31295016605486

MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES AND DISTORTION
IN RAPIDLY QUENCHED COMPONENTS
by
NIKOLAOS APLITSIOTIS, B.S.M.E.
A THESIS
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Approved
Accepted
J M
Deanjdf the Graduate School
August, 2000
f\0
V ^ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
nr The author would like to express his sincere appreciation and gratitude to his
n n Z- g^^^'J^^^ advisor, Dr. Jahan Rasty, for his support, guidance, and encouragement
^ throughout the author's graduate studies and research process. The author would also
like to express his appreciation to his co-chairperson Dr. Darryl James and committee
member Dr. Stephen Ekwaro-Osire for their help and guidance.
The author would like to thank his parents, Antonis and Marina Aplitsiotis, for
their moral and spiritual support, guidance, inspiration, patience, and encouragement over
the past years. The author would also like to thank his sister, Despina, and his brother-in-
law, Panikos Serafidies, for their support and encouragement. Last but not least, the
author would like to thank his nephew, Andreas, for inspiring him with his incredible
smile.
The author also wishes to acknowledge Wyatt Watson for doing the Lab VIEW
programming and Mr. Lloyd Lacy Jr. for his guidance and help during the fabrication of
the "thermal" specimen. Last but not least, the author would like to thank Darin
Carrasco, Brian Obert, and Khai Ngo for their assistance during the quenching
experiments.
Furthermore, the author would like to thank and express his appreciation to the
machine shop staff, Tom Barnett and Norman Jackson, and the Mechanical Engineering
Department secretarial staff, Carmen Hernandez, Tonette Rittenberry, and Pamela
Tarver, for their assistance over the last two years.
Grateful acknowledgement is made to Aluminum Company of America for
providing the material needed to perform the investigation and to TENAXOL Inc. for
donating the UCON Quenchant A. Acknowledgement is also made to Sandia National
Laboratories for allowing the use of the Sandia One-Dimensional Direct and Inverse
Thermal Code.
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES xi
NOMENCLATURE xxiii
CH/kPTER
I. INTRODUCTION I
1.1 Objectives 1
1.2 Parameters Under Investigation I
1.2.1 Quenching Media 2
1.2.2 Immersion Rate 2
1.2.3 Holding Mechanism 2
1.3 Residual Stress 3
II. LITERATURE SURVEY 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Quenching and Quenchants 7
2.3 Measurement of Residual Stress 16
2.4 Measurement of Distortion 19
2.5 Summary 21
III. ANALYSIS OF RESIDUAL STRESSES 22
3.1 Method of Residual Stresses Measurement 22
3.2 Destmctive Methods 22
3.2.1 Hole Drilling Method 22
3.2.2 Ring Core Method 23
3.2.3 Layer Removal Method 23
3.3 Non-Destmctive Methods 24
3.3.4 X-ray Diffraction Method 24
3.3.2 Ultrasonic Method 25
HI
IV. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND PROCEDURE 26
4.1 Brief Description 26
4.2 Quenching Apparatus 28
4.2.1 Quench Tank 28
4.2.2 Centrifugal Pump and Piping 28
4.2.3 Electric Motor and Clutch 28
4.2.4 Inductive Proximity Sensor and Digital Display 29
4.3 Data Acquisition 30
4.4 Distortion Measurements 30
4.5 Hole Drilling Strain Gauge Method Set-Up 32
4.6 Holding Mechanism 34
4.7 Experimental Set-Up Calibration 36
4.7.1 Digital Display Calibration 36
4.7.2 Data Acquisition Calibration 38
4.7.3 Dial Gauge Calibration 39
4.8 Uncertainty 40
V. RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENTS 44
5.1 Introduction 44
5.2 Data Analysis Via Hole Drilling Technique 44
5.3 Accuracy of Hole Drilling Method 54
5.3.1 Accuracy of Calibration 54
5.3.2 Hole Eccentricity Effect 54
VI. THERMAL CHARACTERIZATION DURING HEAT TREATMENT 56
6.1 Introduction 56
6.2 Stages of Quenching 57
6.3 SODDIT Inverse Heat Transfer Code 59
6.4 Design of Thermal Specimen 59
6.5 Preparation of "Thermal" Specimen 63
6.5.1 Machining ofthe Aluminum Plates and Spacer 64
6.5.2 Selection, Preparation, and Attachment of Thermocouples 64
iv
6.5.2.1 Selection of Thermocouples 64
6.5.2.2 Preparation of thermocouples 65
6.5.2.3 Attachment of thermocouples 65
6.5.3 Assembly ofthe Parts 67
6.5.4 Application of the High Heat Silicone Aluminum 68
6.6 Development of Cooling Curves 69
6.7 Application of SODDIT Inverse Heat Transfer Code 69
Vn. RESULTS 71
7.1 Quenched Aluminum Sheets 71
7.1.1 Quenching Induced Residual Stresses 71
7.1.1.1 Induced Strains Due To Hole Drilling 71
7.1.1.2 Principal Stresses as a Function of Hole Depth 74
7.1.1.3 Biaxial and shear stresses 79
7.1.2 Microstmctural Analysis 91
7.1.3 Microhardness Measurements 96
7.1.4 Distortion During Quenching Process 101
7.2 "Thermal" Specimen 118
7.2.1 Cooling Curves During Quenching Process 118
7.2.2 Heat Flux During Quenching Process 146
7.2.3 Cooling Rates During Quenching Process 174
7.2.4 Summary 201
Vni DISCUSSION 206
8.1 Thermal Specimen 206
8.1.1 Temperature Distribution 206
8.1.2 Effect of Immersion Rate 207
8.1.3 Effect of Quenching Media 213
8.2 Quenched Aluminum Sheets 216
8.2.1 Holding Mechanism 216
8.2.2 Distortion 224
8.2.3 Microstmcture and Microhardness 224
V
IX. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 226
9.1 Conclusions 226
9.2 Recommendations 227
REFERENCES 228
APPENDIX
A. RESIDUAL STRESS DATA 249
B. MICROHARDNESS DATA 277
C. EXAMPLE OF SODDIT INPUT AND OUTPUT FILES 287
D. HOLDING MECHANISM ENGINEERING DRAWINGS 295
E. THERMAL SPECIMEN ENGINEERING DRAWINGS 298
F. DIGITAL DISPLAY PROGRAMS 306
G. LAB VIEW PROGRAM 308
H. DATA ACQUISITION CALIBRATION DATA AND CURVES 310
VI
ABSTRACT
Unacceptable distortion and residual stresses can occur during the manufacturing of
solution heat-treated 2xxx aluminum alloys. Rapid quenching rates are being used to
improve mechanical properties by inducing percepitation hardening but they result in
high thermal stresses, which cause severe distortion and high levels of residual stresses.
Under these circumstances, adjacent sheets may come in contact with one another, either
during quenching or during handling, resulting in a poor surface finish, which renders the
material useless. Therefore, it is desirable to develop a quenching process that
maximizes the material properties, while minimizing the distortion and residual stresses.
This investigation studied the effect of quenching media, holding mechanism, and
immersion rate on the distortion and residual stresses of rapidly quenched aluminum
2024 sheets. In addition, a thermal characterization of the quenching process was
performed using a specially designed "thermal" specimen to collect time temperature
data and mn an inverse heat transfer code to predict surface temperature, cooling rate,
and heat flux variation along the surface.
An experimental procedure for collecting time temperature data was established and
experiments were performed using water and 40% UCON Quenchant A as quenching
media. Water quenching resulted in much higher cooling rate, greater heat flux variation,
and minimized the cooling time to maximum cooling rate when compared to 40% UCON
Quenchant A.
A high and a low immersion rate were used to study the effect of the immersion rate
on the quench severity. It was concluded that the immersion rate has an effect on
quenching characteristics and the effect can either be positive or negative depending on
the quenching medium. High immersion rate with water quenching medium resulted in
an increase in cooling rate, heat transfer rate, and reduction in cooling time when
compared to low immersion rate. High immersion rate with 40% UCON Quenchant A
quenching medium resulted in a reduction in cooling time and heat transfer rate.
However, fiirther study of fluid dynamics around the specimen is necessary to validate
this conclusion.
vii
Two holding mechanisms, fixed-fixed and free in space, were used for quenching
small aluminum sheets in water and 40% UCON Quenchant A at low and high
immersion rate in order to study the effect ofthe holding mechanism on distortion and
residual stresses.. It was concluded that distortion can be minimized with the use of a
suitable holding mechanism. In addition, the fixed-fixed holding mechanism resulted in
less severe distortion when compared to the free in space. Furthermore, based on the
experimental results, the conditions that minimize distortion the fixed-fixed holding
mechanism, 40% UCON Quenchant A, and low immersion rate. However, more
experiments need to be performed to validate this conclusion. The residual stress results
were inconclusive.
Vlll
LIST OF TABLES
4.1. List of thermocouple calibration curves 40

4.2 Uncertainty in strain indicator and digital display 41
4.3 Uncertainty for data acquisition 42
7.1. Experiments performed for distortion measurements 71
7.2. Induced strains used for calibration 74
7.3 Distortion measurements 101
7.4. Experiments performed for thermal characterization 118
7.5. Figure reference for experimental cooling curves 118
7.6. Figure reference for heat flux curves 146
7.7. Figure reference for cooling rate curves 174
7.8. Test QTSl: Summary of experimental results 202
7.9. Test QTS2: Summary of experimental results 203
7.10. Test QTS3: Summary of experimental results 204
7.11. Test QTS4; Summary of experimental results 205
8.1. Average results for thermal specimen 214
8.2. Maximum biaxial stresses 217
8.3. Average results for distortion measurements 224
8.4. Average microhardness for quenched aluminum sheets 225
A.l. Experimental data - Fixed-Fixed, 0.146 m/sec, Water 250
A.2. Experimental data - Free in Space, 0.140 m/sec. Water 251
A.3. Experimental data - Free in Space, 1.234 m/sec. Water 252
A.4. Experimental data - Fixed-Fixed, 1.301 m/sec. Water 253
A.5.Experimentaldata-FreeinSpace, 0.198 m/sec, 40% UCON 254
A.6. Experimental data - Fixed-Fixed, 0.201 m/sec, 40% UCON 255
A.7. Experimental data-Free in Space, 1.067 m/sec, 40% UCON 256
A.8. Experimental data-Fixed-Fixed, 1.121 m/sec, 40% UCON 258
A.9. Test QASl: Residual stress calculations 262
A.IO. Test QAS2: Residual stress calculations 263
ix
A l l . Test QAS3; Residual stress calculations 264
A.12. Test QAS4; Residual stress calculations 265
A.13. Test QAS5: Residual stress calculations 266
A.14. Test QAS6; Residual stress calculations 267
A.15. Test QAS7. Residual stress calculations 268
A.16. Test QASl: Residual stress calculations 269
A.17. Test QASl: Transformation Stresses 270
A.18. Test QAS2: Transformation Stresses 270
A.21. Test QAS5; Transformation Stresses 271
A.24. Test QAS8; Transformation Stresses 272
B.l. Microhardness Data- Annealed 278
B.2. Microhardness Data - Fixed-Fixed, 0.146 m/sec, Water 279
B.3. Microhardness Data-Free in Space, 0.140 m/sec. Water 280
B.4. Microhardness Data - Free in Space, 1.234 m/sec, Water 281
B.5. Microhardness Data - Fixed-Fixed, 1.301 m/sec. Water 282
B.6. Microhardness Data-Free in Space, 0.198 m/sec, 40% UCON 283
B.7. Microhardness Data-Fixed-Fixed, 0.201 m/sec, 40% UCON 284
B.8. Microhardness Data-Free in Space, 1.067 m/sec, 40% UCON 285
B.9. Microhardness Data-Fixed-Fixed, 1.121 m/sec, 40% UCON 286
F.l. Digital display programs 307
H.l. Data acquisition data for thermocouples 1-6 311
H.2. Data acquisition data for thermocouples 7-12 312
H.3. Data acquisition data for thermocouples 13-18 313
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1. Holding mechanisms under investigation 2

1.2. Development of residual stresses during rolling 4
3.1. Illustration of the hole drilling method and strain gauge position 23
3.2. Illustration ofthe ring core method and strain gauge position 24
4.1. Quenching apparatus 27
4.2. Main components of quenching apparatus 27
4.3. Inductive proximity sensor 29
4.4. Digital display 29
4.5. Dial gauge set-up 31
4.6. RS-200 drilling mill alignment setup 32
4.7 RS-200 drilling mill with the air turbine assembly 33
4.8. RS-200 experimental set-up 34
4.9. Holding mechanism assembly 35
4.10. Digital display calibration curve 38
4.11. Example of thermocouple calibration curve 39
5.1. Clockwise hole drilling strain gauge rosette 45
5.2. Percent relieved strain versus depth in a uniform residual stress field 51
5.3. Dimensionless calibration constants a and b versus dimensionless hole diameter
for RE rosette 52
5.4. Dimensionless calibration constant a versus non dimensional hole depth
and hole diameter for RE rosette 53
5.5. Dimensionless calibration constant b, versus non dimensional hole depth
and hole diameter for RE rosette 53
6.1. Stages of Quenching 58
6.2. Grooves introduced on the "inactive" surface 61
6.3. Cross sectional area with and without the groove 61
6.4. Illustration ofthe "thermal" specimen 63
6.5. Attachment of thermocouples on aluminum plate 66
6.6. "Thermal" specimen parts before final assembly 67
xi
6.7. "Thermal" specimen final assembly 68
6.8. Example of a cooUng curve without discrepancies 70
6.9. Example of a cooHng curve with discrepancies 70
7.1. Induced strains for gauge 1 72
7.4. Averaged induced strains 73
7.5. Test QASl: Principal stresses as a function of hole depth 75
7.6. Test QAS2: Principal stresses as a function of hole depth 75
7.13. Test QASl: Ox as a function of hole depth 79
7.14. Test QAS2: Ox as a function of hole depth 80
7.18. Test QAS6: a^ as a function of hole depth 82
7.20. TestQAS8: Ox as a function of hole depth 83
7.21. Test QASl: Oy as a function of hole depth 83
7.22. TestQAS2: Oy as a function of hole depth 84
7.23. Test QAS3: Oy as a function of hole depth 84
7.25. Test QAS5: Cy as a function of hole depth 85
xu
7.27. Test QAS7; Cy as a function of hole depth 86
7.29. Test QASl. Xxy as a funcfion of hole depth 87
7.30. TestQAS2: TX> as a flinction of hole depth 88
7.31. TestQAS3: TX> as a function of hole depth 88
7.32. TestQAS4: TXN as a function of hole depth 89
7.33. Test QAS5: x^^ as a function of hole depth 89
7.34. Test QAS6: Xxy as a function of hole depth 90
7.35. TestQAS7: Xxy as a function of hole depth 90
7.36. TestQAS8: Xxy as a function of hole depth 91
7.37. Microstmctural analysis of thickness at 150x 92
7.38. Test QASl: Microstmctural analysis of thickness at 150x 92
7.39. Test QAS2: Microstmctural analysis of thickness at 150x 93
7.40. TestQAS3: Microstmctural analysis of thickness at 150x 93
7 42. Test QAS5: Microstmctural analysis of thickness at I50x 94
7.44. Test QAS7: Microstmctural analysis of thickness at I50x 95
7.46. Hardness as a function of thickness for annealed specimen 97
7.47. Test QASl: Hardness as a function of thickness 97
7.48. Test QAS2: Hardness as a function of thickness 98
7 49. TestQAS3: Hardness as a function of thickness 98
7.55. Test QASl: Distortion measurements prior quenching - Numerical 102
Xlll
7.56 Test QASl: Distortion measurements after quenching - Numerical 103
7.57. Test QAS2: Distortion measurements prior quenching - Numerical 104
7.58 Test QAS2: Distortion measurements after quenching - Numerical 105
7.64 Test QAS5: Distortion measurements after quenching - Numerical Ill
7.71. Test QTS Experimenta cooling curve-TC#l 119
7.72. Test QTS Experimenta cooling curve-TC#2 119
7.77. Test QTS Experimenta cooling curve-TC#ll 122
7.78. Test QTS Experimenta coohng curve-TC#12 122
7.84. Test QTS Experimenta cooHng curve-TC#18 125
7.85. Test QTS2 Experimenta cooling curve-TC#l 126
XIV
7.86. Test QTS2: Experimental coo ling curve-TC#3 126
7.87. Test QTS2: Experimental coo Hng curve-TC#4 127
7.89. Test QTS2: Experimental coo Iingcurve-TC#lO 128
7.90. Test QTS2: Experimental coo lingcurve-TC#ll 128
7.91. Test QTS2: Experimental coolingcurve-TC#13 129
7.94. Test QTS2: Experimental coo lingcurve-TC#l7 130
7.95. Test QTS2: Experimental coo lingcurve-TC#18 131
7.96. Test QTS3: Experimental cooling curve-TC#l 131
7.97. Test QTS3: Experimental cooling curve-TC#2 132
7.104. Test QTS3; Experimental coolingcurve-TC#10 135
7.105. Test QTS3: Experimental coolingcurve-TC#ll 136
7.106. Test QTS3: Experimental cooling curve-TC#l2 136
7.112. Test QTS4: Experimental coolingcurve-TC#l 139
XV
7.118.TestQTS4: Experimental cooling curve-TC#9 142
7.119. Test QTS4: Experimental cooling curve-TC#lO 143
7.120. Test QTS4: Experimental cooling curve-TC#ll 143
7.126. Test QTS Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l 147
7.127. Test QTS Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#2 147
7 129. Test QTS Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#7 148
7.132. Test QTS Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#ll 150
7 133. Test QTS Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#12 150
7.139. Test QTS Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC# 18 153
7.140. Test QTS2: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#1 154
7.144. Test QTS2: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC# 10 156
xvi
7.146. TestQTS2: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC# 13 157
7.150. Test QTS3: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC^ 1 159
7.153. Test QTS3: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC??5 160
7.155. TestQTSS: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#7 161
7.156. TestQTS3: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#8 162
7.157 Test QTS3: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#9 162
7.159. Test QTS3: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#ll 163
7.160. Test QTS3; Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#12 164
7.163. Test QTS3: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l6 165
7.165. TestQTS3: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC# 18 166
7.166. Test QTS4: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l 167
7.167. TestQTS4: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#2 167
7.171. Test QTS4; Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#8 169
7.174. Test QTS4: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#ll 171
xvii
7.180. Test QTS Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rte-TC#l 174
7.181. Test QTS Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#2 175
7.185. Test QTS Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC# 10 177
7.186. Test QTS Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#ll 177
7.191. Test QTS Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC# 16 180
7.192. Test QTS Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l7 180
7.194. Test QTS2: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l 181
7.195. Test QTS2: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#3 182
7.198. Test QTS2: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC# 10 183
7.199. Test QTS2: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l 1 184
7.200. Test QTS2: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l3 184
7.204. Test QTS3: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l 186
xviii
7.206. Test QTS3: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate- TC#4 187
7.207. Test QTS3: Temperature versus Time/Coo ling Rate- TC#5 188
7.222. Test QTS4; Temperature versus Time/Coo ling Rate- TC#4 195
7.225: Test QTS4: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate- TC#8 197
8.1. Temperature distribution along the x axis.. 206
8.2. Temperature distribution along the y axis.. 207
XIX
8.3. Cooling curve comparison at different immersion rates for 40% UCON -TC#1. ...209
8.4. Cooling curve comparison at different immersion rates for 40% UCON -TC#I8. .210
8.5. Cooling rate comparison at different immersion rates for 40% UCON - TC#1 210
8.6. Cooling rate comparison at different immersion rates for 40% UCON -TC#18 211
8.7. Cooling curve comparison at different immersion rates for Water-TC# 1 211
8.8. Cooling curve comparison at different immersion rates for Water-TC#16 212
8.9. Cooling rate comparison at different immersion rates for Water-TC# 1 212
8.10. Cooling rate comparison at different immersion rates for Water-TC#16 213
8.11. Cooling curve and heat flux comparison between water and 40% UCON at low
immersion rate-TC#7 214
8.12. Cooling curve and heat flux comparison between water and 40% UCON at high
immersion rate-TC#7 215
8.13. Cooling rate comparison between water and 40% UCON at low immersion rate-
TC#7 215
8.14. Cooling rate comparison between water and 40% UCON at high immersion rate-
TC#7 216
8.15. ax results for the fixed-fixed mechanism 218
8.16. Oy results for the fixed-fixed mechanism 219
8.17. Xxy results for the fixed-fixed mechanism 220
8.20. Xxy results for the free in space mechanism 223
A.1. Test QASl:% Strain relieved versus Z/D 258
A.2. Test QAS2: % Strain relieved versus Z/D 258
A-5. Test QAS5: % Strain relieved versus Z/D 260
A.9. Test QASl: Stress invariant 273
A.10. Test QAS2: Stress invariant 273
XX
A.12. TestQAS4: Stress invariant 274
D.l. Base part of holding mechanism 296
D.2. Base part of holding mechanism with extension 296
D.3. Top part of holding mechanism 297
D.4. Assembly of holding mechanism 297
E l . Dimensions of aluminum plate 299
E.2. Dimensions of holes on aluminum plates 300
E.3. Aluminum plate - Front view 301
E.4. Aluminum plate-Back view 302
E.5. Cross section along the bolt holes 303
E.6. Cross section along the thermocouple holes 304
E.7. Spacer-Front and top view 305
G. 1. Lab VIEW program 309
H.l. Calibration curve for thermocouple 1 314
H.2. Calibration curve for thermocouple 2 314
H.IO. Calibration curve for thermocouple 10 318
H.ll. Calibration curve for thermocouple 11 319
H.13. Calibrafion curve for thermocouple 13 320
xxi
xxii
NOMENCLATURE
A Hole drilling calibration coefficient for finite area strains, kpsi"^

a Dimensionless hole drilling calibration constant
A Cross sectional area for heat transfer in aluminum sheet without grooves
Ag Cross sectional area for heat transfer in aluminum sheet with grooves
B Hole drilling calibration coefficient for finite area strains, kpsi"
h Dimensionless hole drilling calibration constant

C Degrees Centigrade
D Mean strain gauge rosette diameter, in
Do Hole diameter, in
E Young's modulus, Mpsi
F Degrees Fahrenheit
ft Feet
gpm Gallons per minute
HV Vickers hardness
HRB Rockwell hardness scale B
in Inches
L Liter
1 Aluminum sheet length
m Meter
min Minute
mm Milimeter
P Mean hydrostatic stress, kpsi
p Mean hydrostatic strain, fis
Q Shear stress 45^ to the x-y axes, kpsi
q Tensor shear strain 450 to the x-y axes, |is (Chapter V)
q Heat transfer rate in aluminum sheet without groove, w/m (Chapter VI)
qg Heat transfer rate in aluminum sheet with groove, w/m
rev Revolution
xxiii
rpm Revolutions per minute
sec Second
T Shear stress along the x-y axes, kpsi
t Tensor shear strain along the x-y axes, fie (Chapter \")
t Thickness of aluminum sheet without the groo\e, in (Chapter VI)
tg Thickness of aluminum sheet with the groove, in
TC Thermocouple
Z Hole depth
P Angle measured clockwise from the gauge 1 axis to Omax direction
81 Measured strain at gauge 1
9 Angle between the x-y axes and the transformation axes
(18 MicrostrainClO"^)
V Poisson's ratio
Omax Maximum principal stress, kpsi
Omin Minimum principal stress, kpsi
Ox Stress along the x axis
Oy Stress along the y axis
cr^' Stress along the x transformation axis
<j^' Stress along the y transformation axis
X Shear stress, kpsi

XxN Shear stress along the x-y axes, kpsi
xxiv
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Unacceptable distortion and residual stresses can occur during the manufacturing of
solution heat-treated 2xxx aluminum alloys. Rapid quenching rates are being used to
improve mechanical properties by inducing percepitation hardening but they result in
high thermal stresses, which cause severe distortion and high levels of residual stresses.
Under these circumstances, adjacent sheets may come in contact with one another, either
during quenching or during handling, resulting in a poor surface finish, which renders the
material useless. Therefore, it is desirable to develop a quenching process that
maximizes the material properties, while minimizing the distortion and residual stresses.
l.l Objectives
The main objective of this investigation was to study the effect of quenching
media, holding mechanism, and immersion rate on distortion and residual stresses of
rapidly quenched aluminum 2024 sheets. Once the effect of these parameters is known, it
can be used to achieve an optimal quenching process.
Another objective of this investigation was to perform a thermal characterization of
the heat treatment of aluminum 2024 by collecting time temperature data during
quenching. This data could then be used as input to an inverse heat transfer code to
obtain cooling curves, cooling rates, and heat flux variation along the surface.
Furthermore, the data could be used to validate experimental computer codes that predict
dimensional distortion and residual stresses during quenching, and compare the
predictions with experimental results.
1.2 Parameters Under Investigation

Three parameters were investigated. These were the quenching media, the
immersion rate, and the holding mechanism.
1.2.1 Quenching Media
The quenching media used were water and 40% by volume UCON Quenchant A,
a poly(alkylene glycol) polymer based solution developed by Union Carbide Corporation
and distributed by Tenaxol Inc. Water quenching results in extremely higi; cooling rates,
while polymer quenching results in low cooling rates, depending on the concentration.
1.2.2 Immersion Rate

A low immersion rate of 0.17 m/sec (0.555 ft/s 17%) and a high immersion rate
of 1.17 m/sec (3.85 ft/s 9%) were used to investigate the effect ofthe quenching rate.
1.2.3 Holding Mechanism

The holding mechanisms used were the fixed-fixed and the free in space. In the
fixed-fixed holding mechanism, the aluminum sheet was held at its ends, therefore,
limited expansion or contraction was allowed. However, in the free in space holding
mechanism the aluminum sheet had no restrictions to expansion or contraction. Figure
1.1(a) illustrates the fixed-fixed holding mechanism while Figure 1.1(b) illustrates the
free in space.
I Al 2024
I (a)
C 3
I Al2024
]
(b)
E ^
U X
Figure 1.1. Holding mechanisms under investigation

(a) fixed-fixed, (b) free in space.
1.3 Residual Stress
Residual or internal stress is defined as the stress that exists in the bulk of a
material in the absence of an external load (i.e., force, moment, and gravity) or other
source of stress (i.e., thermal gradient). A state of residual stress is self-equilibrating,
which means that the resultant force and moment is equal to zero.
Residual stresses can be distinguished into three kinds, depending on the distance
or range which can be observed. The first kind is called "macroscopic" and is long-range
in nature, extending over several grains or more. The second kind is called the structural
microstress and it covers a distance of one grain or part of a grain. The third kind ranges
over several atomic distances within the grain.
Residual stresses are usually developed in a structure due to non-uniform plastic
deformation and are stored within the structure as a tangled network of dislocations.
Therefore, residual stresses can arise in the structure at any step of processing such as
rolling, heat treatment, or machining.
Residual stresses are not uniform throughout the deformed structure. For
example, consider a rolled plate. Residual stresses are developed in the plate due to
friction. As shown in Figure 1.2, if the rolling takes place at small reductions per pass or
if the rolls are small in diameter, the plate tends to deform plastically at its surface
producing compressive residual stresses on the surfaces and tensile stresses in the middle.
However, if the rolls are large in diameter or if the rolling takes place at high reductions,
the middle is deform more than the outside surface resulting in tensile residual stresses on
the surface and compressive in the middle.
Residual stress can either be harmful or beneficial. It is a fact that compressive
residual stress increases the fatigue life and it has a beneficial effect on crack propagation
and stress corrosion of materials. On the other hand, tensile residual stress reduces the
performance capacity of materials. While in the elastic range, residual stress can be
added as a static load but over the elastic range it relaxes.
(a)
1.)
fr \
1
Sheet
\ thickness
\ ^
Tension Compression
"T" Tension Compression
Figure 1.2. Development of residual stresses during rolling

