
remote sites. The information available at these various physical locations may be different in format, level
of detail, and amount of historical data.
6.2.3 Electronic hardware
The electronic hardware may be described as a remote terminal unit (RTU), data acquisition unit (DAU),
programmable logic controller (PLC), intelligent electronic device (IED), or similar. The type of hardware
and the design of the overall monitoring system will determine whether the processing of the data is done
locally or at some remote site. It will also determine how data is stored and accessed.
6.2.4 Hardware interconnection
The transfer of information from the transformer to the control room and on to a main consolidated
information location can be achieved using various hardware interconnection methods. Common hardware
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
interconnections include RS-232, RS-485, fiber optic, Ethernet, radio frequency (RF), and broadband over
power line (BPL).
6.2.5 Communication protocol
Communication protocols can be industry standard protocols such as DNP3, Modbus, IEC 61850, and IEC
60870-5 or can be equipment supplier-specific. See Annex E for additional detail.
6.2.6 Data processing
All acquired data needs processing in some form. Some types of data can be used in the form in which they
are acquired, while other types of data need to be processed further. The data are then compared with
various additional reference values such as limits, nameplate values, and other measurements, depending
on the users application.
The purpose of data processing is to convert the retrieved data into actionable information that can be used
in comparison to user-defined/implemented alarm set-points, bench mark values, and/or algorithms to aid
in equipment condition assessment.
In situations where reference data is not available, a learning period may be used to generate a baseline for
comparison. Data is accumulated during a specified period of time, and statistical evaluation is used to
either accept or reject the data. In some applications, the rejected data is still saved, but is not used in the
calculation of the initial benchmark.
The next data processing step is to determine whether variations suggest actual apparatus problems or if
they are due to ambient fluctuations (such as temperature or other weather effects), power system, or other
effects. A combination of signal processing techniques and/or the correlation of the information obtained
from measurements may be used to eliminate external effects.
The next step in the data processing procedure is dependent on the sophistication of the monitoring system;
however, generally, the data needs to be interpreted, and the resulting information communicated to the
user. An approach that is employed often is that if the parameter measured changes significantly from the
most previous measurement, then the data is recorded, saved, or transmitted.
Data processing can be real-time, event/alarm triggered, periodic, or user-initiated. Real-time processing is
done on a continuous basis. Event/alarm triggered processing is triggered based on specific operating
conditions. Periodic processing is time-triggered. User-initiated processing can be used as an investigation
tool, typically utilizing historical data.
6.3 Hardware specification
It is important to understand and specify the operating ambient conditions for the monitoring system. The
monitoring equipment should be able to function in the environment in which it is applied.
It is equally important to remember that electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference (RFI) are present in the immediate area and the monitoring equipment and sensors should be
specified to ensure they are capable of operating in these conditions.
The remote communication link can also be susceptible to various modes of interference, particularly if
cellular modems are applied. A consideration of the on-board storage capability of the monitoring hardware
should be made when communication links do not provide ready access to the data.
It should be realized that a damaging transient voltage under switching conditions may be coupled to the
ground grid and causes transient ground potential rise between different apparatus installed a distance of a
few meters apart IEEE Std 80 [B48]. A near-by lightning strike to the line may produce even higher
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overvoltages. A short-circuit current may develop an overvoltage between different points of the ground
grid. Low voltage supply and signal carrying cables to different monitoring instruments installed on the
transformers carry these transient ground voltages.
Particularly exposed are instruments working in a network and supplied from different circuits, but
connected between themselves by the signal cables. Dangerous transient voltages can occur when a locally
grounded supply circuit is brought to one sensor or instrument, while another ground voltage of a different
supply circuit is brought to another sensor or instrument. This will develop a transient voltage differential
between the two electronic circuits.
The enclosures for the monitoring equipment should be constructed and proven to mitigate the effects of
EMI and RFI interference.
Equipment should be designed to meet or exceed the surge withstand capability as defined in IEEE Std
C37.90.1 or equivalent. Equipment should also be designed to meet or exceed the requirements defined in
IEEE Std C37.90.2 for withstand capability of relay systems to radiated electromagnetic interference from
transceivers or equivalent.
6.4 Signals
In order for a monitoring system to function, signal sourcing is obviously necessary.
Types of signal sourcing are as follows:

Signals from existing sensors or transducers
Combination of signals from existing sensors or transducers
Signals from added non-intrusive sensors or transducers
Signals from added intrusive sensors or transducers
Examples of existing sensors are those available from protection and control facilities; voltage, current, tap
position indication, alarms, operation counters, transformer winding and top oil temperatures, pump start
commands, etc. An example of an added non-intrusive sensor or transducer is a current transformer (CT)
connected around the secondary of a bushing CT to measure load current, or the addition of a dissolved
gas-in-oil monitor.
When adding intrusive sensors to existing equipment, caution should be exercised and the original
equipment manufacturer (OEM) should be consulted before any changes are implemented. For retrofit on-
line condition monitoring applications, the first three signal types will be prevalent. In this regard, any
upgrading of protective relay systems should take on-line condition monitoring needs into account. For
future applications all four signal types will be utilized, the intrusive transducers being factory installed.
The overall intent of signal source selection is to achieve the desired results from the fewest possible
signals and requiring the least hardware and cabling. Allowance should be made for future modifications or
additions.
6.5 Signal acquisition
Signal acquisition is understood to include sensor selection and the signal transmission mode from the
sensor to the monitoring hardware.
Sensor selection considerations include the following:

Parameter to be measured: Input range and sampling rate.
Sensor type: Active or passive, reliability, calibration needs, intelligence level.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Sensor output: Voltage, current, digital, status (on/off), wireless, etc. The signal should be
configured as an isolated output without reference to ground. This is important from the point of
view of electrical, isolation, and insulation levels.
Signal transmission considerations will include the signal type and the transmission medium.
Table 5 Signal type/transmission medium