(a) using small rolls or small reductions in thickness per pass,
(b) using large rolls or high reductions per pass.*
Notes
^Kalpaljian, Serope. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 3' ed.,
Addison-Wesley Inc., Reading, MA, 1995: 366.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Introduction
Heat-treating involves heating and cooling processes performed on metals in order
to change the mechanical properties, the metallurgical structure or the residual stress
state. The cooling process of heat treating is referred to as quenching and it involves the
rapid cooling of parts from a high temperature to a low temperature by placing a hot part
into a low temperature environment, known as "quenchant." The objective of quenching
is to obtain desired mechanical properties, usually high strength and hardness.
Quenching has been in use for centuries for applications such as strengthening
spears, axes and swords. However, up until the early 20^*^ century metallurgists were only
using it for certain thermal manipulations applied to the wide group of iron alloys known
as steels. At the beginning ofthe 20^^ century, a systematic study of heat treatment began
and numerous experimental investigations were conducted to further the knowledge of
heat treatment on nonferrous metals such as aluminum. This resulted in a rapid advance
of heat treatment process, but quenching was characterized as the "black hole," because it
was difficult to understand, examine, and analyze.
In the past few decades, many quenching tests have been conducted and with the
help of computer technology quenching has now become a well recognized and studied
materials handling process. Each metallic material behaves differently during quenching
mainly due to phase transformations. Tests have shown that some of the factors
influencing quenching are the quenchant type, the cooling rate, the quench tank agitation,
the hardenability ofthe particular metal or alloy, and the part's thickness and shape.
Most of the early studies concentrated on determining a quenching process that
yielded the highest strength and hardness, which unfortunately, also resulted in increased
distortion, residual stresses, and reduced toughness. It was found that high cooling rates
resulted in better mechanical properties. However, high cooling rates also introduce high
temperature gradients, which can result in undesired plastic deformation such as
7
dimensional distortion, high levels of residual stresses, and affect the material's resistance
to corrosion and surface cracking.
Obtaining good mechanical properties while minimizing distortion, residual
stresses, and increased resistance to corrosion and surface cracking has now become the
objective of quenching investigations. With the increased capability of computers,
computer codes that use finite element and finite difference analysis are being developed
that can simulate the quenching process and predict mechanical properties, distortion, and
residual stresses. However, many of these codes lack experimental verification.
In this chapter, studies related to quenching and quenchants, as well as
measurement of distortion and residual stresses are summarized.
2.2 Quenching and Quenchants

Quenching media can be classified as liquid, gaseous, solid, and mixed
quenchants. The majority of quenching applications use liquid and sometimes gas
quenchants. The liquid quenchants include molten metals, molten salts, petroleum oils,
polymer solution, water, salt water solutions, and vegetable oils. There is no optimal
quenchant. Each quenchant reacts differently with different groups of metals. Some are
extremely good for steel applications but act poorly with nonferrous materials. A
combination of quenching operating conditions (i.e., cooling rate, agitation) and
quenchant can be selected to achieve the desired mechanical properties (i.e., strength,
hardness, toughness) while minimizing residual stress, distortion, possibility of cracking
and increased resistance to corrosion.
Fink and Willey [14] investigated the critical temperature range and quenching
rate for the 75S aluminum alloy in order to achieve high strength and resistance to
corrosion. Sheppard [15] reviewed the press quenching for aluminum alloys, described
the different processes and parameters involved, and suggested that it can be successfully
applied to 6000, 7000 and some 2000 alloys. Tiryakioglu [16] investigated the water
quenching of aluminum parts and addressed the problems that occur mainly due to the
unpredictable behavior ofthe transition from vapor blanket to nucleate boiling stage. He
suggested ahernative methods like polymer quenching, spray quenching, and application
8
of coatings on the surface to decrease distortion and provided a comparison of different

quenchants and quenching techniques.
Trujillo and Wallis [17] investigated how the heat transfer from components can
be estimated during a quenching process by measuring the temperature histories at only a
few locations and validated the use of a nonlinear, two-dimensional, inverse heat
conduction computer program (INTEMP) using experimental results from disks.
Segerberg and Bodin [36] performed experiments to study the variation of the heat
transfer coefficient around cylinders of different diameters and rings. Dakins et al. [18]
presented an alternative method using cooling curves to estimate the Grossman quench
severity factor, which is a required input value for computerized hardness predictions
during quenching. Foreman [19, 20] discussed the increasing popularity of salt bath
quenching due to minimization of distortion, cracking, and residual stresses. In addition,
he concluded that improvements in equipment, procedures, and safety as well as new
applications, ecological problem solutions, and better process control promise to keep salt
bath quenching in use for years to come.
Cui et al. [25, 26] studied the effect of quenching on the grain boundary relaxation
in pure aluminum, proposed a grain boundary model, and observed and described in
detail the appearance of an internal friction peak on the high-temperature side ofthe grain
boundary. Ceylan et al. [27] investigated the effects of rapid quenching on the
solidification of ribbons and casting ingots of Al-Cu and Al-Mg alloys. Goncharenko et
al. [28] investigated the effects of quenching regimes on the structure and properties of
alloy AL27-1 ofthe Al-Mg system. Pompe and Rettenmayr [29, 37] investigated the
microstructural changes taking place during the quenching of Al-Cu alloys.
Hick [21, 22] reviewed the new quenching techniques, developments in
quenchants, quench systems, and property, residual stresses, and distortion prediction,
that were presented at the 1"^ and 2"^^ International Conference on Quenching and the
Control of Distortion. Trusova [23, 24] reviewed the problems and techniques presented
at the 1^ and 2"'' All-Russian Seminar on Scientific and Technological Problems of
Quenching.
Hasson [30] briefly reviewed the historical progress ofthe quenching process and
the use of different quenching media from animal and vegetable oils to martempering oils
to polymer quenchants. Lally et al. [33] discussed the importance of quench tank
agitation and described the most common impeller systems used for quench system
design, principles of agitation, and practical recommendations for mixer selection. In
follow up papers, Totten and Lally [34, 35] addressed proper agitation selection, mixer
impeller types, mixing principles, multiple mixers, and computer assisted agitation
system design. Han et al. [31] presented the principles and applications ofthe immersion
time quenching system (ITQS) to control and vary the agitation to obtain quench
uniformity. They concluded that a continuous control of quench severity from the
beginning to the end ofthe quenching process by agitation control can improve hardness
uniformity, distortion reduction, and higher crack resistance. Furthermore, Han et al.
[32] discussed systems for controlling the time of submersion of parts in periodic and
continuous processes.
Michels [38] presented a pollution prevention analysis of oil and polymer
quenching and emphasized hazardous waste reduction, material safety, toxicity, worker
exposure, and Hability. Sverdlin et al. [39] established a thermal separation procedure for
cleaning polymer base quenching solutions based on measuring the solubility of the
polymer in water with increase in temperature. Oldfather [40] presented a methodology
(still under investigation) to make sure that different quench tanks at different quenching
facilities operate at peak efficiency.
Moerdijk [41] provided an overview of polymer quenchants used in Europe and
discussed their advantages and disadvantages. Ou et al. [42] reviewed the results of
poly(alkylene glycol) polymer quenchants for production of saw blades, carburized
forged gears, pipe connectors for oil drilling, and crankshafts for trucks in comparison to
quench oil. They concluded that polymer quenchants provide better quench uniformity,
cleaner processes, better safety, better depth of hardening, better micro structures, greater
processing flexibility, and equivalent or lower distortion than previously achieved with
oil. Totten et al. [43] provided an overview of quenching mechanism, quenchant
selection, property prediction and distortion reduction for aluminum quenching with
10
polymer quenchants. Furthermore, Totten et al. [44] reviewed the work reported on the
application possibilities of Type I polymer quenchants by the aerospace industry.
Sverdin et al. [45] investigated the heat treating of aluminum using UCON Qunechant A
for aerospace applications and they concluded that the required mechanical properties can
be achieved.
McCurdy and Coughlin [46] developed a device that uses a direct solid state
thermal to electrical measurement technique to measure heat transfer coefficier.ts of
water and water-polymer systems in order to automatically control the quenchant
concentration. They provided diagrams, probe cleaning solution and recommendations of
how to install the device at different quench tanks. Diaz et al. [47] addressed the problem
of unacceptable fire risk of quench oil in integral quench furnaces and performed test-
quenching work using PAG quenchants to conclude that PAG quenchants are excellent
fire resistant alternatives to quench oil for many integral quench furnace quenching
applications. Wen-Shang [48] performed a study on the physical properties, cooling
characteristics, toxicity and quenching effect of UCON Quenchant A and concluded that
is an ideal quenching medium for aluminum alloys.
Totten et al. [49] developed a statistical model that allows Grossman hardenability
number (H-factor) analysis for polymer quenchants. They illustrated that controlled
variation of quenchant concentration, quench bath temperature and circulation rate
through H-factor characterization can result in quench severities equal to or less than
those for conventional oils through values equal to or greater than those of water. In
addition, Sverdin et al. [50] used the quenching factor to predict the mechanical
properties of aluminum alloys from the cooling curve using hot water and UCON A as
the quenching media. They concluded that polymer quenchants result in higher
properties than hot water and they do not depend on the mixing process while the hot
water does. Tensi and SUch [51] proposed a method to be used as an international
standard for describing the cooling effect of a polymer quenchant. They described in
detail a test procedure to characterize quenching behavior of polymers under varying
agitation conditions.
11
Furthermore, Totten et al. [52] discussed different procedures for evaluating the
degradation of polymer quenchants during use. They suggested that the viscosity and
conductance procedures are the easier and more accurate to use while the gel-
permeatation chromatography is the least ambiguous, and the refractive index is not a
suitable analytical technique for polymer quenchants. Sverdlin et al. [53] added thermal
conductivity as one more controlled parameter that can be used to improve the quality of
polymer based quenchants.
Brennan and Faulkner [54] showed that a canola based quenching oil has several
advantages and it can be used as an alternative to the petroleum based quenchants. The
advantages include extended temperature range, better distortion control, lower
toxicological and ecotoxicological hazard potentials, high flash point, high boiling point,
lubricity, moisturizing tendency and potential supply. Honary [55] perfoimed more than
300 experiments to establish a reference base line for the performance of several
vegetable oils. He concluded that vegetable oils have the potential to be used as quench
media for selected heat treating applications, gave recommendation for future work and
pointed out the necessity for further investigation in this area. Placek [56] showed that
synthetic phosphate ester oils offer faster cooling rates than mineral oil quenchants of the
same viscosity. He suggested that mineral oils can be replaced by phosphate ester of
higher viscosity to achieve similar cooling, reduce emissions and improve workplace
safety due to their inherently fire resistance. Kulikov [67] studied the possibility of
increasing the refractoriness of a mineral oil used as a quenching medium for metals and
alloys by introducing an organic powder of heat treated liquid glass into it.
Liscic and Totten [57] discussed the heat extraction dynamics, quench analysis,
inverse hardening, and the effects of tempering of delayed quenching that can maximize
the depth of hardening, minimize residual stresses, and improve fatigue resistance of steel
parts. Glasser [58] discussed the potential of heat treating aluminum alloys with fluid-
bed quenching for automotive applications. Genliang [59] described the cooling
characteristics of a gas-solid-liquid (GSL) fluidized bed and concluded that are improved
markedly as compared with water or gas-solid fluidized bed. In addition, he showed that
the solid particles and airflow can be adjusted to meet different processes and that GSL is
12
clean, safe, inexpensive, and presents no environmental pollution. Kobasco [149]

addressed the different types of heat transfer observed in the quenching of steel parts and
the criteria that have to be considered for evaluating the cooling capacity of quenching
media for each type.
Totten et al. [60] performed experiments to evaluate the accuracy of a proposed
method that the cooling rate curve area between a specified temperature range can be
used to evaluate quenchant performance. They pointed out that future work should be
focused on correlating cooling curve shape with desired physical properties.
Furthermore, Totten and his co-workers [61] performed a survey of the methods
employed for cooling curve interpretation and discussed the advantages, disadvantages,
and accuracy of each method. Segerberg [62] briefly described the ISO 9950 standard
for obtaining cooling curves and presented five examples of industrial heat treatment
problems solved by coohng curve analysis. Luo and Liu [63] performed experiments to
study the influence of probe and its cooling behavior on assessing cooling characteristics
of quenching using silver, stainless steel, and high carbon steel probes of different
geometry. Bodin and Segerberg [129] provided a global review of methods for
measuring quenchant cooling power and described existing and proposed standard tests.
Totten et al. [64] provided a status report regarding international and national standard
development of cooling curve analysis.
Asada [65] investigated the cooling performance of a coat forming oil (mineral oil
and Zn-DTP) when a petroleum type sulfonate was added to it. He concluded that the
addition of the petroleum type sulfonate prevented degradation of coating characteristics
even after a long use and it had a far better effect to stabilized low heat treatment
distortion rate when compared with the performance ofthe original oil. Totten et al. [66]
performed experiments to explain the substantial distortion reduction obtained using
Type I polymer quenchants. They conducted experiments on 2024 and 7075 aluminum
sheets and 7075 aluminum bars to evaluate the effect of quenchant concentration,
agitation rate, and section size on the physical properties. They concluded that Type 1
polymer quench exhibits a more uniform quench than cold or hot water quench, which
results in significant reduction in residual stresses and distortion. In addition, the
13
physical properties achieved by hot water quenching are more suitable to agitation effects
than either cold water or polymer quenchant. Furthermore, the bar stock properties are
relatively insensitive to agitation while the sheet stock properties are increasing!\
dependent on agitation rate as the sheet thickness increases.
Many advances of quenching have taken place regarding high pressure gas
quench systems [68-74], quenching oil [75-76], rewetting temperatures [77], acoustic
control [78], quenching of metallic meks [79], and laser quenching [80]. Other
investigations have been performed regarding the quenching factors involved and
predictions of quenching hardening [81-86, 120, 121] and applicafions for quenching of
different steel parts [87-106, 122-124]. Other studies concentrated on phase
transformations and quenching of Titanium alloys [108-109, 127], on the effects of
ultrasonic vibration [110], cooling rate [111] and heat flux [112] during the quenching of
thin wires, on rapid quenching of amorphous alloys [113-115], on quenching of
aluminum extrusions [116-117], and on quenching quality, structure and properties of
quenched dispersion hardened alloys [118-119]. Other researches performed
investigation on quenched thin metallic fibers [125], quenching of refractory metals
[126], and critical quenching rate [128].
Several mathematical models have been developed to simulate quenching to study
the effects of several quench factors on material properties, residual stresses, distortion
and crack resistance. Abbasi and Fletcher [130, 148] mathematically modeled the effects
of viscous flow and transformation plasticity on generation of thermal stress and strain in
quenched steel plates. They compared measured and simulated residual stresses for
quenching in oil and in water and concluded that viscous effects play an important role in
quenching process.
Zabaras et al. [131] resented a finite element procedure for the calculation of
temperature and thermal stress fields during and after quenching of circular cylinders.
They provided numerical results and comparison of measured and calculated temperature
fields during quenching of aluminum cylinders.
Hernandez-Morales et al. [132] implemented sequential matching and sequential
function specification algorithms to the inverse heat conduction problem and used the
14
computer program CONTA to determine quench heat transfer coefficients. They
performed experiments with stainless steel and mild steel disks in water, brine, oil and air
to study the effect of several quench variables on the heat transfer coefficient.
Beck and Osman [133] developed and verified QUENCHID, a computer program
for analysis of quenching and heat treafing processes using inverse heat transfer method.
QUENCHID can treat nonlinear, composite materials with different shapes such as
plates, cylinders and spheres.
Inoue et al. [134] developed a finite element code named "HEARTS' for 2-D and
3-D simulation of various heat treatment processes such as quenching, tempering, and
carburization. The code is based on metallo-thermo-mechanical theory and examples of
simulated resuks of carburized quenching processes for cylindrical rod, ring and gear
wheel were presented.
Buchmayr and Kirkaldy [135] presented a finke element model for the calculation
of the temperature field, microstructural evolution and mechanical response (residual
stresses and distortion). The model is based on fijndamentals of thermodynamics and
kinetics taking into account alloying and synergistic effects. They applied the model for
optimization of cooling procedures for heavy heat resistant turbine castings and
weldments.
Aksel et al. [136] performed experimental work as well as mathematical modeling
and simulation of an asymmetric one-sided quenching of a beam. Ramakrishnan [137]
used QUENCH2D, a code based on an inverse conduction method, to perform a quench
analysis of aerospace components made out of a nickel base superalloy and performed
experiments wkh disks in oil quench and fan cooling (forced convection). Reti et al.
[138] developed Cooling Transformation Analysis (CTA), a new computerized
simulation procedure to characterize and compare in an indirect manner the quenching
performances of quenchants. Fukai et al. [139] proposed a method for measuring cooling
rates and boiling curves of thin plates quenching and developed one and two dimensional
heat transfer models to analyze the process.
Nagasaka et al. [140] developed a mathematical model based on finke element
and thermo-elasto-plastic behavior during the water spray quenching of steel to predict
15
the microstructural evolution of the steel part. Wallis et al. [141] investigated the
quenching process using both computer and physical models. They showed that
computer modeling of quenching process is a very valuable tool that allows engineers to
design heat treatment prior to manufacture and that quench tank design can be improved
by analysis ofthe fluid flow using CFD codes.
Tensi and Stich [142] used finke element to study the influence of wetting
kinematics on temperature distribution and heat flux of cylinders. Archambault and
Azim [143] presented a numerical technique for the solution of nonlinear inverse heat
conduction problem for calculating the surface temperature and heat flux in cylinders.
Applications on 7000 aluminum alloys and carbon steels were provided
Wallis [144] discussed the three main areas of computer modeling of quenching
(prediction of cooling rates, simulation of fluid flow, calculation of residual stresses and
distortion) and pointed out that the computer simulations can be used only if the input
data are accurate and models have been validated.
Sanchez-Sarmiento et al. [145] used INC-PHATRAN, a numerical model for
solving the inverse heat conduction problem in arbitrary quenching operations, in cases
that only measurements of surface temperatures after the end of immersion were known.
The model was in excellent agreement wkh the experimental measurements.
Gur and Tekkaya [146] developed a finite element model for predicting the
temperature field, volume fraction of phases, and the evolution of internal stresses up to
the residual stresses states during quenching of axisymmetrical steel components. In
addkion, they performed numerical and experimental investigation of the evolution of
residual stresses in quenched components induced by temperature gradient and phase
transformations.
Chen and Meekisho [147] demonstrated the capability of modeling and computer
simulation of temperature fields and associated thermal stresses during quenching to
predict residual stress and distortion. In addition, they used finite element analysis to
study the effects of cooling rate and the geometry of the component and they addressed
modeling strategies and modeling difficulties for future studies.
16
2.3 Measurement of Residual Stress

As previously discussed in Chapter I, residual stress can either be beneficial or
harmful and ks state should be taken in consideration in any design that involves cold
working or heat-treated parts. In general, residual stress can be measured by destructive
and non-destructive methods. Destructive methods require removal of thin layers from a
part wkh induced residual stresses followed by strain measurements after each layer
removal. On the other hand, non-destructive methods do not damage the part. These
methods are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.
Several studies have been performed to evaluate the development and distribution
of residual stress during cold working applications such as rolling [150-152] and during
welding [153-161] where the induced residual stress can be very crkical. However,
quenching process is too complex to analyze due to the involvement of many factors such
as the type of quenchant, agkation, cooling rate, quench uniformky, quenchant cooling
power, quenchant temperature, part geometry and part size. In addkion, k is difficult to
accurately apply traditional methods of residual stress measurement because they are not
capable of measuring three-dimensional residual stress in complex geometries.
Therefore, several numerical models have been developed throughout the years, based on
finke element and finke difference methods, to predict the quenching induced residual
stress.
Burnett and Padovan [162] traced the stress history and development of residual
stress fields in case-hardened carburized steel cylinders from the onset to the final stages
of quenching using a modified thermoelastic-plastic finite element procedure. They
emphasized on the degree of involvement of the temperature fields associated with the
heat treatment, plastic flow, phase transformations, and case and core chemistry in the
development of the residual stress fields in both the case and the core. To verify their
resuks, they used X-ray diffraction to measure the final residual stress fields.
Sjostrom [163] gave an improved description ofthe mechanisms ofthe quenching
process for steel and used a finite difference model to calculate temperature and phase
transformation histories. He applied his model to different steel alloys, quenching media
and cylinder diameters.
17
Kamamoto et al. [164] developed a computer program based on the fmite element
method to predict residual stresses and distortion caused by quenching in a large low
alloy steel shaft. Based on their numerical results and experimental resuks obtained by
performing uniaxial restrain tesfing ofthe transient strain during cooling, they concluded
that residual stresses and distortion are strongly related to the transformational beha\ ior.
Schroder [165] used finke element programs to study stress distributions in
quenched steel cylinders of different diameters wkh and without transformation effects.
He used different boundary condkions to study the influence of mechanical and thermal
factors on the final residual stress states. He provided results that can be used to validate
realistically estimated assumptions used in analytical computations.
Boyer and Boivin [166] proposed a method for calculating residual stresses and
strains in a thick plate after quenching and relaxation by stretching and compression. The
residual stress distributions and strain history are predicted using a computer program and
the predictions are used for numerical simulations of stress relief methods. Application
ofthe method for an aluminum alloy and a stainless steel was found in good agreement
wkh experimental resuks.
Li and Chen [167] developed a mathematical model for calculating the
temperature, stress strain field, and their interaction in a metallic material undergoing
phase transformations during quenching. They evaluated several test problems and their
final results demonstrate qualitative agreement with experimental resuks.
Das et al. [168] presented a comprehensive methodology based on finite element
analysis for the prediction of quenching related macro and micro residual stresses.
Through examples they demonstrated the importance of considering the phase
transformation effects during quenching and the effectiveness ofthe proposed method.
Henriksen et al. [169] studied the accuracy of modeling residual stress and
distortion in carburized steels. They performed experiments with a model undergoing
cooling and carburizing and used existing computer codes based on finke element to
predict the residual stress state and distortion. The predicted distortions did not agree
with experimental resuks and they discussed constitutive modeling requirements for more
accurate analyses.
18
Thuvander and Melander [171] developed a numerical model based on the finite
element method for calculation of distortion and residual stresses due to quenching, case
hardening and induction hardening. Experimental results for quenching of cylinders and
cubes were found in good agreement wkh the calculations performed by the numerical
model.
Ju et al. [172] performed metallo-thermo-mechanical simulations of distortion,
residual stresses and structural change in quenching-tempering process. Simulated
resuks were found in good agreement with experimental data.
Murthy et al. [170] presented comprehensive methodology for the analysis of
residual stresses due to welding and quenching processes using the finite element method
and transient thermal and thermo-elasto-plastic formulations. The results were found in
good agreement with test problems performed and wkh results from Ikerature.
Ibrahim et al. [173] performed finke element analysis of quenched aluminum gas
cylinders to predict the residual stress distribution. The results were found in good
agreement to experimental data and the authors suggested that the model can be used
optimize the heat treatment of aluminum gas cylinders.
Tanner and Robinson [174] used ABAQUS to simulate the quenching of aluminum
alloy 7010 to predict the residual stress distribution. The finke element method used
experimental cooling curves obtained from quenched aluminum bars to predict the
surface heat transfer coefficient and calculate the heat transfer rate.
In other studies, Bates [175] used the quench factor for predicting properties and
minimizing residual stress in quenched steel bars while Koguchi and Yada [176] used the
boundary element method to simulate residual stresses during heating and cooling.
Flasker and Abersek [177] developed RESMET computer code to predict residual stress
in gears while Hassell [178] discussed how desirable residual stresses can be obtained
during heat treatment. Arthur et al. [179] performed experiments and modeling of
residual stresses and distortion in quenched rectangular bars while Becker et al. [180]
performed experimental validation of predicted distortion and residual stress in quenched
bars. Gur et al. [181] studied the effect of boundary condifions and part geometry on
residual stress field and microstructure during quenching. Kroupa and Vysohlid [182,
19
184] presented an analytical theory of quenching macroscopic residual stresses in

thermally sprayed free standing tubes and in continuously sprayed coating and plated
while Aubry et al. [183] performed simulations to predict the microstructure and
quenching residual stresses in case hardened pieces.
2.4 Measurement of Distortion

Heat treatment is part of the majority of metal parts manufacturing processes. It
may involve annealing of the ingots or raw material at the beginning of the
manufacturing process or it may be an intermediate step to recover residual stresses
induced during cold or hot working. But most of the time heat treating takes place at the
end ofthe manufacturing process when the part has the desired shape and the only thing
left is to obtain the desired properties. This is the crkical point ofthe process because the
part's shape may drastically change due to heat-treating and as a result the end product is
rejected. As a resuk, a part wkh a positive market value and all cost of previous stages of
manufacturing, transportation and material turn into a scrap weight value. Therefore, it is
very important to control or minimize the distortion while obtaining acceptable
mechanical properties. Control of distortion during quenching is a very complex matter
due to the many factors involved and is an area of high interest by scientists.
Croucher and Schuler [185] used different concentrations of the synthetic
quenchant UCON A and performed tests using aluminum plates of various thicknesses in
an attempt to control distortion. They succeeded in minimizing the distortion while
achieving mechanical properties wkh no significant difference from properties achieved
by hot water quenching. Brennan [187] discussed the use of martempering oils and
concluded that when used with an alloy of appropriate hardenability can control
distortion and eliminate the rejections due to cracking.
Bates [186] presented Grossman numbers for a variety of quenchants and outlined
a methodology for selecting quenchants that will maximize tensile properties and
minimize distortion in aluminum parts. Moerdijk [190] studied the effect of process
parameters on distortion using a range of commercial available polymers in comparison
with water and mineral oils, a variety of steels, laboratory tests, and sealed quench
20
furnaces. He concluded that polymer solutions are user friendly, have long life time and
in many cases polymer solutions have an advantage over quench oils. In addition, he
pointed out the need for further development of polymers for wider application scope and
that standardization for polymer heat treatment evaluation is needed.
Volkmuth et al. [196] investigated the influence of oil and salt quenchants as well
as the influence of operating parameters such as temperature and holding time on the
distortion behavior of bearing rings. In a similar way, Wahl [198] investigated and
compared several cooling agents having varying cooling characteristics, temperatures and
holding times during sak quenching on the shape and dimensional stability of bearing
rings.
Howes [188] discussed seven factors that affect distortion in hardened steel
products while Milam [189] investigated the effects of eleven quenching process factors
on the distortion. He determined that five of them had produced significant effects and
he showed that the existing microstructure prior to heating and the method of heating to
the carburization temperature have a greater effect on distortion than the investigated
quenching factors do.
Von Bergen [197] defined the types of distortion that can occur during heat
treatment and discussed the effects of quenchant type, quenching characteristics,
operafing temperature, method and degree of agitation and quench system design on the
distortion of quenched steel parts. Owaku [191] showed that the control of quench
distortion for steel parts depends on the uniformky of the cooling rate and suggested that
spray quenching and computer aided quenching are ideal methods for uniform cooling.
Sulkeanu [193] discussed the distortion of gears and showed that graded hardening yields
significant reducfions in the gear distortions when compared to the distortions measured
on gears hardened using the standard method in oil.
Some mathematical models have been developed for distortion prediction. Petrus
et al. [192] simulated the quenching of 4140 steel under various quenching condkions in
oil and water using a nonlinear finite element code to predict distortion and to examine
the influence heat transfer coefficient on distortion. Thuvander and Melander [194]
performed experimental and numerical work to study the distortion during oil and water
21
quenching of steel cylinders and cubes. Experimental results showed that water
quenching resuks in more severe distortion than oil quenching. In addition, the
numerical results using finite element were in good agreement wkh the experimental with
respect to temperatures, microstructure and distortion. Tszeng et al. [195] presented a
study of the process modeling system for predicting the part distortion in quenching to
identify the crkical factors that dictate quench distortion predictions.
2.5 Summary
Quenching is a very important and complex heat treating process with a large
number of factors involved and unlimked applications. This literature survey revealed a
high number of studies on quenching process and quenchant types with different
applications. Furthermore, a lot of investigations have been conducted on the residual
stress and distortion induced by rapid quenching. Improvement of existing and
development of new finke element codes to predict material properties, residual stress
and distortion will help scientists to develop optimum quenching process for selected
industrial applications.
CHAPTER III
ANALYSIS OF RESIDUAL STRESSES
3.1 Method of Residual Stresses Measurement

Several methods of residual stress measurement exist and they are categorized as
destructive and non-destructive. Destructive methods partially or fiilly destroy the
specimen, while non-destructive cause no harm to the specimen. Some ofthe destructive
methods are the hole drilling method, the ring core method, the layer removal method,
the sectioning method, the shearing speckle interferometry wkh hole drilling method and
the Moire interferometry. Some of the non-destructive methods are the x-ray diffraction
method, the neutron diffraction method, the ukrasonic method, the magnetic method, the
Eddy current method, the Barkausen noise method, and the synchrotron excked Kossel
diffraction method.
3.2 Destructive Methods

The principle in destructive methods is the disturbance ofthe state of equilibrium
of residual stresses, which forces the residual stresses to redistribute, resuking in a
change in strain. In general, the destructive techniques create a new state of stress ekher
by machining or layer removal. This new state of stress is detected by measuring the
strain or displacement. Using the elastic theory, ekher by analytical approach or fmite
element calculation, the residual stresses can be calculated as a function of the measured
strain.
Destructive methods are sensitive only to macroscopic residual stresses. The
destrucfive methods that are briefly presented here are the hole drilling method, the ring
core method, and the layer removal method.
3.2.1 Hole Drilling Method

The hole drilling method is self-explained. Basically, a small hole is drilled on
the material's surface. The hole's diameter ranges from 1 to 4 mm (0.039 to 0.127 in) and
the depth ofthe hole can be less or equal to ks diameter. By removing stressed material,
22
23
the strain relief of the adjacent material can be measured. Figure 3.1 illustrates the
method and the position of the rosette strain gauge, which is used to measured the
relieved strain. The hole drilling method is explained in more detail in Chapter V
strain gauge
Hole
,1 1.
Rosette strain gauge
Figure 3.1. Illustration ofthe hole drilling method and strain gauge poskion.
3.2.2 Ring Core Method

The ring core method is similar to the hole drilling method. A hole that has the
shape of a ring core is drilled on the material's surface. The core's inside diameter can
range from 15 to 150 mm (0.59 to 5.9 in) while the hole's depth can range from 25% to
150% of ks diameter. The strain relief measurements take place on the surface of the
material inside the ring. Figure 3.2 illustrates the method and the poskion ofthe rosette
strain gauge, which is used to measured the relieved strain. The ring core method is
usually used for very large in size specimens.
3.2.3 Layer Removal Method

The layer removal method is not very popular because k results in complete
destrucfion ofthe part that k is being tested. However, is extremely accurate and it does
not involve as many calculations as other methods. The layer removal method involves a
part from which material is being removed at small increments (layers) either by
machining, grinding, or chemical machining. Chemical machining is the ideal way
24
because k does not introduce addkional residual stresses to the part. By removing a
layer, the balance ofthe residual stresses is upset. In order to reestablish the balance, the
part has to change shape, creating a deflection. The change in deflection is related to the
removed layer and the residual stress that has being removed. Therefore, the residual
stress can be directly calculated at different depths along the part's thickness and form the
residual stress profile.
Strain gauge
Ring core
Rosette strain gauge
Figure 3.2. Illustration ofthe ring core method and strain gauge poskion.
3.3 Non-Destructive Methods

Non-destrucfive methods are based on the relationship between the physical or
crystallographic parameters and the residual stresses [5]. The non-destructive methods
presented here are the x-ray diffraction method and the ultrasonic method.
3.3.1 X-ray Diffraction Method

The x-ray diffraction method measures residual strain on the surface by
measuring the latfice strains. This is achieved by studying the variations in the
interplanar spacing of a polycrystalline material [5], using a monochromatic x-ray beam.
25
3.3.2 Ultrasonic Method

The ultrasonic method is based on the variation of the wave speed. The wave
speed for a material can be measured when the material is both stressed and unstressed.
The residual stress is related to the variation in the sound speed by the acoustoelastic
constant. Even though the instrumentation required is very convenient to use, quick to
set up, and measurements can easily be taken, the method is very sensitive to
microstructural effects and temperature variation.
CHAPTER IV
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND PROCEDURE
4.1 Brief Description

The experimental set up consisted of the quenching apparatus, the computer-data
acquiskion, the holding mechanism, the distortion measurement set up, and the hole
drilling method set up. The quenching apparatus (Figs. 4.1 and 4.2) consisted of a
quenching tank, an AC-motor and ks controller, an electric clutch, a power supply, a
digital display meter, an inductive proximky sensor, a micro switch, a centrifugal pump,
chains, gears, beks, and pipe fittings. The quenching apparatus was designed by Umair
Syed during his graduate studies and therefore is briefly presented without any design
details.
The quenching apparatus was designed to accommodate 3x12 in (76.2x304.8 mm)
aluminum sheets, which is a 1 to 8 scale ofthe actual commercial size. The specimen's
distortion was measured prior the experiment using a dial gauge set up. Each specimen
was placed on the holding mechanism and heated in the heat treatment furnace at 493 3C
(920F) so that fijll annealing could take place. After a period of 60 minutes, the
specimen was removed and placed on the quenching apparatus. The electric motor and
clutch were used to move the chain mechanism, which lowered the specimen in the
quenching tank. The inductive proximity sensor was used to send a signal to the digkal
display meter in order to calculate the immersion rate. The micro swkch was placed at
the top ofthe quenching tank so that as soon as the specimen was fully immersed in the
quenching medium, the holding mechanism would hit the switch and signal to the digital
display to show the last reading (immersion rate). Meanwhile, the centrifugal pump was
agitating the quenching tank and the quenchant's temperature was recorded using a
thermometer. The specimen's distortion after quenching was then measured and the
specimen was prepared for residual stress calculation via the hole drilling method.
The computer-data acquiskion consisted of a PC and a multiplexer board and it
was used only in the experiments for collection of rime temperature data. It required use
26
27
of a specially designed "thermal" specimen. The "thermal" specimen and the use of the
computer-data acquisition are discussed in detail in Chapter VI.
Figure 4.1. Quenching apparatus.
Figure 4.2. Main components of quenching apparatus

(a) motor, (b) clutch, (c) centrifugal pump, (d) agkation pipe fittings
28
4.2 Quenching Apparatus
4.2.1 Quench Tank
The quenching tank size was based on heat transfer analysis of the quenching
medium's thermal capacity by applying the laws of conservation of energy. The tank's
capacity was about 34L (9 gallons). The inkial temperature ofthe quenching media was
23.9-25C (75-77F) while the specimen's temperature at immersion was 493.3C
(920''F). The high temperature difference resulted in an increase of the bath's
temperature. Using A.S.T.M thermometers, a 3.3C (6F) temperature rise was observed
with water as the quenching medium while a 5.6C (10F) temperature rise was observed
with 40% UCON Quenchant A as the quenching media. Furthermore, a 15.7C (30''F)
temperature rise was observed during the quenching ofthe "thermal" specimen.
4.2.2 Centrifugal Pump and Piping

Agitation of the quench tank was necessary in order to minimize the temperature
rise of the bath. A Dayton Electric Model LR2459 centrifugal pump was used to
circulate the quenchant at a flow rate of about 0.34 L/s (5.4 gpm). Various size PVC
pipes were used to construct the circulation system and to achieve the required flow rate.
4.2.3 Electric Motor and Clutch

In order to control the immersion rate, a motor-clutch system was used to move
the chain mechanism on which the holding mechanism was placed. A Warner Electric
Model EM-50-30 motor-clutch system was used. The motor was powered by a
Mitsubishi Model Freqrol F2 power supply, which also controlled the motor's speed
through a frequency control. Prior to an experiment, the motor would be started and left
running until the specimen was in poskion. At that point, the clutch was engaged and the
specimen would rapidly accelerate towards the quench tank.
29
4.2.4 Inducfive Proximity Sensor and Digital Display
The inductive proximky sensor was installed on the gear of the main shaft in
order to record the immersion rate ofthe specimen. As the clutch was engaged, the main
shaft would start rotating and the sensor would start receiving a signal (pulse) from the
gear's teeth. The sensor would then transmk that signal to the digkal display in terms of
frequency. Using this frequency, the digital display would calculate the angular velocity
ofthe shaft and convert k to linear velocky. This was achieved by knowing the different
gear rafios and by programming of the digkal display. The digkal display used two
different program files, which are included in Appendix F.
Figure 4.3. Inductive proximity sensor.
Figure 4.4. Digkal display.

30
4.3 Data Acquiskion

The data acquiskion system was used to collect rime temperature data from the
"thermal" specimen's surface while undergoing the quenching process. It consisted of 18
type K thermocouples, which were placed at specified locations of the "thermal"
specimen. The thermocouples were connected to an extension cable, which was
connected to a mukiplexer board (NaUonal Instrument AMUX-64T). The AMUX-64T
board had the capability to scan up to 64 channels at the same time, therefore, it easily
accommodated the thermocouples. Each thermocouple required two channels: one
channel for each of ks wires. Therefore, only 36 channels were used.
The multiplexer was connected to an analog to digital converter board (National
Instruments AT-MIO El6) to transform the analog signal from the thermocouples into
digkal signal. This was necessary in order for the signal to be readable by the computer.
Furthermore, Lab VIEW 4.0 (Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench), a
National Instruments computer software, was used to convert the vokages, produced by
the thermocouples, to degrees Centigrade. Lab VIEW was programmed to collect data at
a scan rate of 1000 scans/sec. Lab VIEW would receive data in a waveform and it would
then break down the waveform into single arrays (each single array corresponding to
each thermocouple). Each array was then averaged (one average every ten data points)
and a time reading was assigned to k. This provided one time reading for each
temperature reading. Each array was then broken up and the voltages from the
thermocouples were converted to degrees Centigrade. All the data was then stored in a
spreadsheet file, which was used to develop the time temperature profile of the surface
during quenching. The Lab VIEW program used is included in Appendix G.
4.4 Distortion Measurements

The distortion measurements prior to and after quenching were performed using a
dial gauge set-up. This set-up (Fig. 4.5), consisted of a platform, for specimen
placement, and a dial gauge, installed on a beam set-up. The dial gauge resolution was
O.OOl in (25.4 fim) and ks indicator would be at zero when the fip ofthe dial gauge was
tangent to the platform.
31
A 0.25x0.25 in (6.35x6.35 mm) grid was drawn on the surface of the aluminum
sheets using a permanent marker, which made the grid visible, even after quenching. The
grid utilized an X and Y axis reference system wkh the X axis along the length of the
sheet and the Y axis along its width. Each sheet was then placed under the dial gauge
and a reading was taken at each of the grid's junctions. This reading represented the
position of each junction in the Z axis. Prior experiments showed no change in the length
(X axis) or the width (Y axis) of the sheet, therefore, the change in the Z axis after
quenching represented the surface distortion. The data prior and after quenching was
recorded and the mean surface distortion prior and after quenching, the standard
deviation, and the percent difference were calculated. The data is presented in Chapter
VII.
<
î, ,.
Figure 4.5. Dial gauge set-up.

32
4.5 Hole Drilling Strain Gauge Method Set-Up
The residual stress measurements were performed using the RS-200 drilling mill
(Measurements Group), which is a standard set-up for the hole drilling method The RS-
200 has a resolution of O.OOl inches (25.4 \im) and is designed according to the ASTM
E837 standards. Figure 4.6 illustrates the RS-200 with the eyepiece in place for centering
the set-up over the rosette while Figure 4.7 illustrates the RS-200 with the air turbine
assembly in place for drilling the hole.
Alignment Setup Eyepiece
Microscope
Tube
A3
Locking
Collar
X-Y Adjustments
Illuminator Vertical Height

Adjustments
(3)
Locking
Nuts
cSj^^^s
Figure 4.6. RS-200 drilling mill alignment set up.

33
The hole drilling method required the use of a rosette strain gauge like the one
shown in Figure 3.1. Therefore, k needed three strain indicators in order to read all three
strain gauges at the same time. To save time, eliminate errors and have the same
condkions for all the measurements, the RS-200 was placed and leveled on two
Aluminum plates, so that the sheet wkh residual stresses could be slid between them.
This set-up is illustrated in Figure 4.8. A drill bk of 0.062 in (1.57 mm) was used to drill
the hole and Measurements Group EA-06-062RE120 rosette strain gauges were used for
the strain measurements according to ASTM E837 standards. In addition, the
Measurement Group P-3500 strain indicators wkh a resolution of 1 fis were used.
High-Speed To Air Supply

Drilling
Setup
Air Turbine
Spring Assembly "^ Assembly
Grooved Nylon
Collar
Anti-Rotation
Ring Adapter
Mount
Carbide Cutter
Figure 4.7. RS-200 drilling mill with the ak turbine assembly.'

34
Figure 4.8. RS-200 experimental set-up.
4.6 Holding Mechanism

A holding mechanism that could accommodate both the fixed-fixed and fi-ee in
space set-up was designed. It consisted of two base pieces connected with threaded rods,
so that the distance between them could be adjusted by the user. Each of the base pieces
had a hole to accommodate for the holding mechanism placement on the quenching
apparatus. The user had to place the aluminum sheet on top ofthe base pieces and adjust
the distance between them so that only the tip of each edge was in contact wkh the base
pieces. Two other pieces were then placed on top ofthe base pieces so that the aluminum
sheet was between them. These pieces had a specially machined groove on each side.
On one side, the groove had the same depth as the aluminum sheet thickness and the
same width. Therefore, when this side was used, there was no free space for the
aluminum sheet to expand or contract and k simulated the fixed-fixed set-up. On the
other side, the groove had a depth twice the aluminum sheet thickness and its width was
greater than that of the aluminum sheet. Therefore, when this side was used, there was
35
firee space for the aluminum sheet to expand and contract in all directions and it simulated
the fi'ee in space set-up. An assembly ofthe holding mechanism is shown in Figure 4.9
while detailed drawings of each part are included in Appendix D.
It was observed that during the experiments that utilized the fixed-fixed set-up,
the aluminum sheets were distorting during annealing. Thermal expansion of the
aluminum sheet was creating a moment on the restricted ends ofthe aluminum sheet, thus
forcing it to distort. Therefore, to minimize distortion during annealing, only one end of
the aluminum sheet was fixed while the other was left loose to allow expansion. Once
the annealing was performed, the holding mechanism was removedfiômthefiirnaceand
the loose end was fixed to complete the set-up. This adjustment to the experimental
procedure minimized any heating effects on distortion.
Figure 4.9. Holding mechanism assembly.

36
4.7 Experimental Set-Up Calibration
The experimental set-up had to be calibrated in order to verify and adjust the
instruments' accuracy or to generate a deviation chart for the instrument so that its
readings could be correlated to the actual value being measured. Special attention was
given to the digkal display, the data acquiskion, the dial gauge, and the strain gauges.
Some of the instruments were calibrated by the manufacturer and no ftirther calibration
was necessary. These were the thermometers used to measure the quench tank
temperature, the heat treatment fiirnace used to anneal the aluminum sheets, and the RS-
200 milling guide used for the residual stresses measurement. An authorized technician
calibrated the strain indicators.
4.7.1 Digital Display Calibration

In order to calibrate the digital display a reference point had to be chosen between
the digkal display and the lowering mechanism. In addition, a way to calculate the actual
linear velocity had to be found. The gear that the inductive proximity sensor was
receiving ks signal was selected as the reference point. The actual linear velocity of the
lowering mechanism, which is the same as the immersion rate, could be calculated by
converting the angular velocky ofthe gear to linear velocity using Eq. 4.1.
_ f^^ displacement . .
min rev
The first term of Eq. 4.1 is the angular velocky of the gear in rpm while the
second term is the distance traveled by the lowering mechanism per gear revolution. The
angular velocky ofthe gear was calculated using a strobe light. The displacement ofthe
lowering mechanism was calculated using the different ratios between the gear used as a
reference point and the gears on the lowering mechanism. Introduction ofthe conversion
factors and the value of displacement per rev in Eq. 4.1 resuks into
37
\ = _rev Imin 18//? \m (42)

min 60sec Ir^v 39.312in
Furthermore, Eq. 4.2 can be further simplified to
V = CZ (4.3)
where V is the instantaneous velocky of the lowering mechanism in m/sEC, C is a

conversion factor equal to 7.619x10' , and Z is the angular velocity ofthe reference point
in rpm.
The angular velocity ofthe reference point was calculated using a strobe light. To
achieve that, one of the gear teeth was painted white to facilkate the strobe light timing.
Then, the motor was turned on so that the gear would start rotating. The timing light was
then adjusted until the angular velocity of the gear in rpm was found. This value was
recorded along with the reading ofthe digkal display. The velocky range was from 0.07
to 3 m/sec (0.22-10 ft/sec). This test was performed four times to check repeatability and
then the readings were averaged.
The actual linear velocky was plotted as a fiinction of the digkal display reading
(Fig. 4.10). A trendline was used to calculate the equation ofthe calibration curve, which
was found to be
J - 0 . 9 6 5 3 :c (4.4)
where y is the actual linear velocity of the lowering mechanism and x is the digkal
display reading.
38
Digital Display Calibration Curve

Actual Linear Velocity vs. Digital Display Reading
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Digital Display Reading [m/sec]
Actual velocity Linear
Figure 4.10. Digkal display calibration curve
4.7.2 Data Acquiskion Calibration

The data acquiskion included the thermocouples, the extension cable, the
multiplexer board, the analog to digital converter board, the Lab VIEW software, and the
PC. Its input was a vokage signal from the junction at the end of each thermocouple and
ks output was a temperature reading from Lab VIEW. Therefore, ks calibration required
a thermal source and comparison of the Lab VIEW output to the actual temperature value
of the thermal source. Two thermal sources were used: a hot oil bath and a resistive
fiirnace. The hot oil bath had a temperature range of 50 to 200C (122-392F) while the
resistive fiirnace had a temperature range of 93 to 1093C (200-2000F). A digital RTD
thermometer (Omega DP95) wkh a 0.001C resolution and 0.05C accuracy was used to
measure the actual temperature ofthe thermal source. Therefore, the hot oil bath was the
best choice because ks temperature is uniform while the temperature inside a fiirnace
chamber may vary from point to point. However, due to the hot oil bath temperature
range, the resistive fiirnace had to be used for temperature above 200C.
39
The calibration was performed by placing the thermocouples and the RTD in the
thermal source. The Lab VIEW output for each thermocouple and the respective RTD
value were recorded. The calibration was performed at increments of 10C (50F) up to
200"C (392F) and at increments of 100C (212F) for temperatures above 200''C (392F)
by varying the temperature of the thermal source. Figure 4.11 illustrates the calibration
curve for thermocouple 8 while Table 4.1 lists the calibration curves for all the
thermocouples used. The calibration data and the rest of the calibration curves are
included in Appendix H.
4.7.3 Dial Gauge Calibration

The dial gauge was calibrated using gauge blocks of different thickness. The
gauge blocks thickness varied from 0.1 to 0.5 in (2.54-12.7 mm) at 0.001 in (0.0254 mm)
increments. It was found that the dial gauge was accurate giving always the exact
reading as the gauge block. Therefore, k was concluded that the dial gauge set-up could
be used effectively for the distortion measurements.
Calibration Cui"ve - Thermocouple 8
500 n
450 - j ^
^ 400- ^ ^
350
M) ^ ^ ^ ^ = 0.9758x-^ 8.571
C 300 -
1 250-
{2 200 1
Q 150 -
H
ftj 100 1 ^ ^ ^
50 ^
0 -\ 1 r i l l
{) 100 200 300 400 500
Thennocouple Reading I "C]
Figure 4.11. Example of thermocouple calibration curve.

40
Table 4.1. List of thermocouple calibration curves

Thermocouple Calibration Curve
1 y = 0.9474X + 9.9257
2 y = 0.9634x + 8.1168
3 y = 0.9633x +9.2846
4 y = 0.9725x +8.3034
5 y = 0.9973x +3.8742
6 y = 0.9854x +7.3251
7 y = 1.0264X +0.6652
8 y = 0.9758x +8.571
9 y = 0.9893x +6.2154
10 y = 1.0025X +4.7923
11 y=l.0155x +3.3893
12 y = 0.9958x +6.1822
13 y = 0.985x +6.5283
14 y = 0.983 lx +9.8058
15 y = 0.9689x +8.1811
16 y = 0.9835x +7.3835
17 y = 0.9877x +5.9428
18 y = 0.9857x +9.4774
4.8 Uncertainty
An uncertainty analysis was performed for the strain indicators, dial gauge, digital
display, data acquiskion system, cooling rate, and heat flux. The analysis was performed
according to reference [236] and is presented in equations 4.5-4.6.
f dy \ (
dy
\
+ + U. (4.5)
u. u. + u.
Vî J v^2 ;
U = ^B' +?' (4.6)

41
where Uy is the total uncertainty for all independent uncertainties ui-Un, B is the
uncertainty due to bias, P is the uncertainty due to precision, and U is the total uncertainty
of the measurement. Bias error is the systematic error that occurs the same way each
time a measurement is made while a precision error is different for each successive
measurement.
The strain indicator had a bias of 0.05% (reading value) 3 |ie, given by the
manufacturer. In the same way, the digkal display had a bias of 0.01% (reading value).
The uncertainty for the dial gauge and the digkal display is shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Uncertainty in strain indicator and digkal display

Variable Mean Standard Precision Bias Uncertainty %
Value Deviation Error Error Uncertainty

E 115 |J.8 0.707 0.878 1.96E-04 0.88 ^8 0.76
V 3.005 ft/sec 0.0311 0.0495 1.20E-03 0.05 ft/sec 1.65
The uncertainty of the dial gauge depended only on human error. With a
resolution of 0.001 in, the measurement had to be rounded to a 0.0005 in when the dial
indicator was between two successive incremental lines. Therefore, the uncertainty ofthe
measurement is 0.0005 in.
The temperature uncertainty was calculated using the RTD values and the
corresponding values from the temperature calibration curves. This uncertainty was
assumed to be the same for the cooling rate assuming that the time is exact. The resuks
are shown in Table 4.3.
The calculation for the heat flux uncertainty was more complicated because the
temperature uncertainty and SODDIT uncertainty had to be consider. Therefore, three
sets of temperature values were used that included the actual experimental values, the
experimental values plus the temperature uncertainty, and the experimental values minus
the temperature uncertainty. These values were used to run SODDIT at the actual
location of 0.508 mm (0.02 in), and at two other locations 0.5 mm of the actual
42
location. Then, the heat flux uncertainty was calculated. The results are shown in Table
4.3
Table 4.3. Uncertainty for temperature, cooling rate, and heat flux
Variable Uncertainty
Temperature [C] 5.8C
Cooling rate [C/sec] 5.8C/sec
Heat flux [W/m'] 199.25 W/m^
43
Notes
^Measurements Group Tech Note TN-503-5, "Measurement of Residual Stresses
by the Hole Drilling Method," Measurements Group, Inc., Raleigh, NC (1993).
CHAPTER V
RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENTS
5.1 Introduction
The area of residual stress has been well investigated and a lot of destructive and
non destructive techniques have been developed and standardized for residual stress
measurements. Baldwin [199] presented the first comprehensive review ofthe subject of
residual stresses in metals. A lot of studies followed up regarding the measurement,
relaxation and effects of residual stress. Many of them utilize a variety of techniques to
demonstrate their use and accuracy for several applications [200-217] while others
discussed the orientation and measurement of principal stresses [218-222]. Other studies
concentrated on the effects of residual stress on fatigue life [223-225] and others on
analytical models [226-229].
In this investigation, the hole drilling method was used for measuring the residual stress
state of the quenched aluminum sheets. The hole drilling method requires drilling of a
small hole to remove stressed material from the surface while measuring the relief of the
adjacent material. The principle ofthe method was introduced by Mathar [230] in 1934,
who used a mechanical extensometer to measure the displacements around a circular hole
drilled on a stressed plate. The method's accuracy was improved by Soete and
Vancrombrugge [231] who replaced the mechanical extensometer with strain gauges.
Rendler and Vingers [232] in 1966 introduced a hole drilling strain gauge method that
could determine the magnitudes and principal directions of residual stresses at the hole
location. This method became the base for the ASTM E837 standard method for
determining residual stresses by the hole drilling strain gauge method.
5.2 Data Analysis Via Hole Drilling Technique

According to ASTM E837 [1,2] standard, a hole is drilled at the geometric center
of a "clockwise" hole drilling strain gauge rosette hke the one shown in Figure 5.1. The
residual stresses surrounding the drilled hole relax and the relieved strains are measured.
The analysis presented in this chapter followed the analysis of reference [5].
44
45
Figure 5.1. Clockwise hole drilling strain gauge rosette.'
The relationship between the relieved strains and the principal stresses is of the
form
a ,cr -^=^ (5.1)

max ' mm A i 4B
A- A
where Omax and Gmin are the principal stresses, 8i, 82, and 83 are the relieved strains, and
A and B are calibration coefficients. Furthermore, the orientation of the principal
stresses can be calculated as the angle P measured clockwise from the axis of gauge I to
the maximum stress direction using Eq. 5.2.
e^^s^-2-e^
B = arctan (5.2)
2 S,-,
Three different groups of relieved strains appear in Eqs. 5.1 and 5.2. These are
the mean hydrostatic strain p, the tensor shear strain 45 to gauge 1 axis q, and the tensor
46
shear strain along gauge 1 axis t. These strains are given by Eqs. 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5,
respectively.
P^-^-ir^ (5.3)
^3 ^1
^ = ^-T-^ (5.4)
t^ ^ (5.5)
When an x-y coordinate system is established such that the x direction is parallel
to the gauge 1 axis, then the stress quantities corresponding to the p, q, and t strains are
(cr + G,)
Y^^-^ (5.6)
QS^^^ (5.7)
7 =^ (5.8)
where P is the mean hydrostatic stress, Q is the shear stress 45 to x-y axes, and T is the
shear stress along the x-y axes. Furthermore, P, Q, and T stresses are related to the p, q,
and t strains by
P=^ ^ (5.9)
2A
47
Q= (5 10)
2B
t
T= (5.11)
2B
Eqs. 5.9-5.1 apply to the case where a hole is drilled at a desired depth and the
corresponding measured strains are used as the basic data for the residual stress
calculations. However, to achieve better accuracy and stabilky, the hole is driled in
several increments and the relieved strains from each increment can be pooled together in
a weighted average. In this case, P, Q, and T stresses are calculated by
r,_lJlJl (5 13)
Once the stresses P, Q, and T have been calculated, all principal and conventional
stress quantities can be found using
<^^~^^=^W^' (5.15)
r^=W^ (5 16)
48
1 (-T^
B = arctan (5.17)
2 v-ey
0-, = P - e (5.18)
CTy=? + Q (5.19)
T^.y = T (5.20)
The conventional stress quantkies can also be calculated using the transformation
equations from elasticky [235]. The transformation equations 5.21-5.23 can be used to
describe the stress components at a point "O" in an x-y coordinate system to any other
coordinate system through that point. In other words, if the biaxial stresses Ox and Oy and
the shear stress Xx^ in an x-y coordinate system are known, they can be transformed to
another coordinate system (prime) that is oriented at an angle 0 and has the same origin
as the x-y system.
o-,'= ^^ ^ . c o s 2 ^ + r^ sin26 (5.21)
cr/= '- ^^ ^- c o s 2 ^ - r ^ -sin 26 (5.22)
r^'=^^ ^ ' s i n 2 ^ + r^-cos26' (5.23)
From Eqs. 5.15 and 5.17, the principal stresses and their orientation from the
gauge 1 direction can be found. Therefore, the principal stress system can be described
in the x-y system defined by the gauge I direction (x axis). Furthermore, by definition
49
the shear stress system is equal to zero. Therefore, Eqs. 5.21-5.23 can be written in terms
ofthe principal stresses as
^ma.x = ^ + ^ c o s 2 y ^ + r^-sin2/? (5.24)
G^ ^-G^ cr - G^
a_ = ^ ^cos2/?-r^-sin2y9 (5.25)
T^=-^^ -X2Si2p (5.26)
The Xxy can be eliminated from Eqs. 5.24 and 5.25 using Eq. 5.26. Therefore, the
resulting Eqs. 5.27 and 5.28 can be solved simultaneously to calculate Ox and Oy, which
can then be used to calculate Xxy.
G^-\-G^ G^-G^ G^-G^

o-max ^ ^ +-^ '-00^26 + ^tan2i9sin2y^ (5.27)
max 2 2 2
G^-\-G^ G^ -G^ G^-G^ ^ . ^

a^^ = ^ ^cos2>9 ^tan2;9sin2y9 (5.28)
Adding Eq. 5.27 and 5.28 resuks into
C^max+Cr^n = O", + O"^ (5.29)
which is the stress invariant and the transformed stresses must satisfy k. Equation 5.29
can be used to verify that the transformation was performed correctly.
50
In order to use Eqs. 5.1-5.17, calculation ofthe caHbration coefficients A and B

is needed, which depends on whether the residual stresses are uniform or non uniform.
The assumption of uniform residual stresses can be taken if the relieved strains fall within
the range of Figure 5.2 issued by ASTM E837 standard. In the case of non uniform
residual stresses, the calculation is more complex. Therefore, the measure relieved
strains were plotted in order to determine whether the quenching residual stresses in the
aluminum sheets were uniform or not. The plots (shown in Appendix A) were within the
range of Figure 5.2 and k was decided to use the hole drilling method analysis for
uniform residual stresses.
In the case of uniform residual stresses, the calibration coefficients A and B can
be calculated either through experimental or theoretical calibration. The factors that
control their values are the strain gauge rosette geometry, the elastic properties of the
specimen material, and the size (radius and depth) of the hole. However, for a given
rosette design, the effect of rosette geometry is a constant quantky. Therefore, the elastic
properties can be accounted in terms of two dimensionless calibration constants a and
b , which are related to the calibration coefficients by
0 .F A
a-^-^^ (5.30)
l+v
b=2EB (5.31)
where E is Young's modulus and v is Poisson's ratio.