Signal Output Transmission Comments
type medium
Analog Current Copper wire Converted to digital at
Voltage some point
RTD (resistance measurement)
Digital Digitally encoded analog value Copper wire or fiber optic Serial connection, such as
RF/Wireless technologies RS232, RS422, RS485,
and others
Discrete Voltage (on/off) Copper wire or fiber optic On or Off state converted
(Status) Current (on/off) to digital at some point,
Contact (wet/dry) usually copper wire
connection
The choice of sensor may dictate the transmission medium. Transmission of analog values either using
current or voltage on copper wire will require one wire per signal. For analog transmission, consideration
must be taken to address signal attenuation. Digital transmission using fiber optic cabling will have some
attenuation from the cable itself along with any and all splices required. Some modern IEDs use these
technologies for communications into the monitoring hardware. Digital transmission on fiber optic cable is
best suited for longer high-density transmission of continuous signals and remote communications.
6.6 Application of sensors
The following table provides a list of commonly monitored values and the associated sensor types. Other
sensor types not listed may be available.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Table 6 Sensors
Category Monitored value Common sensor type Comments
Thermal properties Top oil temperature RTD Thermal wells
Bottom oil temperature Magnetic mount
Ambient temperature
Simulated winding hot spot
Control cabinet temperature
Direct winding temperature Fiber Optic Installed at time of
manufacture
Cooling system Fan current Interposing CT Split core or fixed core
Pump current
Pump flow indication Flow Sensor
Cooling contactor Aux contact
Loss of cooling power Loss of AC
Load Load current Interposing CT Split core or fixed core
Voltage VT
LTC Tap position Resistor Board
Synchro Sensor
LTC oil temperature RTD
LTC motor current Interposing CT
Limit alarm Low/high limit
Vacuum bottle fail Leakage current sensor Measured across the
vacuum bottle
LTC control switch Not in Auto
LTC oil level high/low Level gauge
LTC pressure surge Sudden Pressure Relay
LTC pressure relief activated PRD
LTC oil filter Flow or pressure
LTC sequence timing Cam switch
Main tank Oil level high/low Level gauge Non-conservator designs
Pressure Surge Sudden Pressure Relay
Pressure relief activated PRD
Gas accumulation Gas accumulation relay
Nitrogen pressure Pressure sensor Analog output or
low/high alarm
Conservator Oil level high/low Level gauge
Conservator membrane rupture Membrane leak sensor
DGA Hydrogen Key gas monitor Applicable for liquid
Carbon monoxide filled compartments
Carbon dioxide Multi gas monitor
Ethylene
Acetylene
Ethane
Oxygen
Methane
Moisture-in-oil Dissolved water content Capacitive sensor
Bushing Power factor and capacitance Capacitive tap sensor
6.7 Installation considerations
To improve the performance, reliability and ease of installation, the following installation considerations
(see 6.7.1 through 6.7.4) are recommended.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
6.7.1 Supply power
Consideration should be given to supplying power to the monitoring system from an independent circuit,
i.e., a circuit that does not provide auxiliary power to the transformer. The use of the station battery supply
or an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is recommended since this would permit the monitoring system
to continue collecting data during a station outage.
6.7.2 Shielding and grounding
Improper installation of systems from more than one transformer to a single monitoring system can produce
circulating currents under transient conditions. These circulating currents are the result of differences in
ground potentials between transformers during transient conditions due to improper installation [example
of one monitoring system (enclosure) applied to three single-phase transformers in a bank]. Electrical
isolation of signal cables from more than one transformer is a way of mitigating transient ground potentials.
Grounding is extremely important. During HV ground fault conditions or switching operations, different
parts of the substation grounding system can be at very different voltages. Each metallic secondary
circuit should be grounded for safety reasons and to allow the equipments surge protection devices to
operate as intended by the manufacturer, but only at one place; otherwise, ground loops and circulating
currents that may damage the equipment can occur. The most likely place where personnel may be in
electrical contact with monitoring hardware is at the user interface, not at the sensor. Therefore metallic
circuits connecting user interfaces to sensors should, where possible, be grounded at the user interface, not
at the sensor. Where sensor circuits are insulated from interface circuits, for example by double-wound
transformers or fiber connections, each metallic circuit should be locally grounded. Equipment cases should
be double-insulated or grounded to the substation ground system at their point of location. The ground
connection will be to the transformer tank ground pad for equipment located on the transformer tank, and to
the cubicle ground pad or stud for equipment located in the cubicle. In some instances, this practice could
result in high voltages occurring between sensor cases and the metallic circuit inside, and the equipment
must be appropriately insulated to withstand these voltages.
To reduce the magnitude of transients, EMI and RFI, the supply and signal cables shall be installed with
shielding and grounding practices appropriate for substation installations and to the specific equipment
manufacturers recommendation. In addition, adequate electronic protection devices should be used.
Grounding of enclosures, associated sensors, and circuits should be done in accordance with the
recommendations in IEEE Std C57.148 and IEEE Std C57.13.3.
6.7.3 Communication connections
Devices using analog signals are typically more prone to disturbances than devices employing newer digital
modes of communication. The type of monitoring or control being performed, distance, and the presence of
physical barriers should be considered when selecting a communication interface. The use of fiber optic
communication provides high protection from electrical noise problems. Broadband over power line and
wireless radios using frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology may be economical alternatives to
overcome some barriers and limitations. Special consideration should also be given to the sensitivity of the
information being monitored and security when selecting a communication interface and protocol.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
6.7.4 Installation of dissolved gas monitors
On new transformers, it is recommended that fittings be specified on the transformer to allow easy
installation of this equipment if or when required.
Provisions needed for various sensors will be different depending on the type of sensor. It may be desirable
to provide provisions for installation of more than one sensor.
Single valve sensors require only one connection point for oil sampling. A minimum 38 mm (1.5
in) open bore ball or gate valve should be provided on the cooler circuit outlet side of the cooling
pump (if any) or at a point on the tank where the oil is moving and will provide a representative
sample. The access to the oil should be horizontal and short [approximately 150 mm (6 in)]. There
should be a sufficient free area, preferably 500 mm (18 in) around the valve for installation and
service access.
Oil loop (two valve) sensors require two connection points where the instrument continuously or
periodically draws oil from one valve and returns to the second valve. A minimum 25 mm (1 in)
open bore ball or gate valve should be provided for each of the two valves. The inlet valve to the
monitor should be provided on the cooler circuit outlet side of the cooling pump (if any) or at a
point on the tank where the oil is moving and will provide a representative sample. The outlet
(return) valve from the sensor should be located at least 3 ft from the inlet valve and shall be
located away from the transformer oil circulation pump to avoid counter flow pressure. There
should be a sufficient free area, preferably 500 mm (18 in) around the valve for installation and
service access.
Installation of dissolved gas monitors on existing transformers requires connection to oil valves that are
pre-existing. It may be necessary to consult with the sensor supplier for installation recommendations.
6.8 Control function
Information typically included in transformer monitoring systems may also be useful in some transformer
control functions. For instance, load current information can be used to estimate winding temperatures, to
provide line drop compensation (LDC) functions in automatic voltage control systems, and to calculate
LTC contact wear. Cooling control may also be improved by making use of the measured parameters such
as top oil temperature, load current, winding temperatures, ambient temperature, tap position, and cooling
system health. Combined control and monitoring systems provide the ability to use the measured values for
several purposes.
6.9 Selecting communications hardware and protocols
Most communication systems installed in substations today use serial physical interface over EIA RS-232,
RS-485, or fiber optic cable. Strong consideration should be given to using fiber optic cable for any
communications outside the substation control house unless runs are within an enclosure. For further
information on hardware environmental requirements, refer to IEEE Std 525 [B48].
There is a growing trend to install high speed local area networks (LANs) in major substations. The high
speed and high bandwidth of the Ethernet interface will allow faster interchange of data.
At this time, several possible protocols are available. IEEE Std 1379 [B50] describes DNP3 and IEC
60870-5-101 [B45]. Other commonly used protocols are Modbus (RTU or ASCII) and IEC 61850 [B46].
Each protocol can be used on serial or Ethernet (TCP/IP) systems except IEC 61850 [B46], which is
designed for TCP/IP only. The protocol selected for the transformer monitoring system should be
compatible with other protocols already in use in the substation. Annex E provides a more detailed
reference for the selection and use of a communication protocol.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
6.10 Data application
Data interpretation and diagnostics are used primarily in the following areas:
a) To prevent an unplanned outage or failure
b) As an engineering economic tool for planned loading
c) Failure analysis
d) Condition assessment and life management
To increase the value of on-line monitoring information as a database and/or a diagnostic tool, it should
include off-line monitoring data and system on-line monitoring data such as protective relay operation,
lightning arrester, switch, and breaker operation, etc. The data collected by system on-line instrumentation
and off-line events supplement the database, and in the majority of cases, will determine or influence the
on-line monitoring data being generated. With incomplete data only the symptoms of a transformer
operational mode or problem can be determined, while the root cause may continue to remain unknown.
The following list should be used for any database for operational planning or diagnostics. Each of these
items should be documented along with the date action was taken.
Maintenance information
1. Addition of oil.
2. Replacement of oil.
3. Filtering and/or degasification of oil.
4. Addition of inhibitors to the oil.
5. Welding on the tank walls/cover.
6. Gas identification, amount used. Include gases used for leak detection. Dew point of gas.
7. Shut-down and start-up of transformer. Record dates, operational mode of cooling equipment and
ambient temperatures.
8. Infrared scans.
9. Transformer field-tests, and ambient conditions.
Winding ratio tests
Insulation resistance test
Insulation power factor and capacitance tests on the windings
Insulation power factor and capacitance tests on all condenser bushings
Winding resistance tests
Impedance/leakage reactance tests
Frequency response
Excitation tests
10. Oil screen tests, dissolved gas analysis or particle analyses tests of the oil.
11. Resolution of oil leaks
Replacement of tubing
Regasketing
Other oil leak repairs
12. Replacement or modifications of the accessories.
Length of storage time if applicable. Condition of accessories after storage (internal and
external)
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Bushings
Fans
Pumps
Coolers
Radiators
Valves
Nitrogen cylinders (Gas-blanketed transformers)
Control cabinet accessories
Gauges
13. Load tap changer maintenance
14. Testing of all protective devices
15. Oil preservation system/conservator tank condition
16. Transformer visual inspections
System parameters
1. Relay operationsdate and number of operations
2. Relay settings
3. Lightning arresters
4. Breakers
5. Switches
6. Control drivessolid state devices with or without filters
7. Capacitor banks
6.11 Selection criterion for on-line monitoring system
Selection criterion should be based on the priorities of the transformer owner. Operational reliability and
costs normally are the main priorities of the transformer owner that will determine the selection criterion.
A methodology to determine the specific requirements versus desired operational requirements needs to
take into account many factors. These requirements include the analysis of current operating costs and risk
and consequences versus expected benefits. Once a determination has been made for operational
requirements and associated risk, a decision can be made on the need/cost of on-line monitoring and/or off-
line monitoring requirements.
6.12 On-line diagnostics for transformers
Expert systems, supported by comprehensive data collection, provide a critical bridge between on-line
monitoring and on-line diagnostics. In lieu of presenting the user with a voluminous amount of data
requiring further analysis, an expert system approach is designed to inform if any intervention is required.
To be useful, on-line diagnostics should identify a wide array of problems in the incipient state. Diagnostic
methods should distinguish between changes that are noise, those of minor consequence, and those
worthy of immediate attention. The diagnostic algorithms can be self-learning and not depend on the user
to establish thresholds or employ average values from other nominally similar apparatus.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
7. Cost benefits
7.1 Introduction
The cost/benefit analysis of transformer monitoring is a difficult undertaking. Calculating the cost is
relatively straightforward, taking account of equipment purchase, installation, training, and maintenance
costs. The benefits however are more difficult to assess as the evaluation relies partly on factors dictated by
experience. This exercise involves the probability of an event actually occurring, compounded by the
positive or negative impact of such an event.
The following events lend themselves to an economic analysis:

Reduced inspection and maintenance costs
Reduced failure-related repair or replacement costs
Improved real-time transformer loading capability
Deferred upgrade capital costs due to load growth
Deferred replacement capital costs due equipment age or condition
There are also a number of other benefits, as follows, that are tangible but cannot be quantified easily:
Enhanced system reliability and availability with fewer unplanned outages
Improved planning for scheduled outages by using remote equipment condition assessment to
avoid additional outages
Enhanced financial results with performance-based regulation
Optimized design and operating practices
Reduced commissioning costs
Increased equipment life
Enhanced personnel safety
Improved environmental safety
Retained knowledge of most skilled staff (expert system)
Improved system-wide access to key knowledge using Web tools
Improved work management
Even for those items that lend themselves to an economic analysis, some preliminary economical values
have to be established for conditions that are not usually quantified:
Failure rate reduction to be expected after introduction of monitoring
Cost of operating with a degraded transmission system
Value of energy not generated
Value of contractual energy not delivered
A potential cost associated with monitoring is the resource cost associated with evaluating/interpreting the
data and responding to false alarms. Data interpretation can be automated with many of the monitoring
systems available. Experience with the specific monitoring hardware solution will provide the knowledge
needed to properly tune the system and minimize false alarms. These types of costs can be managed
through proper selection, installation, maintenance and training.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
In spite of these difficulties, an attempt is made below to quantify some of these aspects in order to allow
the business case approach to be applied whenever a project for on-line monitoring is implemented. In
the following sections, different operation scenarios are considered. In all cases, a comparison is made
between the situation with and without monitoring as recommended in IEEE Std C37.10.1 [B47].
The following subclauses describe some of the elements that might be included when developing a business
case tailored to a specific situation. It is important to recognize that the examples shown are for illustrative
purposes only. Numeric and financial values shown are strictly for the purpose of showing that values can
be assigned if so chosen. Actual circumstances will dictate values, costs, and expenses to be used in the
quantifying of risk, economic evaluation, and justification and the ultimate selection of monitoring. The
specific transformer monitoring technology employed will also either restrict or broaden opportunities for
the benefits expected. Only those scenario(s) applicable to a given transformer should be considered in the
calculation.
The proposed calculation method lends itself to sensitivity analysis to test the criticality of the various cost
assumptions. It has the merit of forcing the user to address the truly significant parameters. Results are
presented in terms of annual savings for a single unit or a family of transformers. Conversion can be made
to more convenient economic indicators such as Net Present Value or Payback Period.
7.2 Inspection and maintenance costs
In many cases, additional monitoring can reduce the frequency of manual inspections, especially for
transformers with a tap changer. Direct time savings are achieved during disassembly, manual inspection,
reassembly, and reporting. Moreover, depending whether the monitoring is applied to a single transformer
or to a whole substation, there can be additional savings in travel time and vehicle expenses.
On large power transformers, it is common to have a monthly visit for an overview of the substation,
completed by a more detailed visual inspection with oil sampling for DGA once a year. Since there is
presently no monitoring system that can completely replace the visual inspection, it is felt that periodic
inspections will remain necessary in the foreseeable future and therefore no savings are accounted for in the
example calculation in Table 7.
A more elaborate inspection, with outage, is carried out typically every 6 years and includes cooling system
and protective equipment verification along with a number of electrical tests. It is not clear if monitoring
could allow postponing of these activities and therefore no savings are accounted for in the example
calculation that follows. The situation can be quite different for a utility undergoing more frequent
inspections.
A third group of maintenance activity deals specifically with tap changers. This preventive maintenance
typically takes place after 40 000 to 100 000 operations depending on the type of unit, with a maximum
duration between inspections. It is plausible that some savings could be achieved on this activity if a
dependable tap changer monitoring system is implemented. In this example, let A represent the cost of
conducting the maintenance. For example, assuming that a monitoring system would allow maintenance
intervals to be extended from 4 years to 6 years, the duration between a maintenance activity costing $ A,
the annualized cost reduction could be presented as in Table 7.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Table 7 Preventive maintenance benefit from on-line monitoring for LTCs

Annualized costs
Preventive maintenance costs Input Without With
values monitoring monitoring
Preventive LTC maintenance cost without monitoring $A $A
Number of years between maintenance without monitoring 4 4
Preventive LTC maintenance cost with monitoring $A $A
Number of years between maintenance with monitoring 6 6
Subtotal: Annualized preventive maintenance costs $0.25 A $0.17A
Annual benefit from preventive maintenance reduction $0.08A
The calculations used in the previous table are as follows:
Preventive maintenance benefit from on-line monitoring for LTCs

Annualized preventive maintenance cost without monitoring: $A/4 = $0.25A
Annualized preventive maintenance cost with monitoring: $A/6 = $0.17A
Annual benefit from preventive maintenance reduction: $0.25A $0.17A = $0.08A
The annualized preventative maintenance cost is calculated by dividing the preventative maintenance cost
by the maintenance frequency. The annualized benefit is based on the savings resulting from the extended
maintenance interval. If historical data and inspections are maintained as the method for determining the
for maintenance interval, the benefit associated with extended the maintenance intervals may not be
relevant.
Table 7 shows that improved tap changer monitoring only results in a saving of $0.08A per year for the
LTC preventive maintenance aspect.
7.3 Failure resolution cost
The most recognized benefit of early detection of incipient faults is the major savings that can be achieved
on repair costs (Brekenbridge [B12]). In this regard, the purpose of an on-line monitoring system is to
prevent major (or catastrophic) failures and convert them into failures that will be repaired at a reduced cost
during a planned outage. In order to assess the savings on the failure resolution cost, preliminary values
such as expected reduction of failure rate should be estimated.
7.3.1 Impact of monitoring on failure rate
In order to evaluate the economic gain derived from deployment of on-line monitoring, the full picture of
fault evolution and detection should be laid down. It should be recognized that existing devices, such as gas
accumulation relay, may detect some incipient faults. Current monitoring practices such as annual gas
sampling for DGA analysis will also detect such faults.
At the other end of the spectrum there are some failures that are instantaneous by nature and not susceptible
to early detection whatever monitoring system is installed. In between are the fast-evolving faults that
cannot be detected correctly by existing means but could be detected by suitable monitoring. It is on these
faults that benefits can be achieved in the failure resolution cost.
The breakdown of failure rate in different categories is depicted in Figure 6 with an example of values. This
breakdown of failure type has been proposed before (CIGRE Technical Publication 191 [B15]) and it is
found useful in the calculation of the potential benefits to be derived from transformer monitoring.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
The transformer failure rate is the figure applicable for major faults on the transformer (or family
of transformers being considered). A major fault is usually understood as fault leading to a
removal of the unit from its base or a site intervention on the active parts. Typical failure rates rest
between 0.5% for very reliable equipment to 3% for the very problematic. A figure of 1% is used
in Figure 6.
The catastrophic transformer failure rate is the proportion of failures causing fire and/or tank
rupture with probable damage to peripheral equipment. This rate is usually very low, but since the
results of a catastrophic failure are usually high in terms of cost and safety, it should be
considered. A figure of 1% of the transformer failure rate is used Figure 6.
Some of these faults are detectable with existing means. Existing devices such as gas
accumulation relays, top oil temperature indicators, and hot-spot simulators can provide warning
to developing faults. Periodic inspection and oil sampling for DGA analysis is known to be an
efficient monitoring procedure. The proportion of faults that can be detected by these means can
be estimated to be 30%.
The remaining faults are not detectable with existing means. This portion is therefore estimated
here to be 70% of all major faults. Some of these faults may display precursory signs but these
signs are too tenuous to be detected by existing devices. This is the type of fault that is targeted by
on-line monitoring.
The detection efficiency will vary based on the type of monitoring system deployed. It is
unrealistic to expect a detection efficiency of 100%. Some faults can go undetected or develop at a
rate too fast to allow for proper alarming and orderly removal from service. In Figure 6, the
detection efficiency is estimated to be 60%.
The faults not detected include those that are instantaneous by nature, for instance an insulation
breakdown following a lightning surge or severe short-circuit. Moreover, some components such
as bushing shields are prone to sporadic failures that occur without any warning.
Non-catastrophic failures are defined here as the major failures contained within the transformer
tank, while catastrophic failures are those involving tank rupture and eventually fire with collateral
damage to nearby equipment. It is useful to distinguish between these two failure modes since the
economic consequences are quite different. It is assumed here that catastrophic failures account for
1% of total failures.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Transformer failure rate: 1%
0.01
Detectable with Not detectable with

Existing means: 30% existing means: 70%
(Buchholz, DGA)
0.003 0.007
Detected with on-line Not detected: 40%

Monitoring: 60% (including instantaneous
0.0042 failures) 0.0028
Catastrophic failure avoided: Non-catastrophic failure avoided: 99%

1%
0.000042 0.004158
Figure 6 Breakdown of failure probability

One benefit of monitoring is to detect and repair a fault at an early stage in order to prevent it from
developing into a major failure without any warning to the transformer operator. Therefore the gain from
reduction in major faults will be somewhat attenuated by an increase in minor faults or predictive
maintenance actions. In this example, let B represent the predictive repair cost for systems with early
detection. The two scenarios (with and without monitoring) compare as follows:
Without monitoring With monitoring

(Present Conditions)
Major failure occurring without 0.007 0.0028
advance warning
Major failure prevented by early 0.003 0.0072
detection of fault (Including
catastrophic failure)
Total 0.01 0.01
The faults currently detected at an early stage (by existing means) can be subtracted from both sides and the
cost will be compared between the following three situations:

(Present Conditions)
Major failure occurring without 0.00693 0.002772
advance warning (99% of 0.007) (99% of 0.0028)
Catastrophic failure 0.00007 0.000028
(1% of 0.007) (1% of 0.0028)
Additional predictive repair work 0 0.0042
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
To complete the benefit evaluation in regard to failure resolution, values should be assigned to the average
repair cost under various scenarios. It should be recognized that the cost for repair when early detection
allows predictive repairs, will be lower than the cost associated with repair of units where early detection is
not provided. In turn, collateral damage can contribute even more to the total resolution cost. The order of
magnitude of the difference between these various costs will vary depending on the application. In the
following example, a multiplier of 7.5 has been used to reflect that the repair cost for a major failure
without advance warning is 7.5 times higher than the cost of repairing the unit in reaction to a predictive
alarm resulting from early detection. A multiplier of 25 has been used to reflect the replacement cost and
collateral damage resulting from a catastrophic failure. Note that the multipliers of 7.5 and 25 should be
adjusted based on the specific application.
Repair cost for major failure without any advance warning $7.5B
Replacement cost and collateral damage in case of catastrophic failure $25B
Predictive repair cost for systems with early detection $B
7.3.2 Failure resolution analysis for individual on-line monitoring
The cost/benefit analysis can be made either for an individual transformer or for a family of transformers
when the deployment of monitoring systems is targeted for a number of units with a similar failure rate. In
the case of centralized monitoring equipment or portable equipment that is to be used for periodic
monitoring, the whole family should be considered since the cost of some equipment will be spread over a
number of units. All costs are annualized for the case of a transformer without monitoring and compared to
the case with monitoring. The benefits resulting from avoidance of major and catastrophic failures need to
be evaluated separately because the economic consequences are very different. As in the previous
subclause, B is still defined as the predictive repair cost for systems with early detection.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Table 8 Failure resolution from on-line monitoring

Annualized costs
Without With
Failure resolution costs Input values monitoring monitoring
Current rate of not detectable failures 0.0070 0.0070
Expected monitoring system efficiency 60% 0.0028
Proportion of failures that are catastrophic 1% 0.000070 0.000028
Major failure resolution cost
Repair cost for major failure $7.5B $0.052B $0.021B
Repair cost for early detection $1.0B $0.0042B
Catastrophic failure resolution cost
Replacement and collateral damage $25B $0.0018B $0.00070B
Repair cost for early detection $1.0B $0.000040B
Annualized failure resolution cost $0.054B $0.026B
Annual benefit from failure resolution cost $0.028B
The calculations used in the above table are as follows:
Failure resolution cost without monitoring

Repair cost for major failure; $ 7.5B 0.00693 = $0.052B
Replacement and collateral damage; $ 25B 0.000070 = $0.0018B
Annualized failure resolution cost: $0.054B
Failure resolution cost with monitoring

Repair cost for major failure; $7.5B 0.002772 = $0.021B
Repair cost for early detection (MF); $1.0B 0.0042 99% = $0.0042B
Replacement and collateral damage; $25B 0.000028 = $0.0007B
Repair cost for early detection (CF); $1.0B 0.0042 1% = $0.00004B
Annualized failure resolution cost: $0.026B
Benefit of monitoring: $0.054B $0.026B = $0.028B / year
7.3.3 Cost of lost generation
Failure of a generating station unit (GSU) can have major economic impacts when the loss of a transformer
leads to generation deficit and purchase of replacement power. This can be the case for a hydroelectric
generating station in the high water season where the loss of a transformer results in water shedding. It can
also be the case for any GSU at peak load season where a loss of generation leads to purchase of
replacement power. Each case is different and the set of parameters shown in Table 9 is presented as an
example. In this example, let C represent the cost of replacement energy in $/MWh.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Table 9 Cost for power not generated