The dimensionless calibration constants a and b are independent ofthe material
elastic properties and they have been evaluated for several commercial strain gauge
rosette designs. References [6] and [7] by the Measurements Group include several of
these evaluations and their applications. The evaluations for RE rosette strain gauge,
which was the design used in this investigation, are shown in Figures 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5.
51
120
100 3*1
\ f
lA
80
> g /
A ^
0)
5 60
3 ej - 2e2

40
c
o
c 20
D.
0.1 0.2 OJ 0.4
Hole depth
Gage circle diameter D
Figure 5.2. Percent relieved strain versus depth in a uniform residual stress field.
In order to use the presented analysis, the rosette strain gauges were mounted so
that the direction of gauge 1 was parallel to the x-axis (length) of the aluminum sheets.
Then the hole was drilled at increments of 0.127 mm (0.005 in). The relieved strains
were plotted to check whether the uniform residual stress hole drilling method analysis
could be used according to ASTM E 837 standard. The dimensionless calibration
constants a and b for RE rosette were then interpolated from Figures 5.3-5.5 and their
values were used to calculate the calibration coefficients A and B using Eqs. 5.30 and
5.31. Then the strains p, q, and t were evaluated using Eqs. 5.3-5.5 and they were used to
calculate the stresses P, Q, and T using Eqs. 5.12-5.14. Last but not least, the principal
stresses and their orientation were calculated using Eqs. 5.15-5.17 while the conventional
stress quantities were calculated using Eqs. 5.26-5.28.
52
RE AND UL ROSETFES
0.8 r
1 1
1 1
1 i r 1
I
\ f-
1
1
0.7 \ 11 1
p:3 1
P
/
^ " ^ .
1^
...
1
y >
06 - fo.4D 1 -
^ y 1
!
'/' y -+t
^ 05 - ;:
^ 7
< 'r^
l3 /
tn y
- ^j.. -
UJ "-^ . /\L7
OEF FIG
blind hole
-ir
^
r
O 0.3 ;;K^
4-
-^'
[i^ '
A
Ki.c.
^'1
'
.^-'
* 1

n 1 - ""
U.l ^ '^
4 ^ CI mr2c< S T n n 1 IMITS-
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
n -
1 1! II 1 II 1 1
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Figure 5.3. Dimensionless calibration constants a and ^ versus dimensionless

hole diameter for RE rosette.
53
DJD
0.30 "' ' ' I I I I IIII!I 11 1 11 ' I I I ] I
Figure 5.4. Dimensionless calibration constant a versus non dimensional hole

depth and hole diameter for RE rosette.^
DJD
I 1 I 1 I 1 1 I T 1 '
0.60 T"T- r I I I 1 T
1 u.au
J(7-e,)^+(e, + t,-2,)'
J-i..<'-.u--'';v'i .S rX , < 0.48
X*! ^
1 +1* _ ; 0.46
>' ^
0.50 2 ^^ , 0.44
B ^ x fc X ^'
2 1 " 7 x' , 0.42
y
> > ^ a 0.40
f V^ <* L^L.
0.40 ' ' .' . . 0.38
/ |.? 7 f
^ -^'
,' ^ ^ ; 0.36
,t.'
!
/ / / '' J*
H : 0.34
' .r .
, 7 7 ^
- *-
u 0.30 / t T < _.'' ..' 1^ i- . 0.32
0 / / y
^^ y
<' .** -1
u. - 0.30
1 <-! / L-H -^
y
u. \ x_
UJ
/J / ' .r
0 /
r-7
^1 u. / ^ *' ^ L--+^ ! ! 1
f
71' / /
\
1} ^ / *-\ ' i _^ ,' ]1 . M ; i1(_
yi// f/ J y y 1 01 .^ ! 1
<J 0.20 / & ' y 'I ' y, h
/ / f* ' y // , rl -H i Gage -
'v 1 *l -
f '^ J^' /%y4
7 /
0.10
fiS ^
^^' ^\y
D 0 OJ 0 10 0.15 0.20 0.25
ZJD
0
Figure 5.5. Dimensionless calibration constant b , versus non dimensional hole

depth and hole diameter for RE rosette.
54
5.3 Accuracy of Hole Drilling Method

5.3.1 Accuracy of Calibration
The accuracy of the hole drilling method is performed by testing under known
stress conditions. The relieved strains and the dimensionless calibration constants are
used to calculate the stresses, which are then compared with the stresses that were applied
to the tested specimen before hole drilling. However, each drilling system has its own
advantages and disadvantages such as the control of the hole depth and the shape of is
bottom and the change of the microstructure. The greatest effect on the method's
accuracy comes from the machining strains that are induced into the specimen. It is of
greatest importance to know the values of the induced strains and how they vary with
depth.
Usually the induced strains are evaluated by drilling on a stress free specimen and
recording the strains induced. For the purposes of this investigation, two aluminum
sheets of the same size and thickness as the quenched specimens were annealed. To
verify that fiiU annealing has been achieved, microstructural analysis ofthe thickness was
performed and it was found in good agreement with ASM Handbook [233]. In addition,
microhardness test was performed along the thickness and the hardness was found to be
uniform and in excellent agreement with Metals Handbook [234] values for annealed
aluminum 2024. Therefore, it was concluded that the sheets were stress free and they
were prepared for hole drilling. The induced strains were measured at two locations and
the values were averaged for each depth increment as suggested by [5].
5.3.2 Hole Eccentricity Effect

Another factor that has a great effect on the hole drilling method accuracy is the
hole eccentricity. Even though the hole drilling set up is aligned with the center of the
strain gauge, the alignment is very sensitive and it might change due to sudden
movements by the user when the alignment eyepiece is replaced by the drill. When this
happens, the residual stresses must be calculated using modified formulas that take in
consideration the eccentricity effect.
55
Notes
'LU Jian ed. Handbook of Measurement of Residual Stresses, Society of
Experimental Mechanics, The Fairmont Press, Lilburn, GA (1996): 7
ÂSTM E837-95, "Standard Test Method for Determining Residual Stresses by

the Hole Drilling Strain Gauge Method," ASTM Annual Book of Standards, \'ol. 3.01
(1995): 645.
^Measurements Group, Inc., "Measurement of Residual Stresses by the Hole

Drilling Strain Gauge Method," Tech Note TN-503-5, Measurements Group, Inc.,
Raleigh, NC (1993): 9, 12.
CHAPTER VI
THERMAL CHARACTERIZATION DURING HEAT TREATMENT
6.1 Introduction
Thermal characterization of a heat treatment process like quenching involves
development of cooling curves (temperature as a fiinction of time) and calculation of heat
flux and cooling rates. Developing the cooling curves is always the first step and it can
be achieved by experimentally collecting time temperature data. In many cases, the
cooling rates can be calculated directly from the cooling curves. However, the heat flux
calculation is more complex and it requires use of an inverse heat transfer code.
Performing thermal characterization during heat treatment is a very difficult task
due to the difficuhies in obtaining accurate experimental measurements. In addition, with
so many factors involved it is hard to compare experimental resuks performed at different
laboratories. Cooling mechanisms and cooling curve analysis have well been described
and discussed [4, 11]. Several international and national standards have been developed
[64, 129] to measure the cooling power and hardening power of quenchant media. The
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) issued ISO 9950 standard for
describing cooling curve analysis of quench oils without agitation. The standard utilizes
a cylindrical probe made of Inconel 600 and testing is performed by heating the probe at
850C and then cooling it in a 2 litre sample of unagitated oil. Other standards are being
developed in order to include agitation, which is a very critical factor especially for
polymer base quenchants.
However, with the increasing use of computers and development of inverse heat
transfer codes and finite element simulations, time temperature data directly from the
material surface can be obtained and used to characterize a selected material under
selected conditions. A standard method used in industry requires the use of a
thermocouple probe that is being placed on the materials' surface during quenching. The
thermocouple probe is connected to a data acquisition so that time temperature data can
be recorded. This method is very efficient because it is quick, relatively accurate, and it
is independent of material geometry. In addition, several devices like the ivf quenchotest
56
57
can be effectively used. The data is used to develop cooling curves to evaluate the
performance of the quenching media and the cooling rates achieved. However, it is
almost impossible to keep the probe at the same exact position on the surface from the
beginning to the end of the process. In addition, the probe is in direct contact not only
with the surface but with the quenching medium as well. As a result, the time
temperature data collected using this method cannot be used by an inverse heat transfer
code which usually requires a specific geometry, exact location on the surface at all
times, specific boundary conditions, and known thermo-physical properties. On the other
hand, thermocouples can be used to collect time temperature data but it is a method that
cannot be effectively applied in industry because it requires a lot of preparation and
specially designed or modified specimens to ensure protection ofthe thermocouples from
the quenching media.
For the purposes of this investigation, a new approach was considered in order to
address these problems and allow use of an inverse heat transfer code. To develop a new
approach, the inverse heat transfer code requirements had to be considered. Then, a
"thermal" specimen fialfilling these requirements was designed and it was successfully
used to collect time temperature data, which was then used by the inverse heat transfer
code. The new approach, the design and use ofthe "thermal" specimen, the development
of the cooling curves, and the application of the inverse heat transfer code for cooling
rates and heat flux calculation are being explained and discussed in this chapter.
6.2 Stages of Quenching

In general, the shape of the cooling curve indicates the various cooling
mechanisms that occur during the quenching process. At least three stages of heat
transfer occur and they reflect three different cooling mechanisms. These three stages or
cooling zones are known as stages A, B, and C as shown in Figure 6.1.
Stage A is called the vapor blanket cooling stage and is characterized by the
formation of an unbroken vapor blanket around the test piece. It occurs at the initial
immersion ofthe part into the quenchant and the vapor blanket acts as an insulator. Heat
transfer is slowest in this stage since heat must be transmitted through the vapor barrier
58
surrounding the part and cooling occurs principally by radiation through the vapor film
The vapor blanket exists as long as the supply of heat from the surface of the metal
exceeds the amount of heat needed to maintain the maximum vapor per unit of area [61]
Stage A is not detectable in cold aqueous solutions whose cooling curves start almost
immediately with stage B.
Stage B is called the vapor transport cooling stage or nucleate boiling stage and is
characterized by violent boiling of the quench medium following the collapse of the
vapor blanket. The transition temperature from stage A to B is independent ofthe initial
temperature ofthe part being quenched. The highest removal of heat from the part occurs
during stage B and its duration depends on the boiling point ofthe quenchant.
V^por Blanket
Nucleate Boiling
Convectlve
Cooling
Time
Figure 6.1. Stages of Quenching
Stage C is called the liquid cooling stage and it begins when the surface
temperature reaches the boiling point of the quenchant. In stage C, boiling stops and
slow cooling takes place by both conduction and convection. The rate of heat removal is
dependent on the temperature difference between the boiling point and the quench bath
temperature, agitation, and the quench medium viscosity.
59
6.3 SODDIT Inverse Heat Transfer Code
The code used in this investigation was the Sandia One - Dimensional Direct and
Inverse Thermal (SODDIT) Code. It is a FORTRAN 77 compatible program designed to
solve a wide variety of one-dimensional, transient, thermal diffusion and inverse heat
conduction problems. SODDIT is a very powerfiil and versatile code whose features
include thermo-physical properties ofthe materials as a fiinction of temperature, general
derivative boundary conditions, planar, cylindrical, and spherical geometries [3].
For the purpose of this investigation, SODDIT was used to solve an inverse
problem. An inverse problem, estimates the surface heat flux and temperature history at
the "active" surface for a material using known temperature histories at discrete locations
inside the material and by knowing the boundary condition at the "inactive" surface. In
other words, interior temperature measurements are used to calculate the surface heat flux
and temperature that caused the interior temperature response.
Therefore, the requirements that had to be satisfied in order to use SODDIT were
a. specimen geometry that could be modeled by SODDIT,
b. known thermo-physical properties ofthe material as a fiinction of temperature,
c. known (measured) temperature histories,
d. one-dimensional heat flux because SODDIT is a one dimensional code,
e. boundary condition at the "inactive" surface that could be modeled by SODDIT.
6.4 Design of Thermal Specimen

The "thermal" specimen was used to collect time temperature data during
quenching. The design criteria were
a. use thermocouples to collect time temperature data at an exact location from the
beginning to the end ofthe quenching process,
b. prevent contact ofthe thermocouples with the quenching medium,
c. satisfy the inverse heat transfer code requirements (see section 6.3),
d. meet the heat treatment fiirnace and the quenching apparatus size limitations.
The first three design criteria were addressed at the same time until a final design was
selected whose dimensions were then adjusted to meet the last design criterion. The first
60
item under consideration was the geometry of the specimen. It was decided to use
aluminum plates so that the thermocouples could be easily placed on the surface. In
addition, SODDIT could model the plates as a planar wall. Therefore, the specimen
could have the shape of a box, using two aluminum plates attached to a spacer. The
thermocouples could be placed on the interior surface and exit from the spacer,
preventing contact with the quenching medium. However, to achieve this, the specimen
had to be water tight. This problem was solved by using a high heat silicone aluminum to
seal all the gaps between the plates and the spacer as explained in section 6.5.
Furthermore, the thermocouples could be placed at exact locations throughout the
quenching process. However, they had to be located as close to the "active" surface as
possible in order to accurately respond to changes in surface conditions that might occur
at high frequency.
The trapped air inside the specimen was assumed to be adiabatic because its
convection coefficient is very small and therefore, it minimized any heat transfer between
the "inactive" surface ofthe plates. Therefore, the boundary condition for the "inactive"
surface of the plates could be set as adiabatic environment that could be modeled by
SODDIT.
The most difficult problem was to achieve a one dimensional heat flux on the "active"
surface. It was assumed that the plates would have a uniform temperature prior to
quenching since they would be in the heat treatment fiirnace long enough so that
annealing could take place. The second assumption was that the temperature change
along the longitudinal direction was uniform during quenching. This assumption was
based on the fact that any point along the same longitudinal direction will enter the
quenchant at the same time and it would therefore be subjected to the same conditions.
Therefore, it was assumed that no heat transfer would occur along the longitudinal
direction due to minimal temperature difference. However, this assumption is not valid
for the transverse direction. Conduction along the transverse direction would occur
because the bottom and the top part of the plate will experience different conditions.
Conduction could however be minimized by introducing grooves on the "inactive"
surface as shown in Figure 6.2. These grooves could minimize conduction by reducing
61
the thickness of the plates and therefore, reducing the cross sectional area that heat
transfer could travel through.
Tf V
^^.^PfSWWM
5^ ^'5ii^"^<}S:.a
' K -'
Pi?
.;:<Mi^^ms2 7;^ :^::;:gl^..

Figure 6.2. Grooves introduced on the "inactive" surface.
////////////////////
Air
It
T ^q
Figure 6.3. Cross sectional area with and without the groove.
Figure 6.3 illustrates the change in the cross sectional area (reduction of
thickness) when a groove is introduced on the surface. Treating the air and the "inactive"
surface as adiabatic and assuming that the "active" surface experiences the same heat
transfer rate qq, the heat transfer rates without the groove (q) and with the groove (qg) can
be calculated by Eqs. 6.1 and 6.2, respectively.
q--kA (6.1)
dx
62
^ . - H ^ (6.2)
Furthermore, assuming that the thermal gradient (dT/dx) and thermal conductivity
(k) are the same in both cases, the ratio between the heat transfer rates is given by Eq.
6.3.
q A tl t
- - ^ . - t.l
^. - t (6.3)
As shown by Eq. 6.3, when the area (A and Ag) is substituted as the product
between the thickness and the length, the ratio between the heat transfer rates reduces to
the ratio between the thickness with and without the groove. Furthermore, the aluminum
plate had an original thickness of 6.35 mm (0.25 in) which was reduced to 0.508 mm
(0.02 in) with the groove. Substituting these values in Eq. 6.3 it can be shown that the
heat transfer rate along the transverse direction is reduced by 92%.
^ =^ = 12.5 (6.4)
q, 0.02
^^=0.08-^ (6.5)
The theoretical 92% reduction of heat transfer along the transverse direction and
the fact that it would only take a fraction of a second to completely immerse the specimen
in the quenching media led to the final assumption. The final assumption was that there
is no heat transfer along the transverse direction, which combined with the previous
assumption of no heat transfer along the longitudinal direction reduced a three
dimensional heat transfer state to one dimensional. Therefore, all of SODDIT's
requirements were met.
63
Furthermore, the introduction of grooves on the "inactive" surface formed three
strips on which thermocouples could be placed at exact locations. In addition, a water
tight specimen could prevent contact between the thermocouples and the quenching
media. The specimen's dimensions were then chosen to meet the heat treatment fiirnace
and the quenching apparatus size limitations.
Last but not least, the thermo-physical properties of aluminum as a fiinction of
temperature were obtained from Thermophysical Properties of Matter [12, 13].
Therefore, all of the design criteria were met and the "thermal" specimen was prepared.
Figure 6.4 illustrates the "thermal" specimen while detailed drawings are included in
Appendix E.
Figure 6.4. Illustration ofthe "thermal" specimen.
6.5 Preparation of "Thermal" Specimen

The preparation of the "thermal" specimen consisted of four main steps. These
were
a. machining ofthe aluminum plates and spacer,
b. selection, preparation, and attachment of thermocouples,
64
c. assembly of the parts,
d. application ofthe high heat silicone aluminum.
6.5.1 Machining ofthe Aluminum Plates and Spacer

The aluminum plates and spacer were machined according to the drawings shown
in Appendix E. The introduction of grooves on the aluminum plates formed three strips.
Three holes were drilled on each strip to allow placement of three thermocouples on each
strip. The depth of these holes was 5.08mm (0.20in) which allowed the thermocouple
junction to be placed 1.27 mm (0.05in) away from the "active" surface. In addition, the
spacer had three holes at the top to allow the thermocouples to exit.
Due to the high experimental temperature and the specimen's complexity, a
gasket could not be placed between the plates and the spacer. Therefore, the plates and
the spacer had to have a good surface finish for better sealing. This was achieved by
polishing the surfaces in contact first with a 120 grit and finally with a 380 grit aluminum
oxide grinding paper. The plates' external surface was also polished in order to have a
good surface finish, which was scratched and dirty from the machinery.
6.5.2 Selection, Preparation, and Attachment of Thermocouples

6.5.2.1 Selection of Thermocouples
The criteria for selecting the thermocouples used were (a) high temperature range
and (b) small percentage error. It was decided that type K thermocouples were the most
suitable. Type K thermocouples have a temperature range of-73.3 to 1315.6 C (-100-
2400 F) with a percent error of 0.5 to 1%. The thermocouples used were the INC-K-
MO-040 manufactured by Omega.
Furthermore, three thermocouples were placed on each strip for a total of nine
thermocouples on each aluminum plate. One thermocouple was placed on each end and
one in the middle of each strip. This allowed comparison ofthe temperature distribution
along the longitudinal direction and verification of the assumption that there was no
temperature variation and therefore no heat transfer in the longitudinal direction.
65
The large number of thermocouples also allowed the "thermal" specimen to be
used multiple times. Each time an experiment was run, some ofthe thermocouples would
not give accurate readings. Due to the movement involved in the experiment, some
thermocouples would either record background noise or the wires inside the connection
clip would come in contact and as a resuU a junction would form and ambient
temperature was recorded. In addition, the wires might get cut because they were very
thin and fragile. Therefore, the large number of thermocouples guaranteed that at least
one good reading from each strip would be taken.
6.5.2.2 Preparation of thermocouples

The thermocouples were cut 1067 mm (42 in) long and the insulation at both ends
was removed using a striper. Then, one end was attached to a connection clip, which was
later connected to the extension cable coming from the multiplexer. At the other end, the
wires were twisted to form a junction. Once the thermocouples were ready, they were
connected with the multiplexer while the ends with the junctions were placed into boiling
water. Then the Lab VIEW program was run. This was necessary in order to check the
polarity of the wires and whether the circuits were working properly. If a thermocouple
was giving a negative reading, it meant that the polarity was wrong and the wires on the
multiplexer were switched (i.e., the wire from the positive input was switched to the
negative and the one from the negative to the positive). If a thermocouple was giving
ambient temperature, it meant that the wires were touching inside the connection clip
(creating a junction) and the connection clip had to be opened in order to rearrange the
wires. As soon as the thermocouples were tested for their polarity and reading, they were
removed from the boiling water and left to dry.
6.5.2.3 Attachment of thermocouples

The thermocouples' junctions were passed through the holes at the top of the
spacer and the junctions were embedded into a high thermal conductivity paste. The use
of this paste was necessary in order to cover any possible gap between the thermocouple
junction and the specimen's inner surface. In other words, when the thermocouples were
66
placed inside the holes, there was a possibility that the junction was not in perfect contact
with the surface at the bottom of the hole and as a result the reading would not be
accurate. Using the paste to cover any possible gaps, accurate thermocouple readings
could be taken.
The thermocouples were then inserted in the holes that were previously drilled on
the strips. High temperature ceramic cement (OB-400 by Omega) was used to keep them
in place. The ceramic cement was placed at the top of the holes in order to keep the
thermocouples in the holes. In addition, it acted as an insulator to avoid contact of the
stripped thermocouple wires with the sides of the hole. The thermocouples were then
bent and placed on the surface, as shown in Figure 6.5, so that additional cement could be
applied in order to prevent the thermocouples from coming out ofthe holes when putting
the parts together and during movement. The ceramic cement had to dry for at least 24
hours before the "thermal" specimen preparation could continue.
Thermocouple wire
Connection Ceramic cement

clip Aluminum
plate
Figure 6.5. Attachment of thermocouples on aluminum plate.

67
6.5.3 Assembly ofthe Parts
The aluminum plates were fastened to the spacer using steel bolts. The use of
bolts was preferred to welding because it allowed removal of the aluminum plates and
replacement of the thermocouples without having to machine new parts. In addition,
experiments could be conducted with plain aluminum plates or aluminum plates with
different number of strips or different sized strips. This would allow experimental
comparisons to be made to determine if the plates' geometry was affecting the cooling
curves. This is another possible method for validating assumptions and verifying
theoretical calculations that were made.
Great caution had to be taken during the assembly because the thermocouples
were very fragile. Bending moments on the thermocouples were increasing as the plates
were brought closer to the spacer because the thermocouples had to be bent in order to
pass through the top of the spacer. Sometimes the ceramic cement would break and the
thermocouple would come out of the hole. This required reattachment of the
thermocouple, which was time consuming. Figure 6.6 illustrates the parts before the final
assembly while Figure 6.7 illustrates the final assembly ofthe "thermal" specimen.
Spacer Thermocouple wire
Aluminum plate
Figure 6.6. "Thermal" specimen parts before final assembly.

68
Figure 6.7. "Thermal" specimen final assembly.
6.5.4 Application ofthe High Heat Silicone Aluminum

Despite the good surface finish ofthe parts and the use of a large number of bolts
to fastened the parts as tied as possible, there was still the possibility that quenching
media could pass through and come in contact with the thermocouples and the "inactive"
surface. Therefore, it was deskable to use a silicone adhesive to seal the specimen and
make sure that it was water tight. Unfortunately, the silicone adhesives that are usually
used for these purposes can not withstand the high temperature of 493 C (920 F) that
the "thermal" specimen was going to be subjected to. A Hi-Heat Silicone Aluminum
(No. 3731 Keeler & Long) was finally used but it required special preparation.
According to the manufacturer [233], the silicone aluminum's main application is
as a primer/finish coat for exterior surfaces and it can withstand applications that reach up
to 538C (1000F). Therefore, it had a high kinematic viscosity so that it could be easily
applied on a surface. However, in order to use it as a sealant, its kinematic viscosity had
to be very low. Therefore, a small amount of 30ml (0.183in^) had to be heated at 232 C
(450F) for 10 minutes to lower its viscosity. A number of experiments took place until a
69
temperature and time was selected so that the viscosity achieved was suitable for the
"thermal" specimen application. The silicone aluminum had to be applied while it was
still hot because it would solidify upon reaching ambient temperature.
Once the silicone aluminum was applied to the "thermal" specimen, the "thermal"
specimen had to be placed in the heat treating furnace at 288C (550*1^) for an hour in
order for the silicone aluminum to cure. At that point, the silicone aluminum would
completely solidify. Silicone aluminum was easily removed after each experiment and
was reapplied prior to the next one.
6.6 Development of Cooling Curves

During an experiment with the "thermal" specimen, the thermocouples were
monitored using Lab VIEW. The temperature was recorded and Lab VIEW assigned a
time step to each temperature reading. The cooling curves were developed by converting
the time step into actual time and then, the time temperature data was plotted to form the
cooling curve.
If the cooling curve showed a lot of discrepancies such as noise or inaccurate
temperature readings (either too high or negative) it indicated that there was something
wrong with the thermocouple's response during the experiment. The cooling curve for
the particular thermocouple was then disregarded from the experimental data. An
example of a good cooling curve without any discrepancies is shown in Figure 6.8 while
an example of a cooling curve with discrepancies is shown in Figure 6.9.
6.7 Application of SODDIT Inverse Heat Transfer Code

The experimental data obtained from the cooling curves was used as part of the
input file for SODDIT. In addition, the thermo - physical properties of aluminum 2024
as a fiinction of time and the thermocouple location were included. A different input file
was run for each cooling curve. The output file would contain a summary of the input
file and SODDIT's estimation of the surface temperature and heat flux. This data was
then used to develop cooling curves, plot the heat flux as a fiinction of time, and calculate
70
the cooling rate that the surface was subjected to at the selected locations. A sample of
SODDIT's input and output file is included in Appendix C.
Experimental Cooling Curve

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1.173 m/sec (3.85 ft/sec)
450
400
U
350 13 LS 17 Top
7 9 11 *
300
I 3 i 1
3 250
hi 200
o. 150
a
o 100
H 50
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Data ihown for TC#!
Figure 6.8. Example of a cooling curve without discrepancies.

Quenchant: Water
1400
1200
*i_ 1000
IT'
>
1II 13 15 17 Top
7 9 11 4
C9
S 400
800
600
f 1 i 1j 1 3 5 1
200 J 1
JJT*rJ Uw.
r-.
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [seel
Data Shown for TC#3
Figure 6.9. Example of a cooling curve with discrepancies.

CHAPTER VII
RESULTS
7.1 Quenched Aluminum Sheets

The experiments shown in Table 7.1 were performed om aluminum sheets to
investigate the effect of holding mechanism, quenching media, and immersion rate on
distortion and residual stresses. The tests are named QAS for Quenched Aluminum
Sheets and they are numbered I through 8 for the eight different quenching conditions.
In addition, microstructural analysis and microhardness measurements of the thickness
after quenching were performed. The quenching induced residual stresses, distortion
measurements prior and after quenching, microstructural analysis, and microhardness
measurements are presented in this section.
Table 7.1. Experiments performed for distortion measurements
Test Holding Mechanism Immersion Rate Quenching Media

QASl Fixed-Fixed 0.146 m/sec (0.48 ft/sec) Water
QAS2 Free is Space 0.140 m/sec (0.46 ft/sec) Water
0AS3 Free is Space 1.234 m/sec (4.05 ft/sec) Water
0AS4 Fixed-Fixed 1.301 m/sec (4.27 ft/sec) Water
0AS5 Free is Space 0.198 m/sec (0.65 ft/sec) 40% UCON Quenchant A
QAS6 Fixed-Fixed 0.201 m/sec (0.66 ft/sec) 40% UCON Quenchant A
QAS7 Free is Space 1.067 m/sec (3.50 ft/sec) 40% UCON Quenchant A
QAS8 Fixed-Fixed 1.121 m/sec (3.68 ft/sec) 40% UCON Quenchant A
7.1.1 Quenching Induced Residual Stresses

7.1.1.1 Induced Strains Due To Hole Drilling
In order to improve the accuracy and stability of the hole drilling method, the
machining strains were measured on stress free specimens. Figures 7.1-7.3 show two sets
of measurements for each gauge while Figure 7.4 shows the average induced strains for
each run as a fiinction of hole depth. Table 7.2 illustrates the averaged machining strains
that were used to calibrate the experimental measurements.
71
72
Induced strains due to hole drilling on stress free

specimens for gauge 1
Hole Depth [inl
'el Run I el Run 2
Figure 7.1. Induced strains for gauge 1.