Annualized costs
Input Without With
Cost of power not generated values monitoring monitoring
Average power not generated (MW) 20 20 20
Duration of outage or duration of critical generation period (days) 30 30 30
Cost of replacement energy ($/MWh) C C C
Subtotal: Cost for power not generated $100C $40C
Annual benefit from additional power generated $60C
Cost for power not generated, without monitoring: 20 30 24 C 0.007 = $100C
Cost for power not generated, with monitoring: 20 30 24 C 0.0028 = $40C
Benefit of monitoring: $100C $40C = $60C / year
7.3.4 Cost of contractual power not delivered
Most transmission networks have sufficient transformer capacity to sustain a transformer failure without
interruption of service to the user. However, the network will then be operating in a degraded condition and
might not be able to sustain a second incident without interruption of service to the end user, thus leading in
some cases to penalties for unfulfilled contracts. For an example of the cost of power, see Austin [B2]. The
cost of contractual energy not supplied is not related so much to the normal selling price but rather to the
value established by regulating agencies as a penalty for not delivering power. Considerable work has been
done around the world on estimating the customer interruption costs. Data has been collected by the
CIGRE Task Force 38.06.01 from many countries. As indicated in their report (CIGRE Technical
Publication 191 [B15]), the cost of power interruption is very sensitive to the outage duration and the type
of load.
There are some costs associated with the operation of a degraded system. The cost of risk associated with a
second contingency is the product of the probability of a second contingency occurring during the
transformer outage, multiplied by the economic consequence of that event. The second contingency might
occur as a result of a minor failure on the backup transformer or on any associated equipment that would
prevent the backup transformer from carrying its duty. Minor failures are the ones to be considered because
the probability of occurrence is typically an order of magnitude higher than the major failure rate. Still, a
minor failure can last from a few hours to a few days and can be of significant economic consequence if the
power supply is interrupted.
The cost of the risk associated with a second contingency is calculated as follows, where D represents the
value of energy not supplied in $/MWh:
Probability of a second contingency occurring in an N1 designed system is the product of the

probability of major failure on the main transformer (0.007) by the probability of minor failure on
the backup transformer and associated equipment (0.15), taking account of the outage duration on
the main transformer (150 days); this outage duration can be much shorter if a spare unit is
available at site or in the transformer storage area.
Second contingency probability = 0.007 0.15 150/365 = 0.000432
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Cost of interrupting a delivery of 80 MW for 10 hours at a penalty price of D$/MWhour

Cost = 80 MW 10 hours x $D/MWh = $800D
Cost of risk is the product of probability of the event multiplied by the consequences of this event
Cost of second contingency risk = 0.000432 $800D = $0.3456D / year
The annual benefit on contractual power not delivered due to on-line monitoring is evaluated in Table 10. It
is assumed that an early detection of the problem would always allow for planned outage without
interruption of contractual power delivery.
Table 10 Cost for contractual power not delivered

Annualized costs
Input Without With
Penalties for unfulfilled contracts values monitoring monitoring
Duration of outage on main transformer (days) 150 150 150
Probability of minor failure on backup transformer 0.15 0.15 0.15
Duration of minor failure on backup transformer (hours) 10 10 10
Power not supplied (MW) 80 80 80
Value of energy not supplied ($/MWh) D D D
Subtotal: Cost for contractual power not delivered $0.3452D $0.1381D
Annual benefit from additional power generated $0.2071D
Cost, without monitoring, for contractual power not delivered:

= 0.007 0.15 (150/365) 80 10 $D = $0.3452D
Cost, with monitoring, for contractual power not delivered:

= 0.0028 0.15 (150/365) 80 10 $D = $0.1381D
Benefit of monitoring: $0.3452D $0.1381D = $0.2071D / year
7.3.5 Cost of loss of production in an industrial plant
Most industrial plants production depends on some critical industrial transformers. These transformers are
usually custom designed for the particular plant and/or process and provide power to the process.
Therefore, most likely the plant will carry a spare unit for these transformers. However, the plant will incur
a loss of production until the failed unit is replaced.
For the calculation of the cost of loss of production an example is provided that can be adapted to any
particular plant. Each case is different and the set of parameters shown in Table 11 is presented as an
example for a Nickel smelter using an electrical smelting furnace. This plant will have three single phase
furnace transformers, in the range of 40 MVA each, feeding the electrical smelting furnace. The failure of
any of these transformers will most likely require shutting down the furnace, until the failed unit is
replaced. In this example, let E represent the cost of loss of production in $/MWh.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Table 11 Cost for loss of production

Annualized costs
Input Without With
Cost of power not generated values monitoring monitoring
Current rate of not detectable failures per furnace transformer 0.007 0.007
Number of furnace transformers per furnace 3 3 3
Expected rate of not detectable failures per furnace 0.020853 0.008377
Average furnace power (MW) 60 60 60
Duration of outage to replace the failed furnace transformer (days) 7 7 7
Cost of loss of production ($/MWh) E E E
Cost of energy not used ($/MWh) 0.2E 0.2E 0.2E
Subtotal: Cost for loss of production $170E $68E
Annual benefit from additional power generated $100E
Cost for loss of production, without monitoring: 60 7 24 (E 0.2X) (0.020853) = $ 170E
Cost for loss of production, with monitoring: 60 7 24 (X 0.2E) 0.008377 = $ 68E
Benefit of monitoring: $170E $68E = $100E / year
In this particular case we have three furnace transformers. Therefore, the benefit of monitoring each unit
will be $100E/3 = $33E/unit/year
7.4 Reinforcement of overload capability
7.4.1 Introduction
Power transformers have inherently some margin of overloading capability. The rated capacity of a unit is
basically the load level that will result in internal temperatures not exceeding the limits set forth by
standard producing bodies such as the IEEE and IEC. The application of loads in excess of the nameplate
rating involves a degree of risk and accelerated aging. These effects are discussed at length in IEEE Std
C57.91 [B53] and IEC 60076-7 [B38], and can be summarized as follows:
For short-term transformer failures, the main risk is the reduction of dielectric strength due to the
release of gas bubbles in regions of high electrical stress. The probability of occurrence of these
bubbles is closely related to the winding insulation hot-spot temperature and the moisture content of
the insulating paper.
Under overloading conditions, some components such as LTC contacts and bushing connections may
develop high temperatures leading to thermal runaway. High temperatures may also occur in structures
when the stray magnetic field increases beyond the saturation point of magnetic shields.
For long-duration overloads, the main consequence is the thermal aging of the solid insulation. With
time, the cellulose chains undergo a depolymerization process, thus reducing the average length of the
cellulose chains and consequently reducing the mechanical strength of the paper. This paper
deterioration is a function of time, temperature, moisture content and oxygen content. This effect is
irreversible and forms the basis for transformer life duration.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
7.4.2 Effect of on-line monitoring on overloading capability
It is generally recognized that the risks associated with overloading can be significantly reduced if the
transformer conditions are closely monitored throughout the overload period (Bergman [B8], Farquharson
[B30]). To quantify this benefit, the additional loading margin provided by monitoring needs to be stated.
Field experience with transformer overloading is still limited, but it can be conservatively assumed that if
the parameters mentioned below are properly monitored, the transformer may carry additional load with the
same degree of confidence that would exist in operation without monitoring.
A comprehensive monitoring system comprised of load, temperatures, dissolved gas-in-oil and moisture
sensors, can provide a major support to the operator when the transformer faces overload conditions:
An important limitation for transformer loading is winding hot spot temperature. The winding hot
spot temperature is affected by many items including load, ambient, cooling system health, and
transformer losses (which may change based on LTC position). Taking these elements into
account, it is possible to calculate the maximum safe load the transformer can carry from a thermal
perspective. This value is commonly referred to as the dynamic rating of the transformer. Using
the time constant design details of the transformer, it is also feasible to calculate the time
remaining until the winding hot spot temperature exceeds a defined limit.
Continuous monitoring of hydrogen and carbon monoxide provides dependable detection of
excessive overheating of leads, shields, structural parts, contacts, or bolted joints. It will also alert
the operator if excessive circulating current is taking place in the core or in the tank, leading to
arcing or overheating of contact points.
The moisture sensor measures the relative moisture content of the insulating oil. Over time, the
on-line monitoring system can use this information to infer the moisture content of the insulating
paper, thus allowing estimation of the bubble inception temperature. This temperature is compared
to the hot-spot temperature to indicate the safety margin prevailing during the overload. The
moisture content of the insulating paper is also an important factor to take into account when
calculating the insulations loss of life.
Although thermal loss of life of the winding insulation cannot be prevented, on-line monitoring
can provide a dynamic evaluation of insulation degradation. The relative loss of life can then be
converted into cost if some hypotheses are set regarding normal life duration and transformer cost.
The cost attributed to loss of life needs to be subtracted from the apparent benefits achieved from
transmitting this extra load. The loss of life cost can also be useful when calculating the cost of
transmitting this additional amount of energy.
7.4.3 Cost/Benefit evaluation for overloading
For the specific case of transformer overloading, the following parameters need to be considered in order to
quantify the benefits:
The additional loading margin is the extra loading allowance made available by on-line
monitoring by reducing the inherent risks associated with high load levels. As an example, it could
be estimated that a transformer can be loaded up to 110% without special monitoring and that on-
line monitoring will allow loads up to 120% with the same degree of confidence.
The transformer replacement cost (including engineering and installation) is needed to calculate
the value of the loss of transformer life incurred during the overload.
The transformer normal life duration is a conventional reference for continuous duty under normal
ambient temperature and rated operating conditions. IEEE Std C57.91 [B53] and IEC 60076-7
[B38], indicate a number of benchmarks that can be used. In the calculation that follows, a
remaining degree of polymerization of 200 is selected as the end-of-life criterion, leading to a
normal life duration of 150 000 hours. This value applies for a rated winding hot-spot temperature
of 110 C with minimum content of moisture and oxygen.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
The loss of transformer life is directly related to the winding hot-spot temperature that can be
calculated from prospective load profile and ambient temperature. The aging acceleration factor
increases exponentially with the temperature. In the simplified example presented below, a
continuous 110% loading leads to a hot-spot temperature of 120 C and an aging acceleration
factor of 2.7. For a 120% loading, the hot-spot temperature is assumed to be constant at 135 C
with an aging acceleration factor of 11. Therefore 100 hours at that temperature is equivalent to
1100 hours at the rated temperature of 110 C. The economic value ascribable to the overload
alone is obtained by subtracting from the total the aging caused by the normal load. The net loss of
transformer life can then be related to the normal life duration and the transformer cost to quantify
the value of the loss of transformer life attributable to the overload.
The value of the extra energy delivered during a peak demand period can be very high.
Using this simplified assumption along with steady load and steady ambient temperature, the benefits of
on-line monitoring have been assessed in Table 12 where F represents the transformer replacement cost
(including engineering and installation) in $ and G represents value of the extra energy delivered during a
peak demand period in $/MWh.
Table 12 Transformer overloading benefit From on-line monitoring
Annualized costs
Without With
Benefit from overloading capacity Input values monitoring monitoring
Extra loading without monitoring (MW) 10 10
Extra loading with monitoring (MW) 20 20
Duration of overloading (hours) 100 100 100
Probability of overload occurrence 0.20 0.20 0.20
Value of delivered energy ($/MWh) (G) (G) (G)
Transformer normal life duration (hours) 150 000 150000 150000
Replacement cost of transformer F F F
Aging acceleration factor at 110% load 2.7 2.7
Aging acceleration factor at 120% load 11.0 11
Gross value of extra energy delivered ($200G) ($400G)
Value of additional loss of transformer life $0.00023F $0.0013F
Subtotal: Cost for contractual power not delivered $(200G) $(400G)
0.00023F 0.0013F
Annual benefit from additional power generated $(200G)-
.0011F
Annualized cost (benefits) without monitoring:

Gross value on extra energy delivered: 10 100 0.2 G = ($200G)
Value of additional loss of transformer life: [$F 100 0.20 (2.7 1)/150 000] =
$0.00023F
Cost (benefit) from overloading = (200G) 0.00023F
Annualized cost (benefits) with monitoring:

Gross value on extra energy delivered: 20 100 0.20 G = ($400Y)
Value of additional loss of transformer life: [$Fx 100 0.20 (11.01)/150 000] =
$0.0013F
Cost (benefit) from overloading = (400G) 0.0013F
Benefit of monitoring: = [($400G) ($200G)] $[0.0013F 0.00023F)] = / year
45
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
7.5 Deferring transformer replacement
Whenever a transformer is considered for replacement, a comprehensive condition assessment is usually

carried out. This would imply a number of electrical and chemical tests, some of them requiring an outage,
leading to a diagnostic on the insulation condition. In this context, the economic value of on-line
monitoring is difficult to assess, as the decision should also take into account other considerations such as
capital availability, delivery time for new units and the perception that the insulation condition could start
to degrade in the near future. Considering the large financial consequence of deferring transformer
replacement, it is however, worthwhile to attempt an evaluation of the economic contribution that could be
expected from on-line monitoring.
In some cases the transformer replacement is considered to eliminate concern raised by either the age of the
unit or a known defective condition. In other cases the consideration for replacement arises from normal
load growth, the transformer eventually reaching its loading limit. This loading limit is usually applicable
to an emergency condition that would prevail during an outage on the parallel transformer, since
substations are normally provided with some degree of redundancy. As a result, transformers usually spend
most of their life at a load below their nameplate rating (Molinski [B66]).
During that period, the failure rate is practically independent of the load level. As the load increases, the
transformer will be requested to carry higher loading, and as paper aging progresses the insulation may
degrade. The failure rate can then be expected to increase depending on various factors such as the
moisture content, the tightness of the windings, and the temperature of leads connections and tap changer
contacts. The transformer would normally be removed from service if the failure rate were believed to rise
beyond the acceptable level. For an aging transformer, the risk is not so much the remaining value of the
unit as the inconvenience of an unscheduled outage. At this stage, condition monitoring becomes critical to
maintain an acceptable level of reliability. By providing early detection of incipient faults, on-line
monitoring provides visibility of issues earlier, reducing the risk of unexpected failures and unscheduled
outages, thus raising the reliability to a level acceptable by the owner.
If half of the major failures can be avoided and converted to minor failures, reliability is enhanced and the
transformer can be allowed to serve for a few additional years before an unacceptable level of unscheduled
outage probability is reached (see Figure 7).
Without With
monitoring monitoring
Failure rate %
Infant
Infant Steady
Steady End ofOut
Worn
Mortality State Life
mortality state
Acceptable level
of failure rate
Replacement defferal
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Years
Figure 7 Effect of monitoring on transformer life duration
46
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
The benefit from deferred replacement is directly proportional to the current interest rate and the capital
cost of a new unit. If H is defined as the cost of a new/replacement unit including the cost of removing
the old transformer and installation costs on the replacement unit, value of deferring replacement at a
current interest rate of 6% is worth $0.06H annually.
As the transformer population grows older, the replacement scenario will become even more relevant.
Additional efforts are needed to quantify more exactly the economic relation between closer condition
monitoring and the serviceability of a unit nearing the end of useful life.
7.6 Monitoring system cost
When evaluating the cost of a monitoring system the following parameters need to be taken into account:
Purchase cost of the monitoring system (including preparation of bid request and technical evaluation),
installation (including work planning, documentation, and commissioning), infrastructure and yearly
operating cost (maintenance, communication and data handling).
Obviously the monitoring system cost depends on the features and capabilities of the system. The
capability of the system should also be considered when evaluating the expected performance in terms of
avoiding unexpected failures and life extension potential. This has to be taken into account in the
computation illustrated in the previous section. For example, if a monitoring system does not cover the
LTC, then the LTC unexpected failure rate will not be reduced, nor will its maintenance cost. It is
recommended to run several scenarios with various monitoring system configurations to determine the best
option available. In the following example, let J represent the cost of the selected monitoring system, let
K represent the installation cost, and let L represent the annual support cost for the monitoring system.
Table 13 Transformer monitoring yearly cost evaluation

Monitoring system cost Input Annual cost Annual cost
values without with monitoring
monitoring
Expected life of monitoring system (years) 20
Monitoring system cost $J $0.05J
Installation cost $K $0.05K
Support for monitoring system ($/year) $L $L
Total annual monitoring cost $0 $0.05J + 0.05K + L
7.7 Global evaluation
More than one of the situations described in sections 7.2 to 7.5 could apply to a given transformer (as well
as other situations not described here). To determine the overall benefit of a monitoring system, it is
necessary to add all the benefits from the applicable section(s) and subtract the cost of the monitoring
system (see 7.6).
Example: Assume a new transformer with no contractual requirement and no loss of production in case of
failure but with LTC and with expected overloading. The potential benefit is as follows:
Reduced LTC maintenance (Table 7)

+ Failure resolution (Table 8)
+ Overload capability (Table 12)
Cost of monitoring (Table 13)
= Total yearly benefit
47
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Annex A
(informative)
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7
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
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53
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Annex B
(informative)
Bushing power factor and capacitance
B.1 Introduction
The basic principles of the sum current method, illustrated in Figure B.1, and Relative Power Factor/Tan
are discussed in this annex.
B.2 Current sum method
The sum current method is based on the fact that in a three-phase system, if the system voltages are
perfectly balanced and the bushings are identical, the vector sum of the bushing currents will be zero
(Figure B-2). The bushing currents, i.e., required signals, simply represent the insulation currents available
at the capacitance or power factor taps of the bushings (Figure B-1). In reality, bushings are never identical
and system voltages are never perfectly balanced. As a result, the initial sum current will be small but finite
and unique for each set of bushings. When one of the bushings deteriorates, its capacitance and/or power
factor will change and, correspondingly, the sum current associated with the set will deviate from its initial
value. Thus, the condition of the deteriorating bushing in the set can be determined by evaluating changes
in the sum current.
.
A
B
. C
.
C1
IA C1
. IB C1
C2
C2
. IC
I
C2
Figure B-1Tap current measurement
VA
I'A I A
' VA
I''A
IA IB I0A
I0A I' I''A
I = 0 I0B I0B
I''
IC I0C I0C
A: The sum current B: Change in the C: Change in the
is zero in a sum current due to sum current due to
symmetrical three- a change in the a change in the
phase system with power factor of capacitance of
identical bushings. bushing A. bushing A.
Figure B-2Tap current summation
54
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
In its simplest form the sum current method can be explained by considering two significant changes in the
C1 insulation of one of the bushings (phase A in Figure B-2-B and Figure B-2-C). Let the initial sum
current be zero. The first change is purely resistive, i.e., only the in-phase component of the bushing
current changes due to a change in the power factor of the bushing. This change results in the phasor IA =
IA - I0A (Figure B-2-B). The change is in phase with the voltage phasor VA and it is equal to I .
Starting again with a zero initial sum current, let the second change be purely capacitive, i.e., only the
quadrature component of the bushing current changes (Figure B-2-C). In this case, the change results in the
phasor IA = IA - I0A. The change in current leads the voltage VA by 90 and is equal to I.
B.3 Tan method
Off-line power factor (PF)/Tan instruments are based on a variant of the Schering bridge or current
comparator bridge measurement which compares the device under test versus a standard capacitor in a
balanced bridge. On-line relative power factor (PF)/Tan calculations are also based on the concept of the
conventional Schering bridge. The bridge is modeled using a fast Fourier analysis software algorithm
applied to on-line measurements from the voltage obtained from the bushing C1 test tap.
The theoretical basis of the Power Factor/Tan (Dissipation Factor/Loss Angle) are well documented in
IEEE and IEC industry standards. Figure B-3 shows the vector representation of Dissipation factor and
Power factor as defined in IEEE C57.12.90 and IEEE C37 standards.
Dissipation Factor = tan = IR / IC
Power Factor = COS = IR / ITOT
Figure B-3A Mathematical representation of Power Factor and Dissipation Factor