4
2
0
-2
i) il^^ 0.08 0.1
-4
C/3 -6 i
-8
10
Hole Depth [in]
e2Runl -"ê2Run2

73

-2 tl 0.08 0.1
- , -4
? -6-
o
.5 -10
t -12
-14
-16 H
-18
Hole Depth lin]
-eSRninl -e3Run2
Averaged induced strains due to hole drilling on

stress free specimens
nBPBBao
Hole Depth [in]
Run I ""*~ Run 2
Figure 7.4. Averaged induced strains.

74
Table 7.2. Induced strains used for calibration
Depth finl Induced Strains [f^l

0.005 0
O.Ol -3
0.015 -4
0.02 -4
0.025 -4
0.03 -5
0.035 -5
0.04 -6
0.045 -6
0.05 -7
0.055 -8
0.06 -8
0.065 -9
7.1.1.2 Principal Stresses as a Function of Hole Depth

Figures 7.5-7.12 illustrate the principal stresses as a function of depth. The
measurements were performed using the hole drilling method and the measured relieved
strains as well as the calculation of residual stresses, utilizing the calibration coefficients
and the dimensionless constants, are included in Appendix A.
75
^max and '^n.in VS. Holc Depth

Holding Mechanism: Fixed-Fixed
Immersion Rate: Low 0.146 m/sec (0.48 ft/sec)
Quenchant: Water
6000
4000 1 --
^ 2000
Vi 0
r^ -2000 0 0 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.)7
-4000 n
-6000
Hole Depth [in]
"smax [psi] * smin [psi]
Figure 7.5. Test QASl: Principal stresses as a ftinction of hole depth.
^niM and ^niin vs. Hole Depth

Holding Mechamsm: Free in Space
Quenchant: Water
0
- .
(}) 3 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
-5000 -
en
C
5 -10000
in
-15000 -
-20000
Hole Depth [in]
' smax [psi] * smin [psi]
Figure 7.6. Test QAS2: Principal stresses as a function of hole depth.

76
*^max and ^,i vs. Hole Depth

Holding Mechanism: Free in Space
Quenchant: Water
8000
B 4000
-2000
Hole Depth [in]
' smax [psi] "smin [psi]
^niax and ^niin VS. HoIc Depth

Quenchant: Water
6000
5000 -
4000 -
i" 3000
: 2000 -
g 1000 -
4)
^ -1000 d) 0
-2000
-3000
-4000
Hole Depth [in]
' smax [psi] * smin [psi]

77
^max and *^,i vs. Hole Depth

Quenchant: 40% UCON Quenchant A
10000
8000
6000
ress [psi]
4000
2000
0
-2000
-4000
Hole Depth [in]
'smax [psi] ' smin [psi]
Figure 7.9. Test QAS5; Principal stresses as a function of hole depth.
^,ax and *^mi vs. Hole Depth

a.
VI
Hole Depth [in]

78
I
^,ax and ^,i vs. Hole Depth

5000
4000
3000
"? 2000
1000
Vi
0
^ -1000
-2000 i
-3000
-4000
Hole Depth [in]
" smax [psi] ** smin [psi]
Figure 7.11. Test QAS7; Principal stresses as a function of hole depth.
^max and *^,i vs. Hole Depth

V}
Vi
v>
u
in
Hole Depth [in]

79
7 1.1.3 Biaxial and shear stresses
The principal stresses were used to calculate the biaxial state of stress along the
length (x-axis) and the width (y-axis) of the aluminum sheets. Figures 7.13-7.20
illustrate the results for Ox, the stress along the length, as a function of hole depth. In a
similar way, the stress along the width, Oy, and the shear stress Xxy in the x-y plane are
illustrated in Figures 7.21-7.28 and 7.29-7.36 respectively. The numerical results are
included in Appendix A.
<^x vs. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
1000
500
VI
Vi -500
u
^ -1000 -
-1500 -
-2000
Hole Depth [in]
sx
Figure 7.13. Test QASl: Ox as a function of hole depth.

80
<^x vs. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
5000 1
^ -5000 i
^ -10000
u
X -15000
-20000 i
-25000
Hole Depth [in]
sx 1
Figure 7.14. Test QAS2: Ox as a function of hole depth.
î vs. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
3000
2000 -
V. 1000 -
0
0.01 0 0.05 0.06 0. )7
^ -1000-'
-2000
-3000
Hole Depth [in]
"sx

81
<^x vs. Hole Depth

Immersion Rate: High 1.301 m/sec (4,27 ft/sec)
Quenchant: Water
1400
1200 -
1000 -
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0. )1
Hole Depth [in]
sx
c^x vs. Hole Depth

Vi
2000
Hole Depth [in]
"sx
Figure 7.17. Test QAS5; Ox as a function of hole depth.

82
^j, vs. Hole Depth

Vi
Q,
Vi
Vi
ii
u
Hole Depth [in]
"sx
^x vs. Hole Depth

4000
2000
0
Vi -2000 0 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0. )7
v> -4000
Vi
ii
u -6000
-8000 i
-10000
-12000 i
-14000
Hole Depth [in]
"sx
Figure 7.19. Test QAS7: Ox as a fiinction of hole depth.

83
<^x vs. Hole Depth

1000
^ -1000
a
Vi
Vi -2000
o
u
in -3000
-4000
-5000 -^
Hole Depth [in]
sx
^y vs. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
4000
3500
. ^ 3000
a 2500
Jg 2000
t 1500 i
^ 1000 -
500
0^
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Hole Depth [in]
sy
Figure 7.21. Test QASl: Oy as a function of hole depth.

84
^y vs. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
2000
0
_ -2000 4>
1. -4000 -
^ -6000
t -8000 i
m
-10000
-12000 1
-14000
Hole Depth [in]
sy
Figure 7.22. Test QAS2: Oy as a function of hole depth.
^y VS. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
12000
10000
J5 8000 -
Vi
Vi 6000 -
ii
m 4000 -
2000
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Hole Depth [in]
sy
Figure 7.23. Test QAS3: ay as a function of hole depth.

85
^y vs. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
4500 1
4000
_ 3500
'1^ 3000
- 2500
2 2000 -
I 1500-
1000 -
500 -
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Hole Depth [in]
sy
^y vs. Hole Depth

4000
3000
^ 2000 -j
Vi
Vi 1000 i
ii
u 0
m
-1000
-2000 -
Hole Depth [in]
sy
Figure 7.25. Test QAS5: ay as a function of hole depth.

86
^y vs. Hole Depth

1000
500
isd]
0
Stress
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
Hole Depth [in]
sy
CTy vs. Hole Depth

14000
12000
10000
^ 8000 -
6000 -
P 4000 -
^ 2000
0 , ^ # t f.
-2000 <l 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0. )7
-4000
Hole Depth [in]
-sy

87
^y vs. Hole Depth

2000 1
1500
5 1000 -I
a
Vi
Vi 500
ii
u
m 0
-500
-1000
Hole Depth [in]
sy
\ y vs. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
4000
3000 i
Vi
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Hole Depth [in]
txy
Figure 7.29. Test QASl: Xxy as a function of hole depth.

88
'^xy vs. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
20000 T
15000 -
^ 10000
Vi
Vi
u 5000
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0. )7
-5000
Hole Depth [in]
"txy
Figure 7.30. Test QAS2: Xxy as a function of hole depth.
'^xy VS. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
8000
7000
: - 6000
a 5000 -
S 4000 -
% 3000
^ 2000
1000
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Hole Depth [in]
txy
Figure 7.31. Test QAS3: Xxy as a function of hole depth.

89
'''xy vs. Hole Depth

Quenchant: Water
4000
3500 i
m 3000
_a 2500
Stress
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Hole Depth [in]
'txy
Figure 7.32. Test QAS4: Txy as a function of hole depth.
Txy VS. Hole Depth

3000
2500 -
2000 -
Vi 1500
Vi 1000
Vi
ii
500
O)
0
-500 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0. )7
-1000
Hole Depth [in]
-txy

90
Tjy vs. Hole Depth

Hole Depth [in]
-txy
Figure 7.34. Test QAS6: TX^ as a function of hole depth.
Txy VS. Hole Depth

Holding Mechanism Free in Space
Immei-sion Rate: High 1.067 m/sec (3.50 ft/sec)
12000
10000
8000
'^ 6000
i" 4000
^ 2000
0 t f 1-
-2000 i 0.01 002 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0 J/
^1000
Hole Depth tin]
1>^

91
Txy vs. Hole Depth

3500
'l^ 2000 -I
1500 ^
Vi
Vi
"^
ii
1000
in
Hole Depth [in]
-tx\-
Figure 7.36. Test QAS8: TX> as a function of hole depth.
7.1.2 Microstructural Analysis

Figure 7.37 illustrates the microstructural analysis performed along the thickness
of annealed aluminum sheets while Figures 7.38 through 7.45 illustrate the
microstructural analysis performed along the thickness ofthe quenched aluminum sheets.
The surfaces were etched using Keller's reagent (2 ml HF [48%], 3 ml HCl, 5 ml HNO3,
190 ml H2O) for 15 seconds and washed with warm water.
92
Figure 7.37. Microstructural analysis of thickness at 150x.

(annealed)
Figure 7.38. Test QASl: Microstructural analysis of thickness at 150x.

(Fixed-Fixed, 0.146 m/sec, Water)
93
Figure 7.39. Test QAS2: Microstructural analysis of thickness at 150x.

(Free in Space, 0.140 m/sec, Water)
Figure 7.40. Test QAS3: Microstructural analysis of thickness at I50x.

(Free in Space, 1.234 m/sec. Water)
94
i. ,<) **J

(Fixed-Fixed, 1.301 m/sec. Water)
* -Ik
^;w*^ * ' L . i ^ ^ ^ ^ - . . . J ^ ^ ^ ,sicaii*^ ^ V ^ " ~

(Free in Space, 0.198 m/sec, 40% UCON Quenchant A)
95
Figure 7.43. Test QAS6: Microstructural analysis of thickness at 150x.

(Fixed-Fixed, 0.201 m/sec, 40% UCON Quenchant A)
<u*v:

(Free in Space, 1.067 m/sec, 40% UCON Quenchant A)
96

(Fixed-Fixed, 1.121 m/sec, 40% UCON Quenchant A)
7.1.3 Microhardness Measurements

The hardness as a function of thickness was measured using a microhardness
tester (BUEHLER Micromet 2100). The measurements were performed at 0.127 mm
(0.005 in) increments and at a distance of 0.254 mm (0.01 in) from the surface in order to
avoid the aluminum cladding. Measurements taken on an annealed specimen are shown
in Figure 7.46, while Figures 7.47-7.54 show measurements performed on the quenched
aluminum sheets. The distance halfway through the thickness is indicated by a vertical
line.
97
Hardness as a function of Thickness

Annealed aluminum sheet
69
> 67 -
s 65 -
Vi
Vi 63 -
ii
e
o 61 -
u 59 -
X
57 -
55 -
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Thickness [in]
Figure 7.46. Hardness as a hanction of thickness for annealed specimen.

Quenchant: Water
80
n
c^ 75 -
X
Vi
VI 70-
ii
e
a 65 -
u
e
X 60 J
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Thickness linl
Figure 7.47. Test QASl: Hardness as a function of thickness.

98

Quenchant: Water
- r 80
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Thickness [in]
Figure 7.48. Test QAS2: Hardness as a function of thickness.

Quenchant: Water
zr 80 1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Thickness [in]

99

Quenchant: Water
80 1
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

Thickness [in]

zr 80
75
?
a 70
e
o
65 -
X 60
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Thickness [in]

100

0.04 0.06 0.08

Thickness [in]

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Thickness [in]

101

C D -1
OU
1 75-
70
c
"2 65-
X
60 ^
() 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Thickness [in]
7.1.4 Distortion During Quenching Process

Figures 7.55 through 7.70 illustrate the numerical distortion measurements prior
and after quenching. Table 7.3 shows the mean surface distortion prior and after
quenching as well as the standard deviation and the percent difference in distortion.
Table 7.3 Distortion measurements
Test Distortion Prior Quenching Distortion After Quenching Percent

Mean Standard Deviation Mean Standard Deviation Difference
OASl 126.4 2.004 146 10.059 15.51
0AS2 126.7 1.427 154 16.28 21.55
0AS3 126.4 2.015 147 13.198 16.3
0AS4 126.2 1.414 148 13.879 17.27
0AS5 125.8 1.271 151 12.917 20.03
0AS6 125.3 1.068 137 7.877 9.34
0AS7 125.7 1.287 142 8.374 12.97
0AS8 126.5 1.433 144 10.743 13.83
102
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7.2 "Thermal" Specimen
Two sets of results were obtained regarding the "thermal" specimen. The one set
was direct time temperature data from the specimen during quenching and the other set
was the prediction of SODDIT regarding the surface temperature and heat transfer rate.
A total of 24 tests were performed but due to the high volume of data only results from
the four tests shown in Table 7.4 are presented. The tests are named QTS for Quenching
Thermal Specimen and are numbered 1 through 4 for the four different quenching
conditions.
Table 7.4. Experiments performed for thermal characterization
Test Quenching Media Immersion Rate

OTSl 40% UCON Ouenchant A 0.158 m/sec (0.52 ft/sec)
0TS2 40% UCON Ouenchant A 1.182 m/sec 0.88 ft/sec)
0TS3 Water 0.155 m/sec (0.51 ft/sec)
0TS4 Water 1.173 m/sec D.85 ft/sec)
7.2.1 Cooling Curves During Quenching Process

The cooling curves presented in this section are the actual experimental
measurements. Table 7.5 shows the tests and the figure numbers that refer to each test.
Table 7.5. Figure reference for experimental cooling curves
Test Figure No.

OTSl 7 71-7.84
0TS2 7.85-7.95
QTS3 7.96-7.111
0TS4 7.112-7.125
119

450 I
i
400
U 1
350 13 15 17 lOp
a 300 7 9 n ^
u I 3 3
3 250
a 200
ii
a. 150
B 100
a
H 50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [seel
- Data shown for TC#1
Figure 7.71. Test QTSl: Experimental cooling curve-TC#l

]immersion Rate: Low 0.158 m/sec (0.52 ft/sec)
450 -
T e m p e r a t u r e [C1
400 -
350 - 18 16 14 Top
12 10 8 1
300 - 6 4 2 1
250 -
200 -
150 -
100 -
50 -
0 i
75 100 125 150 r?5 2()0
C 25 50
Time [seel
- ^ D a t a Shown forTC#2
Figure 7.72. Test QTSl: Experimental cooling curve-TC#2.

120

450 -1
400 -
350 - 18 16 14 Top
300 - 12 10 8
6 4 2
s 250 -
C5
200 -
V
a. 150 -
E ^^^^- ^
lUU "
H
<n -1
0 -

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 1''5 200
Time [seel
j - ^ D a t a Shown for TC#4

500
450
U 400
o 13 L5 17 Tbp
350
ii 7 9 11 1
300 1 3 3 1
a
cc 250
Urn
ii 200
a. 150
ii 100
H 50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Data Shown forTC7

121

500
p . ^ 450
> 400
'' 350 15 16 14 Top
ii 12 10 1
u 300 6 4 2 1
3
250
ii 200
dui
150
ii 100
H
50
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [see]
Data Shown for TC#8

450
400
U 350 IS L6 14 lap
300 12 10 8 1
a 6 4 2 1
u 250
u 200
ii
o. 150
B 100
a
H 50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [see]
- ^ D a t a Shown for TC#10
Figure 7.76. Test QTSl: Experimental cooling curve-TC#lO.

122

500
450
u 400
350 13 13 17 Ttop
ii 7 9 11 t
u 300
1 3 5 i .
s 250 (
<->
C5 200
km
ii 150
a. 100
B 50 i
ii
H 0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [see]
Data Shown for TC#11
Figure 7.77. Test QTSl: Experimental cooling curve-TC#l 1

]Immersion Rate: Low 0.158 m/sec (0.52 ft/sec)
^J\i
' 400 -
u IS 16 14 LUp
4^ 300 - 12 10 B
6 4 2
B 250 -
2 200 -
a
cu 150 -
i 100 -
^ 50-
0 -i
() 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 2()0
Time [sec]
- ^ D a t a Shown forTC^12

123

Immersion Rate: Low 0.158 m'sec (0.52 ft/sec)
450
400
u 350 13 13 17 -R)?
300 7 9 11 *
u 1 3 5 '
3 250
c: 200
a. 150
B 100
ii
H 50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]

500
^ 450
400
u IB 16 14 Top
9 350
ii 12 10 E ,I
3
300 6 4 2
250
ii 200
rm 150
B
ii 100
H
50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [see]

124

500
450
u 400
350 13 13 17 lUp
ii ' 9 11 *
u 300 I 3 3
3 250
re
b, 200
ii
150
B
a 100
H 50
0
25 50 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]

500 -1 1 1
J ^ 450 -
e 400 -
Temper a t u r e [
350 - IB 16 14 Top
12 10 8 *
300 - 6 4 2 1
250 -
200 -
150 -
100 -
50 -
0 -
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 T75 200
Time [see]
-Data Shown for TC#16

125

,, 450
3 400
350 13 15 17 -R)? -]
ii
7 9 11 1
atur
300
250
1 3 3 !
J
ba
ii 200
Temp
150
100
50
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]

450
400
U 350 1
1 IB 16 14 Top
ii 300 1 12 10 E '
16 4 2
250
200
ii
CU 150
B 100
ii
H 50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]

126

450
400
U
350 13 13 1/ lop
ii 300 7 9 11 t
u 1 3 3
3 250
re
u 200
ii
a. 150
B 100
ii
H 50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Data shown f o r T C # l
Figure 7.85. Test QTS2: Experimental cooling curve-TC#l

Quenchant; 40% UCON Quenchant A
500
450
U 400
350 13 13 17 Ibp
ii 7 9 11 1
3 300 1 3 5 1
re 250
u 200
ii
CL 150
B 100
a
50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Data s h o w n for TC#3
Figure 7.86. Test QTS2: Experimental cooling curve-TC#3.

127

immersion Rate: High 1.182 m/sec (3.88 ft/sec)
500
450
3
400
^-- 350 IB 16 14 Top
ii 12 10 8 j
b. 300
3 6 4 2 1
re 250
u 1
ii 200
cu 150
c
ii 100
H
50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TC#4

500
450
3
400
^ 350 13 15 17 Tbn
ii 7 9 11 '.
u 300 I 3 5
3
re 250
ii 200
cu 150
B
ii 100
P^
50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TC#7

128

500
450
400
350 IS 16 Id Ton
a 12 10 E i
u 300 6 4 2 1
3 250
.41
re 200
u,
ii 150
cu
B 100
a
H 50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TCiilO

Immersion Rate: High 1.182 ra/sec (3.88 ft/sec)
^DU -
400 -
u JJU - 13 13 17 Tbp
7 9 11 1
ii 3uU - 1 3 5 1
3
J
250 -
re
u 200 -
ii
cu 150 -
B
a lUu -
H
0 -
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [see]
Figure 7.90. Test QTS2: Experimental cooling curve-TC#l I

129

450 -
y 400 -
r 350 - 13 13 17 TVsn
7 9 11 JI
^ 300 - 1 3 5
re 250 - \
,
i 200 -
E "-
a 100 -
n -
U n
C) 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
^Data Shown for TC#13
E x p e r i m e n t a l Cooling Curve
Immersion R a t e : High 1.182 m/sec (3.88 ft/sec)
500
450
3 400
. 1R tli Ii Ton
:{50
ii 12 10 8 J.
u 300 6 4 2
3
re 250
a 200
cu 150
B
ii 100
H
50
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]

130

][mmersion Rate: High 1.182 m/sec (3.88 ft/sec)
^00 -1
^
450 -
T e m p e r a t u r e [ C1
400 -
350 - 13 13 17 Tbp
7 9 11
300 - T 1 3 5 1
250 -
200 -
\
150 -
100 -
50 - .
n -
u
) 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
(
Time [see]
D a t a S h o w n for T C # 1 5

500
450
U 400
350 13 15 17 Top
a 7 9 11 +
u 300 1 3 5 1
3
re 250
u 200
a
cu 150
S
a 100
H 50
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Data shown for TC#17

131

500
'
450
o 400 ^
350 IB 16 14 Top
12 10 8 f
300 \ 6 4 2 1 '
re 250
z 200
I
a. 150
3
O 100
H 50
0
25 50 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TC*18

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: Low 0.155m/sec (0.51 ft/sec)
A^{\
400 - n
\
y -50- 13 13 17 Top
OJ 300 - \ ' 9 n *
\ 1 3 5
3 250 -
\
2 200 -
ii V
a- 150 -
V 100 -
H
50 -
J H
() 10 20 30 40 fO 60
Time [sec]
D ata jhown fcr T C#l

132

Quenchant: Water
18 16 14 Top j
12 10 8 X 1
6 4 2 '1
f^hM^W > % ^ ^ w < ^ i y i HWiwiii fcî i
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [see]
Data Shown for TCtf2
Experimental C ooling Curve

Q u e n c h a n t : Water
Immersion R a t e : Low 0.155ra/sec (0.51 ft/sec)
5UU -
450 -
o 400 - IB 16 14 Too
<u 350 - 12 10 G .
3 300 - 6 4 2
re 250 -
i 200 -
g" 150 -
i 100 -
^ 50 -
0 -\
20 30 40 50 60
c) 10
Time [sec]

133

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: Low 0.155ra/sec (0.51 ft/sec)
500
n
u
450
400
350
1 IX 1< IT
b. 7 9 11 *
3
300 I 3 5
re 250
200
150 Iv
a 100
H
50
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]
Data Shown for T C # 5
Experimental C ooling Curve

Quenchant: Water
450
^^ 400
U
3
350 LB 16 14 Top
" ^
12 10 E *
ii 300 6 4 2 1
b>
3 ?5n
*j
re 200
a
a. 150
B 100
ii
H 50
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]
Data Shown f o r T C # 6

134

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: Low 0.155ra/sec (0.51 ft/sec)
500
450
1
^"O*
^"^
3
400
^- 350 \ 13 15 17 Top
ii 7 9 11 1
knM
300 1
1 3 5 1
3
250 t
b. \
200
a.
3 150
ii 100
H
50
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TC#7

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: Low 0.155m/sec (0.51 ft.'sec)
500
450
u 400
350 IB 16 14 Too
ii 12 10 8 .
300 6 4 2
3
a 250
u 200
ii
a. 150
B 100
a 50
H
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]
Data Shown for T C # 8

135
E x p e r i m e n t a l Cooling C u r v e
Immersion R a t e : Low 0.155m/sec (0.51 ft/sec)
500
450 ' ' i -.1
u 400 \
\
ii
350 13 15 17 n>p
7 9 11
300 1 3 5
3 250
200 -
ii
150
a. 100 ,,,, i
[
B
a 50
H 0
10 15 20 25
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TC#9

500
U
450
400
1
IB 16 14 Top
350 12 10 8 1
a
3 300 6 4 2 1
cs 250
UI 200
ii
a 150
B 100
o 50
H
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]

136
E x p e r i m e n t a l Cooling Curve
Quenchant: Water
500
_ 450
3 400
^-^ 350 13 15 17 "lUp
il
7 9 11 *
3 300
1 3 5
250
ii 200
a. 150
ae 100
H
50
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [see]
Figure 7.105. Test QTS3: Experimental cooling curve-TC#l 1

450
^~' 400
U
s 350 IB 16 14 Top
^"^ 12 10 8 1
ii 300 6 4 2 1
h
3 7,50
i-J
CS
200
ii
o. 150
B 100
ii
H 50
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]
Data Shown forTC#12

137

Quenchant: Water
450
400 -~\
U 350 \
1 13 15 17 Tjp
300 7 9 n 1
1 3 5 1
250
:i
200
a
a. 150
3 100
ii
H 50
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]

Quenchant: Water
500
^ 450
U
a 400
IB 16 14 Top
ii 350 12 10 8 .
T e m p e r atur
300 6 4 2
250
200
150
100
50
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]
Data Shown forTC#l'5

138

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: Low 0.155m/sec (0.51 ft/see)
500
450
U 400
350 13 15 17 Tbp
a; 7 9 n A
300
250
1 3 5 1
ii 200
Cu 150
ii 100
H 50
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]
Data Shown for T C # 1 5

500 -1
~
45U -
u 400 - I
a 350 - IB 16 14 Top
1
ature
12 10 8 1
300 - 6 4 2 1
\
250 - 1
ii 200 - L
1
\
B 150 - \
ii ^Vs.,^
100 -
50 -
0 - 1
c) 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]
^ D a t a Shown for T C # 1 6

139

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: Low 0.155ni/sec (0.51 ft/sec)
IB 16 14 Top
12 10 8 *
6 4 2 1
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [sec]

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1.173 m/sec (3.85 rt/sec)
^DU -
4U0 -
U t<f\
13 L5 17
J JU - T up
7 9 11 i
a juU - 1 3 5
250 -
km 200 -
u
CL, 150 -
B 1 nn -
ii lUU
H 50 -
0 -
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Data shown for TC#1

140

Quenchant: Water
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TCU2

450 -
400 -
P 350 - IB 16 14 Top
12 10 8 1
V 300 - 6 4 2 1
k.
3 250 -
2 200 -
a
Om 150 -
i 100 -
^ 50- II"'""'
0 -\
15 20 25 30 35 40
c) 5 10
Time [see]

141

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1.173 m/sec (3.85 ft/see)
IS 16 14 Top
12 10 8 k
6 4 2
|'^|W>| '" >Ulli0 HI i^wi Mill.. ...>,, , . j g ;
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TC#6

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1.173 m/sec (3.85 ft /sec)
500 n
_ 450 -
o 400 -
350 - 13 15 17 Top
Temp r a t u r e [
7 9 11 1
300 - 1 3 5 1
250 -
a ZOO
150 -
100 -
50 -
0 -
c) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
->- Data Shown for TC#7

142

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1.173 m/sec (3.85 ft'sec)
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TCm

Quenchant: Water
450
"%
^ 400
y 350 13 15 17 Ujp
îi 300 7 9 11 1
1 3 5 1
250
200
ii
o. 150
B 100 fcfc... *
ii
50
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [see]
Data Shown for TC#9
Figure 7 118. Test QTS4: Experimental cooling curve-TC#9.

143

Quenchant: Water
450
'
'N
u
ii
400
350
300
1
\
\
18
12
16
10
14
8
Top
*
\ 6 4 2
250
u 200
ii
CL 150 \
B
a 100 V -.n^^
H 50
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]

Quenchant: Water
<n/>
3UU
r-m 450 -
y 400 -
350 - 13 15 17 'R)p
ii 7 9 11 *
u. 300 - 1 3 5
" 250 -
t 200 -
s* ^^
a 100 -
- 50-
0 i
15 20 25 30 35 40
C1 5 10
Time [sec]
-Data shown forTCtfll
Figure 7.120. Test QTS4: Experimental cooling curve-TC#l 1.

144

450
400 \
\
u 350 18 16 14 Top
300 \ 12 10 8 *
ii 6 4 2
S 250
C3
k. 200
ii
CU
B
150 V
a 100 1* ' ^ .irs^
H
50
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
-*-Data Shown for TC*12
Figure 7.121. Test QTS4: Experimental cooling curve-TC#l2.

Quenchant: Water
450
400
U
350 13 15 17 Tbp
7 9 11 *
300
km
I 3 5
250
km 200
ii
CL 150
B 100
ii <-Ny,J^
50
*'^y*V**\
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TC^13

145

Quenchant: Water
450
400
U
350 13 15 17 Tbp
300 7 9 11 1
ii
1 3 5 1
.
250
CS
u 200
ii
150
c
B 100
a 50
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Data Shown for TC<^15

Quenchant: Water
500
450
u 400
" ^
350 18 16 14 Top
ii 12 10 8 1
u 300 6 4 2 1
t-i
250
d
ii 200
c 150
B 100
a
H 50 .t
^MMHMW^MMM^fr
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Data Shown forTC<^16

146

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1.1^3 m/sec (3.85 ft'sec)
450
^-, 400 "1
o 350 \ 18 16 14 Top
> 300 i 12 ID 8 *
Qj
U 6 4 2
250 \
^ ^
CQ
200 \
b. \
ii
150
E 100
a;
H 50
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
7.2.2 Heat Flux During Quenching Process

The figures in this section are the plots of the surface temperature and heat flux
prediction from SODDIT as a function of time. Table 7.6 shows the tests and the figure
numbers that refer to each test.
Table 7.6. Figure reference for heat flux curves
Test Figure No.

OTSl 7.126-7.139
0TS2 7.140-7.149
0TS3 7.150-7165
0TS4 7.166-7.179
147
Surface Temperature / Heat Flux as a Function of Time

O.OE+OO 450
-l.OE+05
KlO i:>o 2')0
400
350 H
mm
300
250
13 15 17 Top
c
7
1
9
3
11
5 t 200
150
<6
ii o
X -7.0E+05 100 n
-8.0E+05 -- 50
-9.0E+05
Time [sec]
HeatFlix Surface Temperature TC#1
Figure 7.126. Test QTSl: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l

O.OE+OO 450
2>0
-l.OE+05 '400
r-^ -2.0E+05 350 H
g -3.0E+05 300 2
^ -4.0E+05 250 3
^ -5.0E+05 200 I
? .6.0E+05
n
^ -7.0E+05
100^
-8.0E+05
50
-9.0E+05
0
Time [sec]
Heat Flux Surface Temperature TC#2
Figure 7.127. Test QTSl: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#2.

148

O.OE+OO 450
-l.OE+05
^ -2.0E+05
E -3.0E+05
-4.0E+05
3
-5.0E+05
-6.0E+05
X -".OE+05
-8.0E+05
-9.0E+05
Time [sec]

O.OE+OO
Time [sec]
Heat Flux Surface Temperature TOfl
Figure 7.129. Test QTSl: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#7

149

O.OE+OO 450
l:i0 200
-l.OE+05 400
_ ^ -2.0E+05 350
mm
g -3.0E+05 300
It
-4.0E+05 250
X IS 16 14 Top <-
3 12 10 8 A
-5.0E+05 200
C3 -6.0E+05
6 4 2 1 150
ii
X -7.0E+05 100 n
-8.0E+05 50
-9.0E+05
Time [sec]
-HeatFlux Surface Temperature TC#8

O.OE+OO "r I 450

liKl Ii!L JAIO400
-l.OE+05
^ -2.0E+05 350 H
g -3.0E+05 300 ^
^ -4.0E+05 250 2
IS 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A.
f2 -5.0E+05 200 ^
6 4 2
1? -6.0E+05 150 "
o
^ -7.0E+05 n
100
50
-8.0E+05
-9.0E+05 0
Time Isec]

150

O.OE+OO 500
-l.OE+05 iîiX J10450
-2.0E+05 400 ,
H
n
-3.0E+05 350 =
-4.0E+05 300 1
n
3
-5.0E+05 13 15 17 Top 250 I-*
c
7 9 11 A
-6.0E+05 200 ri
1 3 5
IS
-7.0E+05 150 c
8.0E+05 100
-9.0E+05 50
-l.OE+06 0
Time [sec]
Figure 7.132. Test QTSl: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l 1

Immersion Rate: Low 0.158 m/sec (0,52 ft/sec)
450
i:;o 2i)0
400
350 H
n
300 J
' ^ -4.0E+05 IS 16 14 Top 250 3
rH .5.0E+05
" -6.0E+05
12
6
10
4
8
2 1 200 I
150
e
u
** -7.0E+05 100
-8.0E+05 50
-9.0E+05 0
Time [sec]
HeatFkix Surtace Temperature TC#12

151

O.OE+OO (11 ^ ^ ^ 450
.OE+05 libi 2)0

'400
350
a 300
T3
o
13 15 17 Top 250
7 9 11 A C
C5
1 3 5 1 200 -I
150
<ii
X n
100
50
Time [sec]
HeatFlux Surface Temperature TC#13

O.OE+OO II -T T 500
LiQ_ JîO,450
-I.OE+05
-2.0E+05 400
H
ft
-3. OE+05 350 5s
o
1, -4. OE+05 300 n
a
X -5.0E+05 IS 16 14 Top 250 ft-
^ -6. OE+05
12 10 8 A
200
c
.<-)
-7.0E+05 150 c
X
-8.0E+05 100
-9.0E+05 50
-l.OE+06
Time [sec]
Heat Fkix Surface Temperature TC#14

152

O.OE+OO ^f w ^ ^ w ^Bip^r 500
-UKL L'A. -^450
400
350
H
s
-4.0E+05 300 o
S -5.0E+05 13 15 17 Top 250

c
E -6.0E+05
jg -7.OE+05
7
1
9
3
11
5 1 200
150
n
-8.0E+05 100
-9.0E+05 50
-l.OE+06 0
Time I seel
HeatFlux Surface Temperature TC# 15
Figure 7.136. Test QTSl: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l5.

O.OE+OO Ti 500
-1.OE+05 ^' -UiO- lîO- 2i)045o
-2 .OE+05 400 ^
-3 .OE+05 350 C
2
-4 .OE+05 300 1?
X -5 .OE+05 IS 16 14 Top 250 B
3 12 10 8 A
-6.0E+05 2(K3
E 6 4 2 1
4> -7.0E+05 150
X -8.0E+05 100
-9.0E+05 50
-l.OE+06 0
Time Isec]
Figure 7.137. Test QTSl: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l6

153

O.OE+OO 500
-l.OE+05 0 / *;ri KIQ )',0 On
\
^ -2.0E+05 400
H
' -3 .OE+05 vl
1; 350 s5
e 300
"^ ^.OE+05 13 15 17 Top 250
I
y -5.OE+05 7 9 11 1 ft
â -7.OE+05
-6.OE+05
V 1 3 5 1
200
X -8.0E+05
v,^ 150
100
n
-9.0E+05 50
-l.OE+06 I 0
T i m e [seel

O.OE+OO T450
T'T"
LiiL -iiO'400
-l.OE+05
^ -2.0E+05 350 H
IS
300^
^ -3.OE+05
^ -4.0E+05 16 14 Top
250 3
IS
12 10 8 A
200 n
6 4 2
150 "
o
X
n
100^
\- 50
Time Isec]
Figure 7.139. Test QTSl: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l8.

154

l.OE+05 450
O.OE+OO < t^Smi niftn I 11 (I* i II'> - 400
l:i0
m,,a
350 ^
s
s 300
n
71
13 15 17 Top 250
X C
a
5. OE+05
7
1
9
3
11
5 1 200 n
150
-6.OE+05 100 o
-7. OE+05 50
-8. OE+05 0
Time [sec]
HeatFlux - Surface Temperature TC#1
Figure 7.140. Test QTS2: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l

1. OE+05 500
O.OE+OO -^
-l.OE+05
Time [sec]
Heat Flux Surface Temperature TC^3
Figure 7.141. Test QTS2: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#3.

155
Surface Temperanire / Heat Flux as a Function of Time

Iiiunersion Rate: High 1.182 m/sec (3.88 ft/sec)
1. OE+05 500
O.OE+OO -Cr !,> ig>ii,wi t,nvmm^.,f^t If iiv.iv"r 4 5 0
100 i:'0 2O0400
-1. OE+05
M
+ 350 I
eat Flux [w/m
-1 OE+05
- 300 2
-3. OE+05
18 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A - 250 g-
-4. OE+05 1
-5. OE+05
6 4 2 1 - 200 "*
+ 150 ^
S -6. OE+05
~- 100 ^
-7. OE+05 4 50
-8. OE+05 0
Time [sec]

Immersion Rate: Higli 1.182 m/sec (3.88 ft/sec)
500
L iO 2< >0400
H
- 350 s
300
13 15 17 Top
X A
250
3
7 9 11
1 3 5 200
ii + 150 ^
X
'-- 100
-- 50
0
Time [sec]
HeatFlux Surface Tanpcralurc TC^7

156
Surface Temperature / Heat Fhix as a Function of Time

l.OE+05 500
O.OE+OO û>''Vi<^^''"~'**" * ' l l i * < l >i f f T 450
-l.OE+05 i6o i:;o 2i0400 ^
s
- 1 OE+05 - 350 5
.5
- 300
[eat Flux \w
-3. OE+05
IS 16 14 Top
250
-4. OE+05
-5. OE+05
12
6
10
4 2
8
1 200
-- 150
?. -6. OE+05 r.
-- 100
-7.0E-K)5 50
-8. OE+05
Time [sec]
HeatFlux Surface Temperature TCÎO

E
f*
K
ii
K
Time [sec]
Heat FkiX Surface Temperature TC#11
Figure 7.145. Test QTS2: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l 1

157

500
i:io Jf0400 ^
H
+ 350
300 2
-3. OE+05 13 15 17 Top
7 9 11 A - 250
g -4. OE+05
1 3 5 -- 200 ^
ii -5. OE+05
-- 150
* -6. OE+05 - 100
-7. OE+05 4- 50
-8. OE+05 0
Time [sec]
HeatFkiX Surface Temperature TC#13
Surface Temperature / Heat Flux as a Function of Tine

Immersbn Rate: High 1.182 m/sec (3.88 ft/sec)
Time [sec]

158

1. OE+05 500
O.OE+00 fwv" m^- 450
-1. OE+05 l.iO J<K)400 N^
-- 350 3
S -1 OE+05
+ 300 2
^ -3. OE+05 13 15 1' Top
9 11 4 - 250 c
B -4.0E+05 1 ^
1 3 5 + 200
U.
t; -5.0E+05
ii 150 o
^ -6. OE+05 -- 100
-7. OE+05 3- 50
0
-8 OE+05
T i m e [sec]

S
E
a
Time [sec]
Heat Flax Surface Temperature TC#18

159

Quenchant: Water
O.OE+00 aÔ^ H u -r 500

-2QE+05 3D 4D 50 450
4.(;+05 400
^ -6. OE+05 350
H
S 5
-8. OE+05 300 A
-l.OE+06 250
3 13 15 17 Top
7 9
E
e5
ii
-1.2E+06
-1.4E+06
1 3 '/ I 200
150 o
X o
-l.ffi+06 100
-1.8E+06 50
-2(E+06
Tkne [sec]
Figure 7.150. Test QTS3: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l.

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 500
-I- 450
O.OE+00
400
4D 5D H
+ 350
-5.{;+05
&
- 300 ft
18 16 14 Top 250
s -l.OE+06 12 10 S A
1
C8
6 4 2 1 + 200
.1.5E+06
-- 150
X o
-- 100
-20E+06
-_-- 50
-25E+06 0
Time [sec]
HeatFlux Surface Tenperaturc TC#2

160
Surface Temperature / Heat Flux as a Function of Tune

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 500
-- 450
O.OE+OO
-- 400
3:) 4a 5D
-- 350 g
- -5. OE+05
300*^
n
X -i.oE+oe IS 16 14 Top 250 c
3 12 10 8 A -I
ft
6 4 2 1
+ 200
J

ii -1.5E+06
- 150
X
-- 100
-20E+06
rf 50
-25E+06 0
T i m e [sec]

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 500
450
O.OE+00
30 40 50 400
IS -5. OE+05 + 350 g
Flux [w/m
5
l.OE+06 + 300
13 15 17 Top + 250 c
-1.5E+06 7 9 11 I -- 200
C8
1 3 5
33 -2.0E+06 150 o
-- 100
-25E+06 Jl - 50
-3.0E+06 0
Time [sec]
Heat Flux Surface T emperature T C#5

161

Quenchant: Water
5.QE--03 500
- 450
O.OE+00 -'
30
-- 400
40 50
-- 350 g
-5. OE+05
S
300 n
a
X -l.OE+06 18 16 14 Top 250 c
_3 12 10 8 *
6 4 2 + 200
E
-1.5E+06 -- 150
X n
-20E+06 -- 100
\ 50
-25E+06 0
Time [sec]
Heat Flux Surface T emperature T C#6

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate; Low 0.155 m/sec (0.51 ft/sec)
5. OE+05 500
- 450
O.OE+OO
-- 400
40 50
350 g
- -5. OE+05
e + 300 ft
P
X -l.OE+06 13 15 17 Top 250 c
3 7 9 11 i . <t
to 1 3 5 + 200

ii -1.5E+06 150^
X
j - 100
-20E+06
:- 50
-2.5E+06 0
Time [sec]

162
Surl ace Temperature / Heat Flux as a Function of Time

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 -] r 500
-\ - 450
O.OE+00 -
- 400
>\: rHfo 20 30 40 50 H
It
- 350 g
s -5. OE+05 -
- 300 ft
r1
a
-l.OE+06 - IS 16 14 Top - 250 c
12 10 8 1 1
E 6 4 2 1 - 200,
5 -1.5E+06 -
V
- 150 ^
X
N - 100
-20E+06 -
u ' ' ,
, : - 50
-25E+06 - - 0
Time [sec]
HeatFlux SurfaceTemperatureTC#8

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 500
--. 450
O.OE+OO _ .. .f
400
50
- -5. OE+05
"*r / 0 2
"V 0 40
350 g
5
s --
300 2
X -l.OE+06 _': ' _ 13 15 17 Top a
250 c
3 7 9 11 A "J
-- <t
1 3 5 1 200-,
"
\K
5
-1.5E+06
ii 150 2
X
100
-20E+06
1
50
25E+06 0
Time [sec]
Heat Fhix Surface Temperature TC#9

163

Quenchant: Water
5 OE+05 500
.. 450
O.OE+00 v'' ' J
-- 400
43 53 H
-- 350 ft
3 OE+05
E
+ 300
l.OE+06 IS 16 14 Top 250
3 A
12 10 8
-1.5E*06
6 A 2 1 + 200
o
- 150
n
-- 100
-20E+06
+ 50
-25E-06 0
Time [sec]
HeatFlux Surface TemperatureTC#10
Surface Temf)erature as a Function of Time / Cooling rate

Quenchant: Water
13 15 1' Top
-r 9 11 A
Cooling Rate [ C/sec] 1 3 5
T
(3 25 50 5 1(X) i:>5 15
bW ~ ^
450 ^
400 " ': 1
1
Cm
350 "^ ^ " ^ " ^
5 300 1 L ^
250 ^
u
200
150 '.^.~
4^
100 " "*^,, ,__^
H 50
0 -
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TC#11 Cooling Rate

164

Quenchant: Wâter
5. OE+05 - 500
450
O.OE+00
+ 400
40 50 H
+ 350 2
-5. OE+05
S a
+ 300 2
X -l.OE+06 IB 16 14 Top 250 c
fa
-1.5E+06
12 10
6 4
S
1
M. 1 + 200 ^
t
150 ^
X
-20E+06 + 100
50
-25E+06 0
Thne [sec]
- Heat Flux Surface Temperature TC#12

Quenchant: Water
5.0E+05 500
-- 450
O.OE+00 - - rwA= iw^^^" W - ^ ..^Vj/V-
-- 400
43 53 H
+ 350 2
-5. OE+05
+ 300 2
X -l.OE+06 IS 16 14 Top 250 c
1
12 10 8 1
ft
fa 6 4 2 + 200
- 150
-1.5E+06 n
-- 100
-20E+06 50
-2.5E+06 0
T i m e [sec]
HeatFkix Surface Temperature TC#14

165

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 500
- 450
O.OE+00 -'
+ 400
43 53 H
+ 350 2
-5. OE+05
S
+ 300
X -l.OE+06 13 15 17 Top 250 c
7 9 11 A
3
1 3 5 \ + 200
fa
-1.5E+06 -- 150
n
X 100
.-- 50
-20E+06
-25E+06 T i m e [sec]
Figure 7.162. Test QTS3: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l5,

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 500
-- 450
O.OE+00
400
53 H
ft
4- 350
B
-5. OE+05 B
+ 300
X -l.OE+06 Top 250 B

3 A
+ 200
a -1.5E+06
a 150
X o
+ 100
-20E+06
.-+ 50
-25E+06 0
T i m e [sec]
HeatFlux Surface Temperature TC^l 6

166

Quenchant: Water
Time [sec]
-HeatFlux Surface Temperature TOf 17

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 500
450
O.OE+00
4O0
30 40 50 H
ft)
+ 350
-5. OE+05 B
S
- 300
-A l.OE+06 IS 16 14 Top 250

11 10 8 A
_3
fa 6 4 2 1 + 200
R
-1.5E+06 a
+ 150
X n
100
-20E+06
50
-25E+06 0
Time [sec]
HeatFkJx Surface Temperature TCW18

167

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 450
O.OE+00 400
30 35 40
^_^ -5. OE+05 350
S -l.OE+06 300 3
mm
^ -1.5E+06 250
15 17 Top
9 11 A c
200
3 -20E+06 3 5
? -25E+06 150
100
n
-3.0E+06
-3.5E+06 50
-4.0E+06
Time [sec]
Heat Flax Surface Temperature TC#1
Figure 7.166. Test QTS4: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 450
^
O.OE+00
-5. OE+05
- -l.OE+06
n
A';
10 1 -f, 0 25 33 35 40
400
350 ^
300 5
^ -1.5E+06 250 2
IS 16 14 Top
-20E+06 11 10 8 I 200 ^
fa 6 4 2 1
1 1'
S
(9
ii
-25E+06 \
150 o
ii
X
-3.0E+06 100
. .
-3.5E+06 50
-4.0E+06 0
Time [sec]

168

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 450
O.OE+00 I 400
" ; / î 13 15 23 i5 30 35 43
-5. OE+05 350

- -l.OE+06 300
a
^ -1.5E+06 1
250 St
IS 16 14 Top <-
,- -20E+06 12 10 8 * 200 5
6 4 2 1
-25E+06 150
-3.0E+06
n
100
-3.5E+06 50
-4.0E+06
Time [sec]

Quencliant: Water
5. OE+05 450
O.OE+OO
X
^J A-^._.._
m-^m,- 400
0 13 15 2 O' 25 30 35 40
^ -5. OE+05 350 ^
! /
g -l.OE+06 300 B
fi
^ -1.5E+06 250 2
X IS 16 14 Top
^ -20E+06 12 10 8 * 200 ;
6 4 2 1
h
-25E+06 150
S
100
n
-3.0E+06
- ^ . ^ ~^^
-3.5E+06 50
-4.0E+06 0
Tine [sec]
TTr at Pllrv C,,r1i^^,^T...^^r^.,r^h,,^TnHA
I1C< iJia\r^ 1 ^
al riux

169

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1,173 ra/sec (3.85 ft/sec)
5. OE+05 450
1
O.OE+00 400
^
e
-5. OE+05
-l.OE+06
"M
'IT
13 15 20 25 30 35 40
350 ^.
c'
300
c
-1.5E+06
13 15 17 Top 250 S
3 - 7 9 11 4
-20E+06 200 2
1 3 5 j
-25E+06
ii
X
-3.0E+06 N- - ^
150
100
n
-3.5E+06 50
-4.0E+06
T i m e [sec]

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: H ^ h 1.173 m/sec (3.85 ft/sec)
5. OE+05 450
i
O.OE+00 400
i 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
^ -5. OE+05 " ''
i /
r 350 H
-l.OE+06 300 na
', / ft
^ - 1.5E+06 250 3
^
X
3 -20E+06 \i 11
IS
12
6
16
10
4
14
I t
Top B
200 ffi
ii -25E+06 ^ \ 150
X \ n
-3.0E+06 100
- _ ^
-3.5E+06 50
-4.0E+06
T i m e [sec]

170

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 450
-v
O.OE+OO
"i
400
-- -\
/ ' \ 3 15 23 25 30 35 40
^ -5. OE+05 350
; H
- -l.OE+06 ^
300,
^ -1.5E+06 250
X IS 16 14 Top
r -20E+06 12 10 8 * 200
fa 6 4 2 1
ii
-25E+06 150
ffi -3.0E+06
^
100
n

- ,
---^.
-3.5E+06 50
J
-4.0E+06 0
T i n e [sec]

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 450
%
O.OE+OO 400
' 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-5. OE+05 350 ^
-l.OE+06 300 B
)
1 j ft
-1.5E+06 250 u
X 18 16 14 Top
Ij
3 -20E+06 12 10 8 1 200
6 4 2 1
\h 150 ,
-25E+06
ii 11 ^
X -3.0E+06 n
100^
~~^"-^-, _^____^
-3.5E+06 50
-4.0E+06 0
T i m e [sec]

171

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1.173 ni/sec (3.85 ffsec)
5. OE+05
O.OE+00
i 1 _ . -1. . J 400
-
-5. OE+05
-l.OE+06
\t ' 13 lJ5 23 2(5 30 Sp 40
350 ^
o'
300 3
1, .1.5E+06 250 S
X, 15 16 14 Top
3 -20E+06 12 10 8 1 200 ;i
I
1
6 4 2 1
-25E+06 150
X
-3.0E+06 , P-
V 100
n
---..
-3.5E+06 50
-4.0E+06
Tkne [sec]
-HeatFlux Surface Temperature TCÛ
Surface Teniperature / Heat Flux as a Function of Time

1
Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 450
\
O.OE+00 . f . j ^
ry
400
1 i /i 13 15 20 25 30 35 40
-5. OE+05 350 ^
-l.OE+06 H 1
300 B

-1.5E+06 250 S
IS 16 14 Top c
X
3 -20E+06 - 12 10 8 1 200 S
6 4 2 1
1 j'
150 ^
a:
-25E+06
-3.0E+06
Uv --,^
100""
" ^ - ^ --_.._
-3.5E+06 50
-4.0E+06 0
Time [sec]
HeatFkix Surface Temperature TC#12

172

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1,173 m/sec (3.85 ft/sec)
5. OE+05 450
O.OE+00 /\j\P i\f/\.-'^^ 'v/AV'' ^ ^ = - - 400
5 20 25 30 40
-5. OE+05 350 ^
H
ft
- -l.OE+06
300 5
^ -1.5E+06
X 13 15 17 Top 250 3
r -20E+06
fa
-25E+06
7
1
9
3
11
5 1 200 S
150 o
X O
"-^S... 100
-3.0E+06
50
-3.5E+06
0
-4.0E+06
Tkne [sec]

Quenchant: Water
5. OE+05 450
-
O.OE+OO 400
0'; /. 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-5. OE+05 1 350 ^
t /
-l.OE+06 300 5
ts
ft
^ -1.5E+06 11
X IB 16 14 Top 250 3
^ -20E+06 12 10 8 1 -
fa 6 4 2 1
1\ 200

-25E+06 150 o
X o
-3.0E+06 100
~~^^- - ^
-3.5E+06 50
-4.0E+06 0
Tbne [sec]
Heat Fhix Surface Temperature TC#15

173

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: H^h 1.173 tn/sec (3.85 ft/sec)
5. OE+05 1 450
O.OE+00 A ^ ^ i
400
-5. OE+05 '* \ J-r 13 15 23 25 33 3(5 4J0
350 .
g -l.OE+06 \\\l1 H
300 5
ft
^ -1.5E+06
X
r -20E+O6
fa
\i\i IS
12
6
16
10
4
14
S
2
Top
1 -
1
250 2
200 S
g -25E+06 " \ 150 e

X NV o
100
-3.(K+06
50
.^^
-3.5E+06
0
-4.(B+06
Tkne [sec]
HeatFhK Surface Temperature TC#16
Figure 7.178. Test QTS4: Temperature/Heat flux versus Time-TC#l6.

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: H^h 1.173 m/sec (3.S5 ft/sec)
5.(lE+05 450
/"Sj-.-
O.OE+00 400
/ -
-5.0E+O5
(
\ f-i 13 15 20 25 33 35 43
350 H
-l.(+06 300 5
1. .1.5E+06 18 16 14 Top
250 S
X
5 -2QE+06 12 10 8 1 200 S
fa \\ 6 4 2 1
1 J *
1 1 \
I -25E+06 150 o
X 100
-3.(B+06 ^ . -- ^ 50
-3.5E+06
0
-4.(B+06
T h i e [sec]
-HeatFkix Surface Temperature TC#18

174
7.2.3 Cooling Rates During Quenching Process
The surface temperature prediction from SODDIT was used to calculate the
cooling rate as a function of temperature. Table 7.6 shows the tests and the figure
numbers that refer to each test.
Table 7.7. Figure reference for cooling rate curves
Test Figure No,

OTSl 7.180-7.193
0TS2 7.194-7.203
0TS3 7.204-7.219
0TS4 7.220-7.233
Surface Temperature as a Function of Time / Cooling rate

13 15 I' Top
10 15
Cooling Rate [ C/sec]
20 25 30 35
7
1
9
3
11
5 1
40 45 50
450
rj400 \
i.
= 350
\
300
I
250
\
200
S. 150 V
'"^--^ .fc,^
i 100
H 50 ^
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]
Surface Teniperature TC#1 Cooling Rate
Figure 7.180. Test QTSl: Temperature versus Time/CooHng Rate-TC#l

175

IS 16 14 Top

12
6
10
4 2
8
1
() t 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 5
500 -
400 - 1 > ' 1
\
tm
S
2 700 - \
1 SO - v^
a " ^ .
mm ~^'^-
ii Ô -
H 0 -
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TCU2 Cooling Rate
Figure 7.181. Test QTSl: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#2.

Quenchant: 40% UCON Quencliant A
18 16 14 Top
12 10 S A

it 1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
500
450
s
400 \ ,
350 1
300 \
250
\
200
150
S
a 100
- - - _ ^
^-..
H 50
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TOM Cooling Rate

176

13 15 r Top
7 9 11 A
Cooling Rate ["C/sec] 1 3 <
10 15 IS 30 35 40 45 50
500
y 400
4^
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TC#7 CoolrgRate
Figure 7.183. Test QTSl. Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#7.

18 16 14 Top
12 10 S A
"J
Cooling Rate [ C/sec] 6 4
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
500 1
450 - \ 1
u
1
"~
400 '
350
\ ! ^ ^ . ^ " " ' ^ '
km 300 \ ^ _-
250
200 _]_'-' " I
\ i _ . " "^ 1
150 *v^^
a 100
- ^ - _
H 50
1 '
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TD^S Cooliig Rate

177

IS 16 14 Top
11 10 8 A
Cooling Rate [ C/sec] 6 4 2 1

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
500
r \ 450
W N
400
9 '.
<^350
ii
km 300
a \
250
rat
7,00 \
u
150 V
sii 100 '^^^^
**^,
H so "^1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]

Quencliant: 40% UCON Quenchant A
13 13 17 Top
Cooling Rate [*C/sec]

7
1
9
3
11
5 1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
500 h1 h1 M1 '1 1 [ 1 p1 11 H H
,-^ 450 \
\
y 400
350
';
a 300
5 250 i
km200 \\
150 ^^^v..
B 100
ii -
H 50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]
Figure 7.186. Test QTS 1: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l 1

178

IS 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A
Cooling Rate ["C/sec] 6 4

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
500 ,
450 -^
CJ
400 - ^ -i.
^ - 350 1
u 300 - v
3 250
:5
km 200 \
> ^ - - ^
150
100 ^
50 r "~-
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]
Surface TemperatureTC#12 CoolingRate
Figure 7.187. Test QTSl: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l2.

13 15 17 Top
Cooling Rate [C/sec]

-
1
9
3
11
5 1
10 15 20 30 35 40 45 50
500
450
i
". 1
u 400
=
,.^^^_^
1
t
- 350
u 300 - - 'y_^_..^
3 250 \
1
\
2 200
\
^**S..^
1 i
!
100
f 1
50
I 20 40 60 80 100 120
i
140 160 180 ZCd)
Time [sec]
Surface Tcnperature TC#13 Cooling Rate

179

IS 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A
Cooling Rate [*C/sec] 6 4 1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
500
450 \
u 400
\
350
300
\
\
200
\
150
s 100
"""^^^^^^
"***
H - - - - ^ .
50
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]
Figure 7.189. Test QTSl: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l4.

13 15 17 Top

7
1
9
3
11
5 1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
500 .
-\
z-r 450 ^
\
400
350
u 300 1
B 250
V
%m 200
150 > -^ ^
t4t
B 100
"^
t-
ii
50
H
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TC#15 CoolingRate
Figure 7.190. Test QTSl: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC# 15.