measurement
B.4 Relative Power Factor/Tan
In off-line applications for both Laboratory and field testing, the basis of the methodology is unchanged.
As shown in Figure B-4:
1) Cx and Rx represent the sample under test.
2) C2 represents a Standard Reference Capacitor, normally SF6 gas insulated.
3) C1, R1, and R3 represent the balancing arms of the instruments.
55
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Figure B-4Standard Schering bridge
Laboratory and field off-line Relative Power Factor/Tan Delta measurements utilize the Schering bridge
concept for accurate measurements.
For on-line measurements, the standard capacitor used in the bridge as a reference is replaced with a
software model of a live bushing under test. The advantage to this on-line method is that all bushings are
tested at rated voltage, rated load, and environmental conditions.
56
IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Annex C
(informative)
Partial discharge: electrical and acoustic methods
C.1 Introduction
Among the parameters that are considered important to measure for transformers, partial discharges (PDs)
have a very special status. The presence of PD may be a sign of a degradation of the insulation that could
eventually lead to full dielectric breakdown. If any significant PD is detected, this is cause for an
investigation.
The energy by-products of PD should be measured because PD cannot be measured directly. These by-
products are electrical transients, chemical changes, electromagnetic emissions, vibration, sound, light, and
heat.
PD repetition rates vary significantly. Laboratory PD sources are usually simple and may be controlled to
ignite once each period. In oil-filled transformers, the rate can vary from long periods with no PD to
hundreds of discharges per half period for many or large sources. Many small discharges may produce
more destruction than a few large ones.
All problems resulting in PD are not alike. Some may be tolerated for years, others may cause near-term
failures.
On-line PD monitoring is generally carried out by two methods viz. electrical method and the acoustic
method. Based on the sensor types on-line PD monitoring can also be classified into non-intrusive
monitoring and intrusive monitoring. Non-intrusive monitoring uses sensors installed outside the
transformers, such as coupling capacitors, high-frequency current transformers (HFCT), piezoelectric type
accelerometers (Lundgaard [B65]), etc. Intrusive monitoring systems have PD sensors inside the
transformer and the implementation is thus more difficult and expensive.
C.2 Electrical PD
The PD measurement system shall be capable of assessing the insulation condition based on PD
measurement of the bushings and the transformer windings insulation. The system shall also be capable of
detecting sparking in the core, sparking associated with bad connections, and sparking associated with the
static electrical discharges.
C.2.1 Sensors
The basic approach of the electrical PD monitoring task is the decoupling method of the PD signal. The
most common method is the application of coupling capacitance and measuring impedance. Beside the
standardized method, there are other well-established sensor coupling methods available in the market, that
may have several advantages depending on the circumstances, such as easier handling, temporary on-line
measurement without outage of the device, matched bandwidth to achieve an enhanced signal-to-noise-
ratio, etc.
In electrical PD monitoring, the impulsive PD current is measured directly through a capacitive coupling
circuit or a HFCT. The coupling capacitor can be a separate high-voltage PD-free capacitor attached to the
transformer terminals, or can be the bushing capacitance directly. In case of HFCT, the sensor frequency
range of operation can vary between 500 kHz to 50 MHz. Sensors should be designed for outdoor
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
installation within the expected ambient temperatures. Sensors shall be connected, as required based on the
field conditions, to the following locations: bushing capacitor taps, transformer neutral connection, tank
grounding, core grounding, electrostatic shield grounding, and surge arresters. In addition UHF sensors can
be fitted on the oil side of inspection covers or inserted through gate or globe valves.
Figure C-1Signal conditioning and data processing
The major problem with electrical PD monitoring is the handling of interferences. This can involve very
complicated algorithms and may not always be solved in practical applications (Borsi, Glockenbach, and
Wenzel [B11]). The signal obtained from the PD decoupling unit is transmitted to the data acquisition
system using either coaxial cable or fiber optic technology of appropriate bandwidth. The dimensions of the
sensor and the amplification factor play important roles in optimizing the signal to noise ratio. The digital
filtering of continuous noise signals is generally started after the digitization of the signal. Sinusoidal noise,
caused by e.g., radio and communication services, may be suppressed using frequency rejection filters in
the frequency domain and white noise attributed primarily to the optical transmission may be filtered with
wavelet techniques (Werle, et al. [B83]). Periodically appearing noise pulses can be eliminated using cross
correlation methods, whereas stochastically occurring pulse shaped noises like corona discharges can be
separated using a technique, which is based on the comparison of the relation of frequency spectra of the
impulses measured simultaneously at the neutral and the bushing (Werle, et al. [B83]). A signal from
outside the transformer has to run through the whole transformer coil, thus a characteristic signal distortion,
which is defined by the transfer function of the coil, takes place. Due to the transmission through the whole
coil, external noise pulses are much more damped and undergo significant higher attenuation.
After denoising the PD pulses, analysis is undertaken concerning their apparent charges as well as their
origins.
C.2.2 Phenomena identification
The system shall measure the following: apparent discharge magnitude of each pulse, number of pulses per
cycle, phase position of each discharge pulse, and peak discharge magnitude of the pulses. Simultaneously
to the PD pulses, the instantaneous values of the high-voltage signal derived from the measuring impedance
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
shall also be stored. The following quantities shall be plotted and displayed in a report format: discharge
magnitude of each pulse(q), number of pulses per cycle (n), phase position of each discharge pulse (),
n(), Max q(), Average q(), n(q, ), n(q) and pulse count vs. PD magnitude vs. phase position
representation (3D graph), and pulse PD power.
In this way, the necessary information is available to permit all display and diagnosis facilities.
C.2.3 Data interpretation
A big problem with PD monitoring is the result interpretation. There are currently no general rules that can
correlate the transformer condition with PD activities, or even a clear classification of PD activities. The
only useable parameter is an empirical PD level limit value (Wenzel, et al. [B82]). There seems to be no
agreement on this value in national standards (IEEE Std C57.113 [B54]).
Classification of PD is based on recognition. There are two basic possibilities for recognizing discharges:
phase- and time-resolved recognition. Time-resolved recognition has attractive advantages, since a direct
relationship between the physics in the defect and the shape of the signal can be established and stages in
the aging of the dielectric materials can be recognized. However, phase-resolved recognition is also used
for pattern recognition and classification since each discharge pulse in the pattern reflects the physical
process at the discharge site and a strong relationship has been found between the characteristics of these
patterns and the type of the defect causing them (Karthikeyen, Gopal, and Venkatesh [B58]). Phase-
resolved PD patterns (PRPD) are discharge patterns in relation to AC cycle (Kruger, Gulski, and Krivda
[B34]).
An additional PD localization based on an acoustic measurement, needs to be performed to complement

this result.
C.3 Acoustic PD
Acoustic detection systems can be used to detect and/or locate partial discharges in transformers. As shown
in Figure C-2, sensors, generally attached to the outside of the transformer tank, detect the stress waves
caused by PD. This acoustic wave is converted to a voltage signal by the sensor, which is processed and
displayed, and may be combined with other signals to aid in interpretation of the acoustic disturbance (Chu,
Badaly, and Slemon [B13]).
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Figure C-2Acoustic PD
The advantages of the acoustic system are as follows:
a) Disturbing signals from the electric network do not interfere with the measurement.
b) Acoustic equipment can be set up and operated while the transformer is on-line.
c) It may be used during transformer applied voltage or induced voltage tests.
d) It is non-invasive unless internal waveguides or antennas are used to detect acoustic or RF signals.
e) Some commercial systems may differentiate between actual PD and other acoustic noises.
Disadvantages of the acoustic system are as follows:
a) Other vibration sources may be confused for PD. Mechanical sources (such as loose clamping
bolts, nameplates or insulation parts, fan and pump flow noise), thermal faults, core
magnetostriction noise, switching and load tap changer movement, and environmental noises (e.g.,
trucks, rain, thunderstorms) generate acoustic emissions. These different sources often appear
similar.
b) Problems in interpretation of signals may be caused by the different velocities of propagation in

steel, oil, and insulation.
c) Blocking of signals may be caused by insulation, directed oil wraps, ducts, magnetic shields, and
other internal obstructions.
d) In the laboratory it may be possible to correlate AE characteristics with electrical partial discharge
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
(pico-Coulomb) levels. However, this correlation cannot be used in the field due to the external
disturbances and effects of attenuation in both the acoustic and electrical signals. This means that
no absolute value of partial discharge activity can be determined from AE measurements made in
the field.
C.3.1 Use of acoustic PD systems
Acoustic PD systems are often used in the following situations:
a) When DGA indicates the possible presence of PD.
In the case of partial discharges of the corona-type in voids or gas bubbles, the main gas formed is
hydrogen together with significant amounts of methane (typically 10%) and minor amounts of the
other gases. Variable amounts of the carbon oxides may also result from partial discharges in
cellulose, although usually in lower quantities than the other gases. In the case of discharges of the
sparking-type in oil or in paper, significant amounts of all the hydrocarbons (including acetylene)
are formed in addition to hydrogen. (Bengtsson [B4], Bengtsson, et al. [B5].)
b) When static electrification is suspected (Cummings, et al. [B18], Leibfried, et al. [B34], Chu,
Badaly, and Slemon [B13], Chu, Badaly, and Slemon [B14], and Oommen [B69]).
c) When electrical PD is detected, for confirmation and source location.
d) As a diagnostic warning tool for suspect or very important transformers.
e) For PD detection during factory impulse testing.
C.3.2 Sensors
The most commonly used sensor is an externally-mounted piezo-electric displacement transducer with an
integral pre-amplifier circuit.
The main frequency of a partial discharge of about 150 pC magnitude is 100 kHz (Boisseau and Tantin
[B9], Boisseau, Tantin, and Despiney [B10]). Users typically choose sensors with resonant frequency of
either 60 kHz or 150 kHz. For larger discharges, frequencies should decrease. Also, attenuation caused by
the signal passing through insulation or other barriers affects high frequencies more than low. These factors
favor the sensor with the 60 kHz resonant frequency for factory and laboratory use. In the field, however,
numerous noises or harmonics of noises are encountered in the 20 kHz to 60 kHz frequency range. Since
the sensor is sensitive to pressure waves in its frequency range that may not be from a PD source, these
noises may lead to false readings. A number of users favor the 150 kHz resonant frequency sensor for field
applications for this reason.
One way to decrease the external influence is to use acoustic wave-guides (Foata, Aubin, and Rajotte
[B31]) that detect signals from inside the transformer tank. This solution is typically only considered for
permanent monitoring of important transformers. As an alternative, phase position analysis can be used to
reject these disturbances (Boisseau, Tantin, and Despiney [B10]).
The user should always be aware that the responding characteristics of the sensor may at times be more in
evidence than the forcing characteristics of the PD signal.
Acoustic couplant gel or grease should be applied to the face of the transducer or matching piece just prior
to test. Gels or solids that retain high viscosity at the transformer wall at operating temperature are
preferred because low viscosity couplants will not transfer shear stresses. Couplants produced for ultrasonic
non-destructive testing purposes are generally suitable. Gelled glycerin and silicone grease are particularly
efficient and are recommended. Silicone grease may be difficult to remove from the tank surface.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Annex D
(informative)
Direct winding temperature
The measurement of winding temperatures using optical sensors at point locations was established in the
utility industry since the early 1990s (Wickersheim [B85]). In this application, the element sensitive to
temperature is placed at the end of the optical fiber. This technique and its application in transformers was
developed in the early 1980s and has been widely published.
Commercially-available fiber optic point sensors are based on one of the following three methods:
fluorescence decay time, Fabry-Perot interferometer, and absorption shift of semiconductor crystals. In all
cases, the sensing system comprises a small sensitive part attached to the end of an optical fiber that carries
the light signal from and to the optics/electronics unit (signal conditioner) as shown in Figure D-1.
A fourth method that has been used is a distributed temperature system.
Optics/Electro Probe (Optical Fiber) Sensor