180

LnmersionRate: Low 0.158 m/sec (0.52 ft/sec)
IS 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A
Cooling Rate ["C/sec] 6 4 2
(> :> 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 5
SftO -1
1
4UU " '.
ISO -
1
u iOO
JUU
-
1
\
km >oo ^ \
ii V
1 so H
a ^...^^
100 -
S 50 -
-.
a
H 0 -
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]

13 15 17 Top
7 9 11 A
1
Cooling Rate [ C/secl 1 3 5 1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
500 1h 1"n1'1 1 1 1 1 ' i ''1r-\ 1H 1-\
450 --^ "-^
U 1
400
350
a 300
u 250
3
^ '\
cz 200
u \ ^
150 "^^^
B
a
H
100
50
0
F
f-
^ ' ^ "'""^ J -
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]

181

Quencliant: 40% UCON Quenchant A
18 16 14 Top
12 10 8 I
Cooling Rate ["C/sec] 6 4 2
() 1> 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 5
500 -1
1 450 -
\
e ^ ^no -
1
^ ISO
f^ 'iOfi - >
km JUU
^ 7SO -
\
\
-r" ^
u . 1 SO - >
? 10O ^^
a>
f^
1 vU n
SO - f " _ ^
0 -
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]

Quenchant: 4 0 % UCON Quenchant A
Immersion Rate: High 1.182 m/sec (3,88 ft/sec)
13 15 17 Top
7 9 11 A
1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
_, 500
U 450 ^
\
400 \ '
350 'l
* 300 1
2 250 1^
S 200 - \
a. 150 ^--_^^
g 100 ..
U 50
^ 0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Figure 7.194. Test QTS2: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l

182
Surface Teniperature as a Function of Time / Cooling rate

Immersion Rate: Higli 1.182 m/sec (3.88 ft/sec)
13 15 17 Top
Cooling Rate [C/sec]

7
1
9
3
11
5 t
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
500
450
o 400 \
1
350
4
t 300
'.
5 250
2 200
Ji- _ * '
B. 150
g 100 ^r
r ^ - - ^
^ -
^ 50
0 f- . 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Figure 7.195. Test QTS2: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#3.

IS 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A

10 15 20 25 30 35 40
500
450
0
u -A
400 -
350

300
a 250
i
A 200
km
CU 150
^----.
s 100 =
ii
H 50
^
25 50 75 too 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]

183
Sui-face Temperature as a FuiKtion of Time / Cooling rate

13 15 1? Top
1
9 11 A
Cooling Rate [C/sec] 1 3 5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
500 \
- ^ 450 1
y 400 s "^^-.K.^ .
350
'(
t 300
2 250 l^
^ 200
\
I" 150
""----. ^^
i 100
^^-
^ 50
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature as a Function of Time /Cooling rate

IS 16 14 Top

12
6
10
4 2
8
t
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
500
U 450 -A^
400 . _ \ =
350 \
\
^ 300 \
5 250 fc
2 200 V
CU 150 ^
JT
I 100
w *v^
H 50
0
0
r
-r . -.
25 50 75 100 125 150 1'75 2 30
Tfcne [sec]
Surface TcmperatureTG^ 10 CoolingRate

184

13 15 17 Top
1
9 11 A
i
Cooling Rate [C/sec] 1 3 5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
500 1 1
r- 450
y 400 s I
', 1 1 ^ ^ ^ 1
350
> I
2J 300 1
B 250
t
^
2 200 I
S- 150
S 100
^ 50
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TCiH 1 CoolingRate
Figure 7.199. Test QTS2: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l 1

13 15 17 Top
Cooling Rate ["C/sec]

7
1
9
3
11
5 1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
500
- ^ 450
--A
y 400 1
350
2 300 1
B 250
S 200 __^
g- 150
"^--^.
i 100 '~ -.-.
^ 50
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TC#13 Cooling Rae

185
Surface Temperature as a Function of Time / CooUng rate

IS 16 14 Top
10
15 20 25
12
6
10
4 2
8
1
30 35 40
500
r r 450
^ 400
A
350
\ - 1 . ^ , , ,
L-^^
300
' "
5 250
\
2 200 '^..
9i - -
GL 150 ~ _ , _ ^
S 100 ^ 1
ii
i
H 30
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature as a Function of Time /Cooling rate

Immersion Rate: H^h 1.182 m/sec (3.88 ft/sec)
13 15 17 Top

7
1
9
3
11
5 1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
500
u ^^ \
1
400
350 <.
300
5 250 \
2 200
ii ""^-^..^
B, 150
i 100
H 50
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
T k n e [sec]
Surface Temperature TC#17 -CoolingRate

186
Surface Temperature as a Function of Tkne / Cooling rate

Immersbn Rate: High 1.182 m/sec (3.88 ft/sec)
IK 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A
Cooling Rate [ C/secl 6 4 2
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
500
450
o 400 \
__,
m^ 350
9i
\
300
ua 250 \
Tem pera
200 \
..-=-""'
150
100 J^
w
^ ^
^ .
50
r 50 75 100 125 175 200
25 150
Tfcne [sec]
Figure 7.203. Test QTS2: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l8.

Quenchant: Water
13 15 17 Top
7 9 11 A
1
Cooling Rate [*C/sec] 1 3 5 1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
500
450
y 400 .
350
":
C5
250
200
u 150 ^*=^Cr
100 ' -
B / - - . . .. ...
a 50
H 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Time [sec]
Surface Tetnperature TC#1 Coo litig Rate

187

Quenchant: Water
IB 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
500
450
u 400
350
ii 1
300 I
1 " ^ ^
250
u 200
.
150
B ^ L^
100 "'"'' -.^.
a -_.
50
H i
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Time [sec]

Quenchant: Water
IS 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
500
450
U 400
350
ii
300
250
u 200
150
B
a 100 ' - - < - _
-~---^. "^*<_ .
H 50
0
) '.5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Time [sec]
Suiface Temperature TC#4 CoolingRate

188

Quenchant: Water
13 15 1" Top
7 9 11 A
25 50 75 100 125 150

500
450
U 400 !
,
^ 350
t 300
- 250 :
km
200 '.
B 150 .rrzr^
a 100 >- "
H 50 ^ - - ^ H
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time [sec]

Quenchant: Water
IS 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
500
450 T "
400
350
300
250
\
200
150
B :-:3
a 100 ^'-.
-
H 50 /r ^
" ^ ^ . . 4 . ,
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TCffS CoolingRate

189

Quenchant: Water
13 15 17 Top

7
1
9
3
11
5 t
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
500
450 *,
U 400

^ 350
300
\
-
^-4^
250
mm
200
150 J
B ' ".v '
a 100
H 50 / ' ^
-
. .
w
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time [sec]
Surface Tempg-ature TC#7 CoolingRate

Quenchant: Water
18 16 H Top

12
6
10
4
8
1
X' 1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
500
450 _
U 400
350 -^

a 300
tm

250 .
B
u 200
1
150
B (
^ " '~_
a 100 ^
H ^
50 -m
' ' - - V '-*,_.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Time [sec]

190
Surface Temperature as a Function of Time / CooUng rate

Quenchant: Water
13 15 17 Top
7 9 11 A
Cooling Rate fC/sec] 1 3 5 1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
500 1 1 1H \ 1 H 1 ^ 1 \ 1- 1 1
450
y 400
" ~.^
350
300
CS
250
u 200 '-.
150 * 1 ~*
B
ii 100 <-^
*
H 50 -
^ . - -
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [sec]
Surface Temp erature TC#9 Coo ling Rate

Quenchant: Water
IS 16 14 Top
12
6
10
4
8
2 1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
500
450
400 ',
350
a 300
250
u 200
',
s 150
100
ii
H 50 '' - ^ m^
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Time [sec]

191

Quenchant: Water
13 15 17 Top
7 9 11 A
1
Cooling Rate [ C/sec] 1 3 5 i
25 50 75 100 125 150
500
450
y 400 ,
350
300

250
im
'.
200
150
B
ii 100
" -"^ -._.
H 50
_. _
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time [sec]
Surface Tonperature TC#11 Cooling Rate

Quenchant: Water
IS 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
500 1- 1 1111' 1H I 1- 1 H1 \ 1 -H H
450 ~-T^~
y 400
350
ii
300
u
250
B
w 200 -
u 150
^^nr^
B 100 " -.^ '-_._ v.. ._.^._
ii
H 50
0 :5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Time [sec]

192

Quenchant: Water
18 16 14 Top
12 10 8 *
Cooling Rate [*C/sec] 6 4 '^
^
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
500 ~- r 1 1 1 H i \ 1- 1 11r^ H
1
450 \
400
350 .
300
3
^^ 250 ^
c;
1
km
200 J ^
' H"
i
tr 150
H 100 s " " * - .
'-.. * 1
50
0
10 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Time [sec]

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: Low 0.155 m/sec (0.51 tt/sec)
13 15 17 Top
n 9 11 A
Cooling Rate ["C/sec] 1 3 5 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
500
450 \
e^ 400 '.
^ 350
4> 1
U 300 \
1
3 250 -
km
200
Im 150
B " ^ '-^-^
100 ~"*^
H 50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time [sec]

193

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: Low 0.155 m/sec (0.51 flt/sec)
IS 16 14 T^
12 10 8 A

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
500
450
u 400 '
- 350
ii
300
250 .
200 '
150
~N.'_
ii 100 " ' - - .
- --_,_ ^^
H 50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Time [sec]

Quenchant: Water
13 15 17 Top
7 9 11 41
CoolingRate [*C/sec] 1 3 5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

500
450 -
400
350
a 300
t,
S 250
tm \
200
\
150 .^
B ^
100
f
ii
'...
.'.._. ^
H 50 ^ '
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 ^0 75
Time [sec]

194

Quenchant: Water
IS 16 14 Top
12 10 8 A
CoolingRate [*C/sec] 6 4 1
I. 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
500
450
CJ 400
^ 350
300
^ ^
C5
250
km
200
150
B "^--..T
o 100 ^-^
H 50 - - -
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Time [sec]
Surface TemperaUirc TC#18 Cooling Rate

Quenchant: Water
Cooling Rate [*C/secl

0 25 50 75 1(x) i:>5 v.>0 1''5 20
500
450 -
'tUU .
350 -
^
I. 300
^
BR 250 - \
U
200 -
B 150 - "'^*---
H 100 "^-^-.- . -1 '. < ^ ,
50 -
0-
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]

195
Surface Temperature as a Fimction of Time / Cooling rate

Quenchant: Water

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
500 1
1
450 1
U 1
400
'.
350
\
a 300
u
3 250
es ',
200

150
B
ii 100
-^_.
H 50
.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature as a Function of Time / Coolitig rate

Quenchant: Water

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
500
^450
y 400 *'
350
a 300
u \
B 250 " ^-^ ^
200
150
s
ii 100 .' ^__
H / ^._.
50
w
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]

196

Quenchant: Water
Cooling Rate Cc/sec]

() 25 >0 -f 100 125 150 1 '5 2(
SOf) H
'
.l'^^l -
(
400 - ' = i
'. 1
^vi -
1
- ~ - ^
ifiA -
3UU ^
1
i:; 1
7rtl - ^ '^
'
1 ^f\ -
,
1 __i -
E IX'
1 AA -
lUU
r: r ! :
'' ^.~-
0 - 1 1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]

Quenchant: Water

30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
'O
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Surface Tempeiature TC#' CoolingRate
Figure 7.224. Test QTS4: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#7

197

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High L173 m/sec (3.85 ft/sec)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
C(YJ 4- - .-
^ 450 -
--
y 400 -
1 350 - V
u 300
B 250 -
^ 200
1 150^
* 100 1 * ~ - ^ ,
V. _
^ 50^
A H
(3 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TC#8 CoolhgRate |
Figure 7.225: Test QTS4: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#8.
Surface Temperature as a Fmiction of Time / Cooling rate

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1.173 m/sec (3,85 tt/sec)

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
500
^ 450
'.
e^ 400
350 - T
ii >
300 r
-*- 250
a ';
t, 200
\
B 150
a 100 '' -^ ^
H 50
0
0 !i 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time [sec]

198

Quenchant: Water

25 50 75 100 125 150 ns 200
500
450
y 400 .
, - 1
350
a 300 ^x.
im
-** 250
.
\ _.
CS ; ^
200 .
u 150
^ . *K.."
100 "- '
B -.
ii
50
H 0
15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]

Quenchant: Water

25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
500
^ 450
y 400 ^ .
350
Z 300

B 250
5: 200 ',
I 150
ii 100 "^^^ -.
" 50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature T c#u - CoolingRate 1

199

Quenchant: Water
Cooling Rate fC/sec]

25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
500
450
U 400
350
\
300

C8
250
\
200 ,
150
E
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TC*12 Cooling Rale

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: High 1.173 m/sec (3.85 fUsec)
Cooling Rate f C/sec]

25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
500
0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Suifece Temperature TC#13 CoolingRate

200

Quenchant: Water

25 50 ~5 100 125 150 200
5(Xi
^ 450 )
'O 400 .==^ _^^--
.
350
ii ,
km 300 1,
BCS 250
200
150
B . r - - ^ ^
^ j ^
ii 100 "''^ -_.
H
50 ^ - =^^= ^- _
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Surface Temperature TC^15 Cooling Rate
Surface Temperature as a Function of Time / Cooliig rate

Quenchant: Water

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
500
450
y 400 *
350
ii
t. 300
3 250
ez
tm 200 v
150
B s-
r:^^
a 100 '"^^'^^ ' ,
H 50
0 tj 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Figure 7.232. Test QTS4: Temperature versus Time/Cooling Rate-TC#l6.

201

Quenchant: Water
Cooling Rate I C/sec]

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
500 n 1I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r-| rt
^ 450
y 400
^ 350
t 300
-| 250
k 200
g 150
^ 50
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [sec]
Surface Tonperature TC#18 CoolingRate
7.2.4 Summary
Tables 7.8-7.11 summarize the experimental results shown in sections 7.2.1,
7.2.2, and 7.2.3. The total cooling time is estimated as the time from the point of
immersion to the point that the cooling rate is less than 1 C/sec.
202
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CHAPTER VIII
DISCUSSION
8.1 Thermal Specimen

8.1.1 Temperature Distribution
The "thermal" specimen was designed to meet the requirements set by SODDIT
and it was assumed that the temperature distribution along the x and y axis (length and
width) was uniform. Figure 8.1 shows the temperature distribution along the x-axis while
Figure 8.2 shows the temperature distribution along the y-axis. It can be seen in Figure
8.1 that there is a small temperature difference between the two ends ofthe specimen
(TC#14andTC#l8).
Cooling Curves Along X-axis

Quenchant: 40%UCON
Immersion Rate: 0.158 m/sec
500
450
400
V
U 350 IB 16 14 Top
>y^->s. 12 10 8 1
V 300 6 4 2 1
<^;;-^
-I 250
fe 200 ~---. JTJHV*
^!'S?=a=
CI. "^ 1
i 150
^ 100
50
0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [sec]
Tetipcratire TC#14 (End) Tempeiature TC#16 (Center) -Tempcrahre TC#18 (End)
Figure 8.1. Temperature distribution along the x axis.
This variation was expected because the door ofthe heat treatment furnace had to
be kept open during the heating in order not to damage the thermocouple wires. As a
result, the temperature at the end close to the door, was lower than the temperature at the
206
207
end ofthe furnace chamber. However, as shown in Figure 8.1, this difference was in the
range of 15-25 C (5-10%), which is very small. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
assumption of uniform temperature distribution along the x axis is valid. From Figure
8.2, the same can be concluded for the width ofthe specimen.
Cooling Curês Along Y-axis

Quenchant: 40% UCON
Immersion Rate: 0.158 m/'sec
500
450
""'^îi^-
^^^^^^^
400 IB 16 14 Top
s". V 12 10 8 *
^ 350
6 4 2 1
V 300
"^XcNs
km
B 250 ^ v ^ ^
A
^ 200
150
100
50
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [sec]
-Bottom-TC#2 Middlc-TC#8 Top.TC#14
Figure 8.2. Temperature distribution along the y axis.
8.1.2 Effect of Immersion Rate

The immersion rate (high and low) had a different effect on the cooling
characteristics depending on the quenching media. Figures 8.3 and 8.4 show the cooling
curves and heat flux variation for thermocouples 1 and 18, respectively; quenched in 40%
UCON at high and low immersion rates. The three stages of quenching, vapor blanket
cooling, nucleate boiling cooling, and liquid cooling, can easily be observed. It is
interesting to note the effect the immersion rate had on the vapor blanket cooling stage.
As shown in Figure 8.4, the transition time between the vapor blanket and the
nucleate stage, is longer at high immersion rate. This probably has to do with the fluid
208
dynamics around the specimen. At high immersion rate, the impact ofthe specimen with
the quenching medium creates a "wave" that hits the wall ofthe quench tank and then it
returns and hits the surface ofthe specimen. Most probably, it forces the vapor blanket to
instantaneously collapse but the temperature is still high enough to allow it to form again.
However, if Figure 8.3 is compared with Figure 8.4, the effect is greater at the top ofthe
specimen than the bottom. A better understanding ofthe fluid dynamics surrounding the
specimen is needed in order to reach a definite conclusion. This can be achieved by
using a transparent quench tank so that the process can be recorded with a digital camera
and the flow around the specimen and the direction in which the thermal blanket
collapses can be viewed frame by frame. In addition, the time that this phenomenon lasts
can be compared with the time on the cooling curve.
Furthermore, as shown in Figure 8.4, at the top of the specimen the heat flux
during the vapor blanket stage starts increasing, reaches a maximum, and then it starts
decreasing. This occurs at high immersion rate. At low immersion rate the heat flux is
slowly increasing and it reaches an inflection point close to the transition to the nucleate
boiling stage following the same trend as the heat flux at the bottom of the specimen
(Figure 8.3). From Figures 8.3 and 8.4, it can be observed that the time that the top
reaches a maximum (TC#18) the bottom reaches an inflection point (TC#1) and is about
to experience nucleate boiling. Therefore, most probably the thermal blanket collapses at
the bottom, the vapor is escaping upwards, and the density of the thermal blanket at the
top increases and as a result the heat transfer decreases.
In addition, it can be observed that the high immersion rate results in lower heat
flux, but the difference is not much. Furthermore, the cooling time is approximately the
same. From Figures 8.5 and 8.6, which show the cooling rate as a function of
temperature for the same conditions as Figures 8.3 and 8.4, it can be clearly seen that the
cooling rate is low and the small difference can be considered as insignificant because of
the uncertainty.
In a similar way, the effect of the immersion rate can be observed for quenching
in water. Figures 8.7 and 8.8 illustrate the effect for two different locations. In both
cases, there is a difference in the cooling curve path with the one due to high immersion
209
rate cooling faster and reaching a higher cooling rate. The cooling rates can be observed
in Figures 8.9 and 8.10. As expected, the heat flux and the cooling rate are higher when
compared to 40% UCON Quenchant A.
Temperature/Heat Flux vs. Time

Quenchant: 40% UCON
bnmerslon Rate: QTSl 0.158 m/sec, QTS2 1.182 m/sec
Data shown for TC#1
2X+05
X
3
Time [sec]
QTSl-He at Flux QTS2-HcatFktt QTSl-Temperature QTS2-Teirperature
Figure 8.3. Cooling curve comparison at different immersion rates

for40%UCON-TC#l.
210
Temperature/Heal Flux vs. Time

Quenchant: 40% UCON
Immersion Rate: QTSl 0.158 m/sec, QTS2 1.182 m/sec
l.E+05 450
18 16 14 Top
12 ID B X
C 4 3 1
1 250 ^
as
X
- 100
-7 +05
-8.E+05 50
.9+05
Time [sec]
QTSl-HcatFkK QTS2-HcatFltK QTSl-Teniperatirc QTS2-Temperature
Figure 8.4. Cooling curve comparison at different immersion rates

for40%UCON-TC#18.
Temperature >'s. Cooling Rate

Quenchant: 40% UCON
Immersion Rate: QTSl 0.158 m/sec, QTS2 1.182 m/sec
Data shown for TC#1
500
a
im
S
10 20 30 40 50

QTSl .QTS2
Figure 8.5. Cooling rate comparison at different immersion rates for 40% UC0N-TC#1
211
Temperature vs. Cooling Rate

Quenchant: 40% UCON
Immersion Rate:QTSl 0.158 m/sec, QTS2 1.182 m/sec
500
450
1
^400
!_ 350 1
300 1
250
IB 16 14 Top
200 12 10 8 1
E 150 - 6 4 2 1
H 100
50
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Coolhig Rate [ C/secl

QTSl QTS2
Figure 8.6. Cooling rate comparison at different immersion rates for 40% UC0N-TC#18.

Quenchant: Water
Immersion Rate: QTS3 0.155 m/sec, QTS4 1.173 m/sec
Data shown for TC#1
Time [sec]
QTS3-Hcat Flux QTS4.HeatFlLK QTS3-Temp erature QTS4-TctH)erature
Figure 8.7. Cooling curve comparison at different immersion rates for Water-TC#l
212

Quenchant: Water
-3.E-K)6
Time [sec]
QTS3.Heat FIK QIS4-HeatFkix QTS3-Tennperatire QTS4.Tenp entire
Figure 8.8. Cooling curve comparison at different immersion rates for Water-TC#16.

Quenchant' Water
Data shown for TC#1
500
450
400
u 350
o ^ \ ^ \
ii 300
es 250
> mf J
200
150 D U 17 n)p .
7 9 11 1
100 1 3 5 1 ~
50
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Cooling Rate I "Osec]

QTS3 QTS4
Figure 8.9. Cooling rate comparison at different immersion rates for Water-TC#l
213

Quenchant Water
Immersion Rate: QTS3 0.155 m/sec, QTS4 1.173 n^sec
500
450
400
2 300
I 250
^ 200
150 ,
IB 16 14 Top
^ 100 17 in R X
6 4 2
50
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Cooling Rate ("C/sec]

QTS3 QTS4
Figure 8.10. Cooling rate comparison at different immersion rates for Water-TC#16.
8.1.3 Effect of Quenching Media

In order to observe the effect of the quenching media, the cooling curves at the
same immersion rate but different quenchant were compared. As shown in Figures 8.11
through 8.14, clearly when the water is used as quenchant, the cooling is much faster.
This effect was expected because it is a characteristic of polymer quenchants to form a
thin protective layer over the surface that reduces the heat transfer rate. Furthermore, the
transition time from the vapor blanket stage during water quenching is almost half that
observed with 40% UCON. In addition, higher cooling rates are achieved during the
nucleate stage. As shown in Table 8.1, it takes almost five times longer to reach the
maximum cooling rate using 40% UCON at high immersion rate than it takes for water at
high immersion rate. In a similar way, the time to reach the maximum values for water at
low immersion rate is half the time it takes for 40%o UCON at low immersion rate. In
addition, there is a significant difference between the cooling rates achieved with water
reaching as high as 181 C/sec. This also results in a high difference for the heat transfer
214
rates. The values for water are in the range of 2-3x10^ wW,while 40% UCON hardly
reaches 9x10^ w W .
Table 8.1. Average results for thermal specimen

Initial Cooling Heat Flux Cooling Time Cooling Time
Test Temperature Rate (max) (to max) (Total)
rc] [C/sec] [MW/m^l [sec] [sec]
40% UCON 451.8 46.7 -0.9 4.5 66.5
0.158 m/sec
40% UCON 454.2 38.2 -0.7 6.3 59.4
1.182 m/sec
Water 451.9 126.2 -2.2 2.3 35.7
0.155 m/sec
Water 425.3 181.6 -3.0 1.4 34.8
1.173 m/sec
Uncertainty 5.8 C 5.8 C/sec 199.25 w/m^ Exact Exact
Temperature/Heat Rux vs. Time

QTSl: Quenchant: 40% UCON, Immersion Rate: 0.158 m/sec
QTS3: Quenchant: Water, Immersion Rate: 0.155 ra/sec
Data sho%vn for TC#7
5.0E+05
O.OE+OO
^ -5.0E+05
S -1 OE+06
E
g -1 5E+06
PC
-2.0E+06
-2.5E+06
Time [sec]
QTSl-HeatFkcc QTS3.HeatFkix QTSl-Temperature QTS3-Temperature
Figure 8.11. Cooling curve and heat flux comparison between water and 40% UCON at
low immersion rate-TC#7.
215

QTS2: Quenchant: 40% UCON. Immersion Rate: 1.182 nv'sec
QTS4: Quenchant: Water, hnraersion Rate: 1.173 m'sec
Data shown for TC#7
CS
Time [sec]
QTS2-HeatFkn QTS4-HeatFluc QTS2-Teniperatie Q154-Temperature
Figure 8.12. Cooling curve and heat flux comparison between water and 40% UCON at
high immersion rate-TC#7.
QTSl: Quenchant: 400/0UCON, Immersion Rate: 0.158 m'sec
QTS3: Quenchant: Water, Immersion Rate: 0.155 m/sec
DaU shown for TC#7
500
450
1_ 350
ii 300
iS
y
u )
250
B 200
150
100 c
^
r
13
7
1 3
15
9
17
11
5
T^p
*
50
0 r 20 40 60 80
1
100 120
Cooling Rate [ "C/sec]

QTSl QTS3
Figure 8.13: Cooling rate comparison between water and 40% UCON at
low immersion rate-TC#7.
216
Temperature N-S. Cooling Rate

QTSl: Quenchant: 40/oUCON, Immersion Rate: 1.182 m/sec
QTS4: Quenchant: Water, Immersion Rate: 1.173 ra/sec
Data shown for TC#7
500
450
-=^^c:
77 400
U 350 ^
e J ;>
300
C3 250 - y y^
a. 200 / 13 15 17 Ttop
150
100 Lr 7 9 11 1
50 W
r.-..
1 3 5 1
40 80 120 160 200 240
Cooling Rate [ "Osec]
QTS2 QTS4
Figure 8.14: Cooling rate comparison between water and 40% UCON at
high immersion rate-TC#7.
8.2 Quenched Aluminum Sheets

8.2.1 Holding Mechanism
The results of the two holding mechanisms, fixed-fixed and free in space, were
plotted independently in order to determine their effect on the biaxial stresses. Table 8.2
shows the maximum values for the biaxial stresses for each test while Figures 8.15
through 8.20 illustrate the results. Results show up to -20590 psi for GK, which is
approximately 41% ofthe yield strength and is close to the 50% limit, while ay reached
values up to 25% ofthe yield strength.
217
Table 8.2. Maximum biaxial stresses
Test ^x max [psi] ^y max [psi] \y max [psi]

Fixed-Fixed, Water, 0.146 m/sec -1653 3681 3579
Fixed-Fixed, Water, 1.301 m/sec 1287 4027 3579
Fixed-Fixed, 40% UCON, 0.201 m/sec -1859 -1459 622
Fixed-Fixed. 40% UCON. 1.121 m/sec -4705 1861 3283
Free in Space, Water, 0.140 m/sec -20590 -12330 14368
Free in Space, Water, 1.234 m/sec 2644 10540 7241
Free in Space, 40% UCON, 0.198 m/sec 6730 3076 2462
Free in Space, 40% UCON, 1.067 m/sec -12680 13110 10810
The results for the fixed-fixed mechanism appear in Figure 8.15. The mechanism
results in compressive stresses on the outer surface and tensile at the inner surface, which
is the desirable effect. However, as shown in Figure 8.16, the stresses are mostly tensile
along the y axis, which make the material weak in that direction. The shear stress
remains at low levels (Figure 8.17) with the exception ofthe tests performed at high
immersion rate.
The resuhs for the free in space mechanism were mixed. As shown in Figure
8.18, tests performed at low immersion rates result in compressive stresses at the outer
surface and tensile at the inner surface. However, the high immersion rate in water
resulted in tensile stresses at the outer and compressive at the inner surface while the high
immersion rate in 40% UCON developed only compressive stresses. The free in space
showed high stresses, tensile and compressive, in the y axis and high levels of shear
stress (shown in Figure 8.19 and 8.20, respectively).
218
2000
1000
0
)7
r^' -1000
VI
j
Vi
Vi
ii
u
^ -2000
^x vs. Hole Depth
QASl: Water, 0.146 m/sec
QAS4 Water, 1.301 m/sec
QAS6: 40% UCON, 0.201 m/sec
-3000
-4000
-5000
Hole Depth [in]
sx-QASl SX-QAS4 SX-QAS6 SX-QAS8
Figure 8.15. GX results for the fixed-fixed mechanism.

219
5000
4000
3000 -
2000
Vi
Vi
Vi 1000 -
ii
J
0
3.02 0.03 OJ) )7
v..^
1000 -
^y VS. Hole Depth
QASl: Water, 0.146 m/sec
-2000 - QAS6: 40% UCON, 0.201 m/sec
Holding IMechanism: Fixed-Fixed
-3000
Hole Depth [in]
sy-QASl sy-QAS4 r- sy-QAS6 sy-QAS8
Figure 8.16. Gy results for the fixed-fixed mechanism.

220
4000
3000
2000
Vi
Vi
Vi 1000
ii
U
4mt
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0. )7
\y vs. Hole Depth

-1000 - QASl: Water, 0.146 m/sec
Holding JMechanism: Fixed-Fixed
-2000
Hole Depth [in]
txy-QASl txy-QAS4 ^ txy-QAS6 txy-Q ASS
Figure 8.17. txy results for the fixed-fixed mechanism.

221
10000
5000 -
:=" -5000
Vi
Vi
Vi
o
^ -10000 -
15000 -
-20000
-25000
Hole Depth [in]
$x-QAS2 SX-QAS3 i^- SX-QAS5 SX-QAS7
Figure 8.18. GX results for the free in space mechanism.