Figure D-1Schematic of the primary components that make up a fluorescence decay
measurement system
D.1 Fluorescence decay time
The fluorescence decay time technique takes advantage of optical properties inherent in phosphorescent
material (Wickersheim and Lefever [B84]). The instrument determines the temperature of the sensor by
measuring the decay time of the sensors emitted light. It is a persistent property of the sensor that its decay
time varies precisely with temperature.
The instrument sends pulses of light down the fiber to the sensor. The phosphor sensor is attached to the tip
of an all-silica fiber and is usually encapsulated in a fluoropolymer thermoplastic or other protective
covering. The sensor material is excited with LED light source. A light pulse from the signal conditioners
LED excites the molecules of the phosphorescent material thereby causing them to emit light at a longer
wavelength. The emitted light returns to the signal conditioner through the same, single fiber optic.
The time required for the fluorescence to decay, typically a few milliseconds, is dependent upon the
phosphors temperature. After the LED is turned off, the decaying fluorescent signal (Figure D-2)
continues to transmit through the fiber to the signal conditioner, where it is focused onto a detector. The
signal from the detector is amplified and sampled after the LED is turned off. The decay time constant of
the afterglow is measured electronically.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Figure D-2Decay of afterglow emitted by phosphor sensor
The measured decay time constant is then converted to temperature using a look-up table in the signal
conditioner (Figure D-3).
Figure D-3The 1/e decay time of the afterglow of phosphor sensor at varying
temperature
D.1.1 Absorption shift of semiconductor crystals:
Another method uses the temperature dependent light absorption/transmission characteristics of a

semiconductor crystal, usually gallium arsenide (GaAs). A feature of this crystal is that when its
temperature increases, the crystals transmission spectrum shifts to higher wavelength. Measuring the
position of the absorption shift gives a measurement of the temperature of the sensing element. This is done
using a grating-based near infrared spectrometer.
Specifically, the sensor consists of an optical fiber with a semiconductor (GaAs) crystal and a dielectric
mirror at the tip. A beam of white-light (multi-wavelength light) is emitted from the signal conditioners
light source through the optical fiber towards the sensor. Changes in the temperature of the GaAs crystal
will change its transmission spectrum. The transmitted light through the crystal impinges on the mirror at
the end of the sensor and is then reflected back to the signal conditioners spectrum analyzer. This optical
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
signal is then converted into an electrical signal using a CCD. The electronics in the signal conditioner
evaluate the cutoff wavelength of absorption within the multi-wavelength spectrum from the original light
source. Analysis of the optical spectrum detected by the spectrum analyzer provides the crystals
temperature (Figure D-4).
Figure D-4Transmission spectrum shift with temperature shift in the semiconductor

crystal
D.1.2 Fabry-Perot interferometer
Fiber-optic Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) consists of two fibers inserted inside a glass microcapillary.
The polished ends of the fibers facing each other are coated to form a pair of parallel reflective mirrors.
These two reflective mirrors facing each other form a cavity resonator.
One of the fibers is made of temperature-dependent glass that acts on the cavity as a transducer device,
making the distance between the two mirrors to vary according to temperature.
A white-light cross-correlator is used to measure the distance between the mirrors (Wickersheim [B85]).
White light from a broadband light source is launched into the optical fiber and directed toward the Fabry-
Perot cavity (Figure D-5). The wavelength of the light is modulated by the FPI cavity and reflected back
toward the instrument detection circuit through the same fiber optic. This wavelength-modulated light is
transmitted through a white-light cross-correlator and detected by a linear charge-coupled device (CCD)
array. The white-light cross-correlator acts as a spatially-distributed Fabry-Perot cavity in which the cavity
length varies along lateral position. Interaction of the modulated light and the correlator generates a light
pattern detected by the CCD array to yield the information on the length of the FPI cavity of the sensor.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Fabry-Prot micro multimode optical

Gauge capillary fiber
fused welding
semi-reflecting
Connector mirrors
Readout instrument
Reflected
light
Optical Fiber
Incident Light Incident
light source
I light
2 x2 Coupler
Cross
-correlation
function
I
p ix el
Lens
White-light
Linear CCD array
cross
-correlator FPI Modulated
Reflected light
Figure D-5Schematics showing the principle of FPI using a white-light interferometry

readout scheme
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
D.2 Distributed temperature sensor
Distributed temperature sensor (DTS) offers interesting opportunities in advanced temperature sensing by
providing the capability of spatially mapping the temperature using a single sensor. A distributed fiber
optic temperature sensor is capable of measuring the temperature along the fiber as a function of distance.
The continuous measurement of the temperature profile in transformer windings can be used to study and
improve the thermal design of transformers as well as for the validation and/or calibration of existing
design tools.
Most distributed sensors are based on a radar-like concept and measure the backscattered power from a
short laser light pulse propagating in the fiber. As with conventional radar systems, the position information
x is directly related to the two-way propagation time t of the light: t = 2x/vg. Therefore, the temporal
variation of the optical signal can be converted into a spatial dependence of the sensed parameter. As the
group velocity vg in optical fibers is about 2108 m/s, a time difference of 1 ns in the measured signal
corresponds to a spatial separation of 10 cm along the fiber.
The DTS is based on the concept of distributed anti-Stokes Raman ratio thermometry, (Dakin, et al. [B20],
Hartog, et al. [B37]), where the temperature profile is determined from the time-dependent variation of the
ratio of the backscattered anti-Stokes and Stokes signals.
laser pulse backscattered

light
laser
fiber
detection
scattered light spectrum

Raleigh Temp.
Anti-Stokes
temperature dependent
Stokes
intensity
Stokes Anti-
location round trip time Stokes
- 0 +
frequency shift
Figure D-6Schematic principle of DTS
Figure D-6 illustrates the working principle of the DTS. As a short light pulse propagates inside an optical
fiber, the incident photons interact with the atoms of the molecules from which the fiber is made. The
interaction between a photon and an atom may excite it into a higher energy state, from which it may return
to an energy level different from its original one. In doing so, light at a different wavelength is emitted in
what is referred to at the atomic level as transition. If this emitted light is of a longer wavelength (lower
energy), it is known as Stokes radiation. Conversely, light reradiated at a shorter wavelength (higher
energy) is known as anti-Stokes radiation. Both Stokes and anti-Stokes radiation are associated with Raman
scattering. The degree of anti-Stokes Raman scattering is strongly dependent on the thermal energy of the
material and so lends itself to temperature sensing. The amount of Raman scattering that takes place in a
fiber is very much less than the Raleigh backscatter, which typically exceeds the former by about three
orders of magnitude. Therefore, highly sensitive detection systems are necessary. In order to eliminate the
effects of fiber attenuation, it is necessary to ratio the Stokes and anti-Stokes radiation.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
A prerequisite for the real hot-spot detection in transformer windings is the installation of the optical fiber
into the winding. Together with the wrapping of the cellulose paper-based insulation around the copper
conductor, the fiber is laid in a notch, as illustrated in Figure D-7.
NOTCH WITH
OPTICAL FIBER
Figure D-7Geometry of the conductor
This new generation of temperature sensors presents a main advantage since the very large measuring area
permits the detection of abnormalities in the entire volume of the transformer coils. These may exhibit
temperature gradients, unknown positions of the hot-spots, or pronounced variations due to winding
schemes. Such a system may be used for the design of optimized coils.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
Annex E
(informative)
Communications protocols for on-line monitoring equipment
E.1 Introduction
This annex is intended to serve as a short tutorial and a reference source for the design or selection of
intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) for on-line monitoring systems.
There are many types of IEDs that may be used in substations. Some examples are protective relays, remote
terminal units (RTUs), meters, equipment monitoring and alarming devices, etc. Condition monitoring of
substation equipment may require the use of IEDs to monitoring key parameters and derive useful
information regarding the status of the equipment. As an example, a monitoring IED for a substation
transformer might use top oil and load measurements to derive the winding hot spot temperature and rate of
equipment aging. In addition, monitoring IEDs may include communication capabilities to transfer this data
to other IEDs or RTUs for use by local and distant users. Data from all these IEDs should be efficiently and
securely collected and then provided to designated users and software applications. The process of
efficiently and securely collecting and then providing data to designated users may be referred to as
substation data integration.
To simplify the data integration task, electric utilities and other substation owners use communication
protocols to consolidate and exchange the collected data between users. A communication protocol is quite
simply a formalized set of rules for exchanging information between two or more electronic devices.
Within the context of this annex, a communications protocol can be thought of as the language used by the
IEDs to send and receive data, alarms, set points, and control commands. Obviously, a protocol must be
clear and unambiguous, but it is important to note that not all protocols have the same capabilities;
therefore, it is advisable to seek out a protocol that fits the present and future needs of the organization.
For ease of the integration process, substation owners prefer to minimize the number of communication
protocols in use within their organization. It is preferable that chosen protocols are in the public domain,
well documented and supported within the industry, primarily for reasons of cost minimization and future
expansion capabilities. At this time, several protocols that meet these criteria are available. Two such
protocols are described in IEEE Std 1379 [B50] (DNP3 [B25] and IEC 60870-5-101 [B45]), while a third
protocol, IEC 61850 was approved by the IEC in 2004 and has been incorporated into Utility
Communications Architecture (UCATM) 2.0 work.
E.2 The role and requirements of a protocol
The above protocols operate in a master/follower mode (also sometimes called master/slave mode). One
IED (for example, a monitoring device) is the follower and another IED, typically the RTU or substation
computer, is the master. The master might also be a computer at a remote site. The master sends a message,
using the selected protocol, to the follower over the data communications channel. This channel might be
twisted pair wires, coaxial cable, radio, or fiber optic cable.
An example of the protocol message might be send me all your data. The follower IED (i.e., a
transformer monitor) would then respond by sending all its stored data. This is not a very efficient method
of data exchange because much of the data in a follower IED may not change at frequent intervals or the
master may already have stored or communicated much of the data very recently. A more efficient
communication exchange might start with the master sending a query asking for any data that has changed
since the last report by the follower. This reporting method is called report by exception and is more
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
efficient because communication between the master and follower can be faster and there can be less data
communicated over the data communication channel. An even more efficient reporting method is called
unsolicited report by exception. In this case the IED initiates communications only when it has a change or
new event to report.
All of the protocols mentioned in E.1 have the capability of requesting all data, specified subsets of data, or
single data points with or without report by exception, and to report alarms via unsolicited report by
exception.
Any communication protocol suitable for on-line monitoring in substation and field environments should
also ensure the following:
a) Data integrity: Correct data transmission is required in the presence of harsh environmental
conditions such as electromagnetic interference and other sources of disturbance incident on the
communications channel. The protocol should be designed such that the probability of an
undetected error is extremely low.
b) Efficient data transfer: Short transfer times are needed particularly for event-initiated messages
carried over a variety of channels (e.g., twisted pair, fiber optics, radio) that have varying
bandwidth and uncertain noise and interference characteristics.
c) Flexible data transmission: No restrictions on IED data should be imposed. The protocol shall
accept and transmit a wide variety of data types and structures including large event files.
d) Criticality and priority: Support for varying treatment of data depending on the need for
reliability or speed.
e) Flexible polling schemes: For efficiency and expansion standard polling, report by exception
and unsolicited report by exception should be supported.
f) Media independent: The protocol should be able to operate over various or even multiple
physical layers communication media such as of traditional wires, coax, radio, and fiber optic
media.
g) Addressable: The protocol should support a large number of addresses of nodes and/or devices
over a common channel. In addition, protocol messages should include both sender and
recipient addresses for future peer-to-peer type messaging over a network.
h) OSI model-compliant: The protocol should adhere to the layer structure of the OSI model,
complying with the requirements for layers 1, 2, and 7 as a minimum. Protocols adhering to this
structure can more easily be implemented over standard local area networks such as Ethernet.
i) Standards: Protocol should make maximum use of international/national standards wherever
possible because proprietary protocols limit the choice of available IEDs and technical support.
E.3 Protocol selection
Typically, an IED is provided with only one protocol. If a standard protocol is already in use in a
substation, it is relatively easy to select a new IED with the same protocol for connection to the
communications channel or network. On the other hand, if a proprietary protocol is installed in the
substation and new IEDs are to be added, then the options are as follows:
Upgrade the existing RTUs, IEDs and master with the standard protocol (preferred).
Use different protocols but with a translation gateway so that data can be transferred on a common
channel.
Order the new IEDs with the old legacy protocol.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
When making this decision there are both technical and economic implications. What is the cost of
implementing the substations existing protocol in the new IED vs. the cost of installing a new network?
Does the existing protocol have all the capabilities needed? For example, will it support the downloading of
set points for analog alarms? Will it support the interrogation of single data values, sets of data, or the
entire stored data on a report by exception basis? Will it support unsolicited alarm reportinganalogs out
of limits or status changes? Will it support the transfer of large files? If not, and these are important
requirements, then the existing protocol may not be suitable at all. In that case, a new network should be
established using one of the protocols. Finally, the long-term life cycle costs should be considered
including impacts on future upgrades, additional equipment installations, and on-going support.
E.4 Recommended practice
The designers of monitoring IEDs have many protocol options including both proprietary and standards-
based protocols. A number of popular options are proprietary in their ownership and user management. In
the mid-1990s the IEEE Substations Committee appointed a Task Force to review the industry protocols
and select a protocol(s) that could be recommended for use by the IED Users and Vendors.
The selection criteria and results are published in IEEE Std 1379 [B50]. The recommended practice for
RTU to IED communications in a substation is to use either DNP or IEC 60870-5-101[B45] . DNP is most
commonly used in North and South America, Australia, and the UK; IEC 60870-5-101 is most commonly
used in Western Europe and the Middle East.
E.4.1 Distributed network protocol (DNP)
The development of DNP was a comprehensive effort to achieve open, standards-based interoperability
among substation computers, RTUs, IEDs, and master stations (except inter-master station
communications) for the electric utility industry.
DNP defines one protocol profile each for serial and for LAN applications. This maximizes compatibility
and reduces complexity for the utility staff. DNP is based on the IEC 60870-5 standard with modifications
needed to meet new requirements such as large file transfer.
DNP was developed with the following goals:

a) High data integrity: The DNP Data Link Layer uses a variation of the IEC 60870-5-1 [B40]
frame format FT3. Both data link layer frames and application layer messages may be
transmitted using confirmed service.
b) Flexible structure: The DNP Application Layer is object-based, with a structure that allows a
range of implementations while retaining interoperability.
c) Multiple applications: DNP can be used in several modes, including:
1) Polled only
2) Polled report-by-exception
3) Unsolicited report-by-exception (quiescent mode)
4) Mixture of the modes 1 and 3
d) Minimized overhead: DNP supports existing wire-pair and radio data links, with operating bit
rates as low as 1200 b/s, and a minimum of overhead while retaining flexibility and the OSI
structure. The selection of a data reporting method, such as unsolicited report-by-exception,
further reduces overhead.
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
e) Open protocol: DNP is a non-proprietary, evolving protocol controlled by a users group whose
members include representatives of the electric utility and system consulting community as well
as RTU, IED and master station vendors.
NOTEDNP can be used over all common communications media (such as radio, fiber optic, etc.) and as a
layered protocol is suitable for operation over local and wide area networks.
Key documentation has been developed beyond the initial definition documents. These documents include
the following:
Definition for standard subsets to facilitate a range of device types and functions
Recommended practice for using DNP over LANs and Wide Area Networks (WANs)
DNP test procedures
For more detail, refer to the DNP website.
E.4.2 IEC 60870-5 protocol
IEC 60870-5 does not define one particular protocol profile but specifies a number of protocol options that
may be provided at different layers. This can impact compatibility between different implementations. IEC
60870-5 (like DNP) is based on a three-layer enhanced performance architecture (EPA) reference model
for efficient implementation within RTUs, meters, relays, and other IEDs. Additionally, IEC 60870-5
defines basic application functionality for a user layer, which is situated between the OSI Application
Layer and the application program. This user layer adds interoperability for such functions as clock
synchronization and file transfers (IEC 60870-5-1 [B40], IEC 60870-5-101 [B45], IEC 61850 [B46]).
Another document included in this standard is the 101 profile document (IEC 60870-5-101 [B45]) that
contains definitions specific to telecontrol applications of IEDs and RTUs. IEEE Std 1379 [B50]
recommends the use of this profile.
E.4.3 Substation LAN protocol development
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has been developing industry consensus on the requirements
for communications within a substationspecifically for an integrated protection, control and monitoring
system using LAN technology. A key objective has been to define a system that allows interoperability and
peer-to-peer communications between substation IEDs from different manufacturers. One important
difference from the two recommended protocols is that the data in the IEDs will be represented as device-
oriented data objects that can be discovered by a query. A comprehensive list of these data objects has been
developed, and is known as Generic Object Models for Substation and Feeder Equipment (GOMSFE). This
EPRI work, referred to as originally called UCA 2.0, has been turned over to Working Group 10 of IEC
Technical Committee 57 as input to the development of IEC 61850 [B46], which was released as a standard
in 2004. The intent is to use Ethernet technology with either twisted pair copper wire or fiber optic cable as
the physical layer.
In addition, work has been completed by the DNP Users Group to provide a recommended practice for the
use of the DNP3 protocol over local and wide area networks using Ethernet. This work was completed in
1998 and has been implemented by multiple vendors (Transporting DNP 3.00 Over Local and Wide Area
Networks [B79]).
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IEEE Std C57.143-2012
E.5 Communication hardware considerations
Most communication systems being installed in substations today use serial links of either EIA RS-232 or
RS-485 with copper or fiber optic cable. Present-day configurations typically provide an isolated RS-485
interface with throughput capability from 1200 bits/second to at least 19 200 bits/second. Strong
consideration should be given to using fiber optic cable for any communications outside the substation
control house unless runs are within an enclosure due to its immunity from electrical and magnetic
interference. For further information on hardware environmental requirements, refer to IEEE Std 525
[B48].
There is a growing trend to install high speed LANs in major substations. Present-day IEDs typically
support LAN installations via an Ethernet interface. As with any other component of a monitoring system,
a cost/risk/benefit analysis should be performed prior to LAN system installation.
72

IEEE Guide For Application For Monitoring Equipment To Liquid Immersed Transformers and Components

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IEEE Guide For Application For Monitoring Equipment To Liquid Immersed Transformers and Components

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Verfügbare Formate

IEEE Guide for Application for

IEEE Power and Energy Society

Approved 5 December 2012

IEEE-SA Standards Board

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright 2012 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-0-7381-8027-4 STD98027

IEEE prohibits discrimination, harassment, and bullying.

Comments on standards should be submitted to the following address:

Secretary, IEEE-SA Standards Board

Laws and regulations

Updating of IEEE documents

Corrective: Ensuring that equipment is operating and functional

Donald Chu, Chair

Jacques Aubin James Graham Mark Rivers

Mohamed Abdel Khalek Bill Chiu Randall Groves

Satish Aggarwal Alexander Gelman Oleg Logvinov

1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1

4. Surveillance needs of high-voltage transformers and accessories .............................................................. 4

4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................ 4

5. Monitored parameters ............................................................................................................................... 16

5.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 16

6. Monitoring systems and equipment .......................................................................................................... 25

6.1 Monitoring system description .......................................................................................................... 25

7. Cost benefits ............................................................................................................................................. 34

7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 34

Annex A (informative) Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 48

Annex B (informative) Bushing power factor and capacitance ................................................................... 54

B.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 54

Annex C (informative) Partial discharge: electrical and acoustic methods ................................................. 57

C.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 57

Annex D (informative) Direct winding temperature ................................................................................... 62

D.1 Fluorescence decay time ................................................................................................................... 62

Annex E (informative) Communications protocols for on-line monitoring equipment............................... 68

E.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 68

4. Surveillance needs of high-voltage transformers and accessories

4.2 Power transformers

Table 1 Main transformer components, failure mechanisms, and measured signals

Component Phenomenon Measured signals Diagnostic

Table 1Main transformer components, failure mechanisms, and measured signals

Component Phenomenon Measured signals Diagnostic

4.3 Instrument transformers

4.3.2 Failure mechanisms associated with instrument transformers

4.3.2.1 Moisture ingress

4.3.2.2 Partial discharge

4.3.2.4 Through faults

4.3.3 Instrument transformer on-line monitoring methods

4.3.3.2 Relative tan delta and relative capacitance measurements

4.3.3.3 On-line gas analysis

4.3.3.4 On-line partial discharge measurements

4.3.3.5 Tank pressure measurement

Oil Moisture Sum of currents Increase in bushing power

Internal Porcelain Surface Aging Sum of currents Change in power factor

4.5 Load tap changers

Component Phenomenon Measured signals Diagnostic

4.5.2 Mechanical diagnostics for load tap changers

4.5.2.2 Initial peak torque or current

4.5.2.3 Running torque or motor current

4.5.2.4 Motor current index

Motor Current During a Tap Change Event

Motor Index in [Ampere Cycles]

0 Tap Change Events

Figure 3 Sample motor current index curve