222
15000
10000 -
5000 -
Vi
Vi
Vi
ii
*.
l/l
-5000
-10000
-15000
Hole Depth [in]
sy-QAS2 sy-QAS3 sy-QAS5 -sy-QAS7
Figure 8.19. Gy resuhs for the free in space mechanism.

223
15000
10000 -
5000
Vi
a.
Vi
Vi
ii
U
<-
l/i
0
0. )7
"^xy VS. Hole Depth

-5000 - QAS2: Water, 0.140 m/sec
Holding IVIechanism: Free in Space
-10000
Hole Depth [in]
txy-QAS2 txy-QAS3 ' ' ^ ' 'txy-QASS txy-QAS7
Figure 8.20. Xxy results for the free in space mechanism.

224
8.2.2 Distortion
The average distortion and standard deviation for each test appear in Table 8.3.
The results are mixed but it appears that the fixed-fixed mechanism minimized the
distortion. However, the distortion difference between water and 40% UCON is not as
much as was expected. Based on this set of results, the conditions that would minimize
the distortion are the fixed-fixed mechanism, 40% UCON and low immersion rate. More
measurements are necessary in order to validate the results.
Table 8.3. Average results for distortion measurements

Test Distortion prior quenching Distortion after quenching %
Mean Standard Dev. Mean Standard Dev. Difference
Fixed-Fixed Water 0.146 m/sec 126.4 2.004 146 10.059 15.51
Fixed-Fixed Water 1.301 m/sec 126.2 1.414 148 13.879 17.27
Fixed-Fixed 40% UCON 0.201 m/sec 125.3 1.068 137 7.877 9.34
Fixed-Fixed 40% UCON 1.121 m/sec 126.5 1.433 144 10.743 13.83
Free in Space Water 0.140 m/sec 126.7 1.427 154 16.28 21.55
Free in Space Water 1.234 m/sec 126.4 2.015 147 13.198 16.3
Free in Space 40% UCON 0.198 m/sec 125.8 1.271 151 12.917 20.03
Free in Space 40% UCON 1.067 m/sec 125.7 1.287 142 8.374 12.97
8.2.3 Microstructure and Microhardness

The microstructure pictures were presented in the previous chapter. As expected,
there was a big difference in the microstructure when compared to the annealed
specimen. The grains were more scattered, bigger, and with uneven shape. However,
there was no significant difference between the tests indicating that neither of the
parameters under consideration had any effect on the microstructure. The average
microhardness along the thickness of the quenched aluminum sheets is shown in Table
8.4. The majority ofthe tests resulted in a uniform hardness in the range of 70-75 HRB,
which is in good agreement with literature.
^^s
Table 8.4. Average microhardness for quenched aluminum sheets
Test Mean [HRB] Standard Dev.

Fixed-Fixed, Water, 0.146 m/sec 73.7 1.201
Fixed-Fixed. Water. 1.301 m/sec 67.8 1.223
Fixed-Fixed. 40% UCON. 0.201 m/sec 75.6 1.120
Fixed-Fixed. 40% UCON. 1.121 m/sec 75.1 1.440
Free in Space, Water, 0.140 m/sec 75.5 1.624
Free in Space, Water, 1.234 m/sec 72.8 1.938
Free in Soace. 40% UCON. 0.198 m/sec 72.0 0.969
1 Free in Space. 40% UCON. 1.067 m/sec 697 1.226
CHAPTER IX
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
9.1 Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn based on the experimental results
1. An experimental procedure for collecting time temperature data using a "thermal"
specimen was established. The "thermal" specimen is reusable, accurate, and its
data can be used to run inverse heat transfer codes.
2. Water quenching results in higher cooling rates, heat flux variation, and more severe
distortion when compared to 40% UCON Quenchant A. In addition it minimizes
the cooling time by a factor of two at low immersion rate and by a factor of five at
high immersion rate.
3. The immersion rate has an effect on quenching characteristics. The effect can either
be positive or negative depending on the quenching medium.
4. High immersion rate with water quenching medium results in an increase in cooling
rate, heat transfer rate, and reduction in cooling time when co) .pared to low
immersion rate.
5. High immersion rate with 40% UCON Quenchant A quenching medium results in a
reduction in cooling time and heat transfer rate. However, further study of fluid
dynamics around the specimen is necessary to validate this conclusion.
6. The holding mechanism, quenching media and immersion rate had no effect on the
microstructure.
7. Distortion can be minimized with the use of a suitable holding mechanism.
8. The fixed-fixed holding mechanism resulted in less severe distortion when
compared to the free in space.
9. The conditions that minimize distortion based on the experimental resuhs are the
fixed-fixed holding mechanism, 40% UCON Quenchant A, and low immersion rate.
However, more experiments need to be performed to validate this conclusion.
226
227
10. The fixed-fixed holding mechanism developed compressive residual stresses at the
outer surface and tensile residual stresses at the inner surface but further
measurements are necessary to validate this conclusion.
9.2 Recommendations
The following recommendations are given for future work
1. A study ofthe effect of quenching media, immersion rate, and holding mechanism
on the mechanical properties is necessary to achieve a quenching process with the
desirable effect on distortion, residual stress, and material properties.
2. The hole drilling method can introduce a high experimental error when used on thin
specimens. It is recommended to use either the x-ray diffraction or the ultrasonic
method for future measurements or to validate the hole drilling measurements.
3. The spacer of the thermal specimen should be substituted with a spacer made out of
a lighter material with lower thermal conductivity than aluminum. More material
can be removed from the aluminum plates so that only "islands" of aluminum are
there to hold the thermocouples.
4. A transparent quench tank should be used in order to record the fluid dynamics
around the quenched specimens. In addition, different shapes at the bottom of the
thermal specimen can be attached to study different quenching media movement
and how it affects the properties and quench severity.
5. A modified agitation system should be used that utilizes mixing impellers at the
bottom of the quench tank. Agitation is a very important factor and it is the only
factor that the scientists can have good control of Therefore, a study with different
agitation systems is recommended.
6. The temperature ofthe quenching media should be controlled so that quenching at
higher than room temperature can be performed, i.e., hot water or hot oil.
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APPENDIX A
RESIDUAL STRESS DATA
249
250
Table A.l. Experimental data - Fixed-Fixed, 0.146 m/sec, Water
DEPTH MEASURED RELIEVEDS TRAINS COEFFICIENTS Equiv. Uniform Stress
STRAIN [[iz] 3 + 1 3 - 1 63 + E] -2e2 Exponent of(10) P to Depth Z(ksi)
Z[in] Z/D fie / % ^ / % fie / % with A and B Cfitin "|IB.\
El 0 0 0 0 a b
0 0 2 0 A B 0 0
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4A 4B
El -1 3 5 -19 a 0.016 b 0.03
0.005 0.025 2 11 A -0.105 B -0.147 -37.6 -4.1 2.6
3 4 -3.5 11.4 10.8 4A -0.422 4B -0.588
El -7 -7 7 -35 a 0.036 b 0.067
0.01 0,050 E2 14 A -0.237 B -0.328 -39.3 -2.0 3.5
E? 0 8.1 15.9 19.9 4A -0.949 4B -1.314
El -14 -16 12 -60 a 0.035 b 0.129
0.015 0.074 E2 22 A -0.231 B -0.632 -39.3 -0.7 4.2
-2 18.6 27.3 34.1 4A -0.923 4B -2.529
1 -22 -27 17 -75 a 0.078 b 0.148
0.02 0.099 2 24 A -0.514 B -0.725 -38.6 -1.3 4.0
3 -5 31.4 38.6 42.6 4A -2.057 4B -2.902
i -32 -43 21 -93 a 0.098 b 0.185
0.025 0.124 2 25 A -0.646 B -0.907 -38.6 -1.0 4.3
3 -11 50.0 47.7 52.8 4A -2.585 4B -3.627
1 -41 -54 28 -112 a 0.111 b 0.227
0.03 0.149 2 29 A -0.732 B -1.113 -38 -0.7 4.4
3 -13 62.8 63.6 63.6 4A -2.927 4B -4.451
1 -44 -56 32 -124 a 0.124 b 0.26
0.035 0.173 2 34 A -0.818 B -1.275 -37.8 -0.8 4.2
3 -12 65.1 72.7 70.5 4A -3.270 4B -5.098
1 -49 -63 35 -141 a 0.133 b 0.282
0.04 0.198 2 39 A -0.877 B -1.382 -38 -0.8 4.4
3 -14 73.3 79.5 80.1 4A -3.508 4B -5.529
1 -56 -73 39 -151 a 0.14 b 0.315
0.045 0.223 2 39 A -0.923 B -1.544 -37.8 -0.5 4.5
3 -17 84.9 88.6 85.8 4A -3.692 4B -6.176
1 -59 -79 39 -163 a 0.145 b 0.328
0.05 0.248 2 42 A -0.956 B -1.608 -38.3 -'.:.5 47
3 -20 91.9 88.6 92.6 4A -3.824 4B -6.431
1 -60 -79 41 -165 a NA b NA
0.055 0.272 2 43 A B -38
3 -19 91.9 93.2 93.8 4A 4B
1 -65 -86 44 -170 a NA b NA
0.06 0.297 2 42 A B -37.7
3 -21 100.0 100.0 96.6 4A 4B
1 -65 -86 44 -176 a 0.125 b 0.38
0.065 0.322 2 45 A -0.824 B -1.863 -38 0.2 5.0
3 -21 100.0 100.0 100.0 4A -3.297 4B -7.451
251
Table A.2. Experimental data - Free in Space, 0.140 m/sec, Water
DEPTH MEASURED RELIEVEDSSTRAINS COEFFICIENTS Equiv. Unifonn Stress
STRAIN [fie] 3+El 3 - Ei 3+61 -2; Exponent of(10) P to Depth Z (ksi)
Z[in] Z/D fie/% fie / % fie/% with A and B "mil vîmx
i 0 0 0 0 a b
0 0 2 0 A B 0 0
3 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4A 4B
El 20 25 -15 7 a 0.016 b 0.03
0.005 0.025 2 9 A -0.105 B -0.147 -12.5 -8.7 -3.1
3 5 6.4 8.7 1.5 4A -0.422 4B -0.588
1 53 81 -25 59 a 0.036 b 0.067
0.01 0.050 2 11 A -0.237 B -0.328 -33.5 -13 4 -3.7
3 28 20.7 14.5 12.4 4A -0.949 4B -1.314
El 93 132 -54 114 a 0.035 b 0.129
0.015 0.074 2 9 A -0.231 B -0.632 -32.3 -19.3 -9.3
3 39 33.7 31.4 23.9 4A -0.923 4B -2.529
1 133 190 -76 176 a 0.078 b 0.148
0.02 0.099 2 7 A -0.514 B -0.725 -33.3 -15.8 -2.6
3 57 48.5 44.2 37.0 4A -2.057 4B -2.902
El 168 239 -97 235 a 0.098 b 0.185
0.025 0.124 2 2 A -0.646 B -0.907 -33.8 -16.3 -2.2
3 71 61.0 56.4 49.4 4A -2.585 4B -3.627
1 195 279 -111 287 a 0.111 b 0.227
0.03 0.149 2 -4 A -0.732 B -1.113 -34.4 -16.4 -2.6
3 84 71.2 64.5 60.3 4A -2.927 4B -4.451
1 219 308 -130 326 a 0.124 b 0.26
0.035 0.173 2 -9 A -0.818 B -1.275 -34.1 -16.3 -2.5
3 89 78.6 75.6 68.5 4A -3.270 4B -5.098
1 238 333 -143 363 a 0.133 b 0.282
0.04 0.198 2 -15 A -0.877 B -1.382 -34.2 -16.5 -2.4
3 95 84.9 83.1 76.3 4A -3.508 4B -5.529
1 253 351 -155 397 a 0.14 b 0.315
0.045 0.223 2 -23 A -0.923 B -1.544 -34.3 -16.4 -2.6
3 98 89.5 90.1 83.4 4A -3.692 4B -6.176
El 263 366 -160 422 a 0.145 b 0.328
0.05 0.248 2 -28 A -0.956 B -1.608 -34.6 -16.6 -2.6
3 103 93.4 93.0 88.7 4A -3.824 4B -6.431
1 271 377 -165 443 a NA b NA
0.055 0.272 2 -33 A B -34.8
3 106 96.2 95.9 93.1 4A 4B
1 276 385 -167 465 a NA b NA
0.06 0.297 2 -40 A B -35.1
3 109 98.2 97.1 97.7 4A 4B
1 282 392 -172 476 a 0.125 b 0.38
0.065 0.322 2 -42 A -0.824 B -1.863 -35.1 -18.7 -5 1
3 110 100.0 100.0 100.0 4A -3.297 4B -7.451
252
Table A.3. Experimental data - Free in Space, 1.234 m/sec, Water
0
STRAIN [iiE] 3 + i E j - e , 3 + e i -22 P to Depth Z (ksi)
Exponent of (10)"
Z[in] Z/D fie/% ^ / % f i e / % "iTin ÎIBX
with A and B
i 0 0 0 0 a b
0 0 2 0 A B 0 0
3 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4A 4B
1 -5 -6 4 -16 a 0.016 b 0.03
0.005 0.025 2 5 A -0.105 B -0.147 -38 -1.4 4.2
3 -1 3.4 5.5 9.2 4A -0.422 4B -0.588
El -22 -31 13 -31 a 0.036 b 0.067
0.01 0.050 2 0 A -0.237 B -0.328 -33.6 0.7 5.8
3 -9 17.7 17.8 17.9 4A -0.949 4B -1.314
| -37 -52 22 -50 a 0.035 b 0.129
0.015 0.074 2 -1 A -0.231 B -0.632 -33.1 3.5 7.8
3 -15 29.7 30.1 28.9 4A -0.923 4B -2.529
1 -55 -78 32 -68 a 0.078 b 0.148
0.02 0.099 2 -5 A -0.514 B -0.725 -32.4 1.2 6.4
3 -23 44.6 43.8 39.3 4A -2.057 4B -2.902
1 -71 -101 41 -89 a 0.098 b 0.185
0.025 0.124 2 -6 A -0.646 B -0.907 -32.6 1.2 6.6
3 -30 57.7 56.2 51.4 4A -2.585 4B -3.627
1 -84 -117 51 -107 a 0.111 b 0.227
0.03 0.149 2 -5 A -0.732 B -1.113 -32.3 1.3 6.7
3 -33 66.9 69.9 61.8 4A -2.927 4B -4.451
1 -98 -138 58 -126 a 0.124 b 0.26
0.035 0.173 2 -6 A -0.818 B -1.275
-32.6 1.5 6.9
3 -40 78.9 79.5 72.8 4A -3.270 4B -5.098
1 -105 -148 62 -136 a 0.133 b 0.282
0.04 0.198 2 -6 A -0.877 B -1.382
-32.7 1.5 6.9
3 -43 84.6 84.9 78.6 4A -3.508 4B -5.529
i -112 -158 66 -148 a 0.14 b 0.315
0.045 0.223 2 -5 A -0.923 B -1.544-33 1.7 6.9
3 -46 90.3 90.4 85.5 4A -3.692 4B -6.176
1 -118 -166 70 -156 a 0.145 b 0.328
0.05 0.248 2 -5 A -0.956 B -1.608 -32.9 1.7 7.0
3 -48 94.9 95.9 90.2 4A -3.824 4B -6.431
El -121 -171 71 -165 a b
0.055 0.272 2 -3 A B -33.4
3 -50 97.7 97.3 95.4 4A 4B
1 -123 -174 72 -166 a b
0.06 0.297 2 -4 A B -33.3
3 -51 99.4 98.6 96.0 4A 4B
El -124 -175 73 -173 a 0.125 b 0.38
0.065 0.322 2 -1 A -0.824 B -1.863 -33.6 2.8 7.8
3 -51 100.0 100.0 100.0 4A -3.297 4B 1-7.451
253
Table A.4. Experimental data - Fixed-Fixed, 1.301 m/sec, Water
DEPTH MEASURED RELIEVEDS.TRAINS COEFFICIENTS Equiv. Uniform Stress
0
STRAIN [fiE] 3 + E l 3 - E l E-, + , - 2 E 2 Exponent of(10) P to Depth Z (ksi)
Z[m] Z/D flE / % fi / % PE / % with A and B îm\ (^.mx
i 0 0 0 0 a b
0 0 2 0 A B 0 0
3 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4A 4B
1 -4 -3 5 -19 a 0.016 b 0.03
0.005 0.025 2 8 A -0.105 B -0.147 -37.6 -2.6 4.1
3 1 2.9 11.4 10.8 4A -0.422 4B -0.588
1 -10 -13 7 -35 a 0.036 b 0.067
0.01 0.050 2 11 A -0.237 B -0.328 -39.3 -1.3 4.1
3 -3 12.5 15.9 19.9 4A -0.949 4B -1.314
1 -18 -24 12 -60 a 0.035 b 0.129
0.015 0.074 2 18 A -0.231 B -0.632 -39.3 0.2 5.0
3 -6 23.1 27.3 34.1 4A -0.923 4B -2.529
1 -26 -35 17 -75 a 0.078 b 0.148
0.02 0.099 2 20 A -0.514 B -0.725 -38.6 -0.9 4.4
3 -9 33.7 38.6 42.6 4A -2.057 4B -2.902
1 -36 -51 21 -93 a 0.098 b 0.185
0.025 0.124 2 21 A -0.646 B -0.907 -38.6 -0.7 4.6
3 -15 49.0 47.7 52.8 4A -2.585 4B -3.627
1 -46 -64 28 -112 a 0.111 b 0.227
0.03 0.149 2 24 A -0.732 B -1.113 -38 -0.4 4.8
3 -18 61.5 63.6 63.6 4A -2.927 4B -4.451
1 -49 -66 32 -124 a 0.124 b 0.26
0.035 0.173 2 29 A -0.818 B -1.275 -37.8 -0.5 4.5
3 -17 63.5 72.7 70.5 4A -3.270 4B -5.098
1 -55 -75 35 -141 a 0.133 b 0.282
0.04 0.198 2 33 A -0.877 B -1.382 -38 -0.5 4.8
3 -20 72.1 79.5 80.1 4A -3.508 4B -5.529
1 -62 -85 39 -151 a 0.14 b 0.315
0.045 0.223 2 33 A -0.923 B -1.544 -37.8 -0.2 4.8
3 -23 81.7 88.6 85.8 4A -3.692 4B -6.176
1 -66 -93 39 -163 a 0.145 b 0.328
0.05 0.248 2 35 A -0.956 B -1.608 -38.3 -0.2 5.0
3 -27 89.4 88.6 92.6 4A -3.824 4B -6431
1 -68 -95 41 -165 a NA b NA
0.055 0.272 2 35 A B -38
3 -27 91.3 93.2 93.8 4A 4B
1 -73 -102 44 -170 a NA b NA
0.06 0.297 2 34 A B -37.7
3 -29 98.1 100.0 96.6 4A 4B
1 -74 -104 44 -176 a 0.125 b 0.38
0.065 0.322 2 36 A -0.824 B -1.863 -38 0.7 5.6
3 -30 100.0 100.0 100.0 4A -3.297 4B -7.451
254
Table A.5. Experimental data - Free in Space, 0.198 m/sec, 40% UCON
DEPTH MEASURED REL]EVEDS>TRAINS COEFFICIENTS Equiv. Uniform Stress
STRAIN [fiE] 3 + E l 3 - 1 e? + e i -2e2 Exponent of(10) P to Depth Z (ksi)
Z[m] Z/D pe / % pe / % pe / % with A and B ^.nn înax
i 0 0 0 0 a b
0 0 2 0 A B 0 0
3 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4A 4B
) 3 9 3 -3 a 0.016 b 0.03
0.005 0.025 2 6 A -0.105 B -0.147 -22.5 -2.9 -1.4
3 6 -5.6 3.2 -4.1 4A -0.422 4B -0.588
1 -2 5 9 3 a 0.036 b 0.067
0.01 0.050 2 1 A -0.237 B -0.328 9.22 -1.2 0.2
3 7 -3.1 9.7 4.1 4A -0.949 4B -1.314
1 -8 1 17 13 a 0.035 b 0.129
0.015 0.074 2 -6 A -0.231 B -0.632 18.7 -1.0 0.7
3 9 -0.6 18.3 17.8 4A -0.923 4B -2.529
1 -24 -21 27 13 a 0.078 b 0.148
0.02 0.099 2 -17 A -0.514 B -0.725 12.9 0.0 2.1
3 3 13.0 29.0 17.8 4A -2.057 4B -2.902
1 -26 -17 35 17 a 0.098 b 0.185
0.025 0.124 2 -17 A -0.646 B -0.907 13 -0.4 1.7
3 9 10.6 37.6 23.3 4A -2.585 4B -3.627
1 -37 -28 46 58 a 0.111 b 0.227
0.03 0.149 2 -43 A -0.732 B -1.113 25.8 -0.7 2.6
3 9 17.4 49.5 79.5 4A -2.927 4B -4.451
1 -106 -146 66 62 a 0.124 b 0.26
0.035 0.173 2 -104 A -0.818 B -1.275 21.6 2.7 6.2
3 -40 90.7 71.0 84.9 4A -3.270 4B -5.098
1 -131 -191 71 63 a 0.133 b 0.282
0.04 0.198 2 -127 A -0.877 B -1.382 20.8 3.7 7.2
3 -60 118.6 76.3 86.3 4A -3.508 4B -5.529
1 -120 -161 79 65 a 0.14 b 0.315
0.045 0.223 2 -113 A -0.923 B -1.544 19.7 2.7 6.0
3 -41 100.0 84.9 89.0 4A -3.692 4B -6.176
El -117 -155 79 65 a 0.145 b 0.328
0.05 0.248 2 -110 A -0.956 B -1.608 19.7 2.5 5.6
3 -38 96.3 84.9 89.0 4A -3.824 4B -6.431
1 -120 -154 86 62 a NA b NA
0.055 0.272 2 -108 A B 17.9
3 -34 95.7 92.5 84.9 4A 4B
1 39 6 -72 234 a NA b NA
0.06 0.297 2 -114 A B -36.4
3 -33 -3.7 -77.4 320.5 4A 4B
1 -127 -161 93 73 a 0.125 b 0.38
0.065 0.322 2 -117 A -0.824 B -1.863 19.1 3.3 6.5
3 -34 100.0 100.0 100.0 4A -3.297 4B -7.451
255
Table A.6. Experimental data - Fixed-Fixed, 0.201 m/sec, 40% UCON
DEPTH MEASURED REL]EVEDS STRAINS COEFFICIENTS Equiv. Uniform Stress
STRAIN [PE] 3 + 1 3 - El 3 + Ej - 2 E 2 Exponent of(10) P to Depth Z (ksi)
Z[m] Z/D p/% PE / % PE / % with A and B ^nn <Tr,,
i 0 0 0 0 a b
0 0 2 0 A B 0 0
3 0 0.0 0.0 4A 4B
1 3 7 1 -3 a 0.016 b 0.03
0.005 0.025 2 5 A -0.105 B -0.147 -35.8 -2.2 -1.1
3 4 -15.9 4.5 4A -0.422 4B -0.588
1 -2 -1 3 3 a 0.036 b 0.067
0.01 0.050 2 -2 A -0.237 B -0.328 22.5 -0.2 0.4
3 1 2.3 13.6 4A -0.949 4B -1.314
1 -10 -14 6 20 a 0.035 b 0.129
0.015 0.074 2 -17 A -0.231 B -0.632 36.7 0.7 2.3
3 -4 31.8 27.3 4A -0.923 4B -2.529
-10 -12 8 12 a 0.078 b 0.148
0.02 0.099 2 -12 A -0.514 B -0.725 28.2 0.1 1.1
3 -2 27.3 36.4 4A -2.057 4B -2.902
1 -17 -26 8 2 a 0.098 b 0.185
0.025 0.124 2 -14 A -0.646 B -0.907 7.02 0.8 1.2
3 -9 59.1 36.4 4A -2.585 4B -3.627
1 -19 -25 13 5 a 0.111 b 0.227
0.03 0.149 2 -15 A -0.732 B -1.113 10.5 0.5 1.2
3 -6 56.8 59.1 4A -2.927 4B -4.451
1 -21 -27 15 -3 a 0.124 b 0.26
0.035 0.173 2 -12 A -0.818 B -1.275 -5.65 0.5 1.1
3 -6 61.4 68.2 4A -3.270 4B -5.098
1 -25 -32 18 6 a 0.133 b 0.282
0.04 0.198 2 -19 A -0.877 B -1.382 9.22 0.6 1.3
3 -7 72.7 81.8 4A -3.508 4B -5.529
1 -27 -38 16 12 a 0.14 b 0.315
0.045 0.223 2 -25 A -0.923 B -1.544 18.4 0.7 1.4
3 -11 86.4 72.7 4A -3.692 4B -6.176
1 -31 -42 20 14 a 0.145 b 0.328
0.05 0.248 2 -28 A -0.956 B -1.608 17.5 0.7 1.5
3 -11 95.5 90.9 4A -3.824 4B -6.431
El -31 -42 20 2 a NA b NA
0.055 0.272 2 -22 A B 2.86
3 -11 95.5 90.9 4A 4B
1 -32 -45 19 -1 a NA b NA
0.06 0.297 2 -22 A B -1 51
3 -13 102.3 86.4 4A 4B
1 -33 -44 22 0 a 0.125 b 0.38
0.065 0.322 2 -22 A -0.824 B -1.863 0 1.0 1.6
3 -11 100.0 100.0 100.0 4A -3.297 4B -7.451
256
Table A.7. Experimental data - Free in Space, ]1.067 m/sec, 40% UCON
-8
STRAIN [pe] 3 + i 3 -l-Ei - 2 E 2 P to Depth Z (ksi)
Exponent of(10)
Z[m] Z/D PE / % p / % pe / % ^^v^ CînM
vîth A and B
i 0 0 0 0 a b
0 0 2 0 A B 0 0
3 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4A 4B
1 -2 -1 3 -21 a 0.016 b 0.03
0.005 0.025 2 10 A -0.105 B -0.147 -40.9 -3.4 3.8
3 1 2.4 11.1 4A -0.422 4B -0.588
1 -5 -2 8 0 a 0.036 b 0.067
0.01 0.050 2 -1 A -0.237 B -0.328 0 -0.4 0.8
3 3 4.9 29.6 4A -0.949 4B -1.314
El -11 -11 11 -1 a 0.035 b 0.129
0.015 0.074 2 -5 A -0.231 B -0.632 -2.6 0.8 1.6
3 0 26.8 40.7 4A -0.923 4B -2.529
1 -13 -14 12 -6 a 0.078 b 0.148
0.02 0.099 2 -4 A -0.514 B -0.725 -13.3 0.2 1.1
3 -1 34.1 44.4 4A -2.057 4B -2.902
1 -12 -6 18 16 a 0.098 b 0.185
0.025 0.124 2 -11 A -0.646 B -0.907 20.8 -0.4 0.9
3 6 14.6 66.7 4A -2.585 4B -3.627
1 -25 -30 20 6 a 0.111 b 0.227
0.03 0.149 2 -18 A -0.732 B -1.113 8.35 0.6 1.5
3 -5 73.2 74.1 4A -2.927 4B -4.451
1 -27 -33 21 7 a 0.124 b 0.26
0.035 0.173 2 -20 A -0.818 B -1.275 9.22 0.6 1.4
3 -6 80.5 77.8 4A -3.270 4B -5.098
1 -26 -31 21 5 a 0.133 b 0.282
0.04 0.198 2 -18 A -0.877 B -1.382 6.7 0.5 1.3
3 -5 75.6 77.8 4A -3.508 4B -5.529
El -30 -35 25 3 a 0.14 b 0.315
0.045 0.223 2 -19 A -0.923 B -1.544 3.42 0.5 1.4
3 -5 85.4 92.6 4A -3.692 4B -6.176
1 -32 -37 27 1 a 0.145 b 0.328
0.05 0.248 2 -19 A -0.956 B -1.608 1.06 0.5 1.4
3 -5 90.2 100.0 4A -3.824 4B -6.431
1 -29 -32 26 6 a NA b NA
0.055 0.272 2 -19 A B 6.5
3 -3 78.0 96.3 4A 4B
1 -33 -38 28 4 a NA b NA
0.06 0.297 2 -21 A B 4.07
3 -5 92.7 103.7 4A 4B
1 -34 -41 27 1 a 0.125 b 0.38
0.065 0.322 2 -21 A -0,824 B -1.863 1.06 0.9 1.6
3 -7 100.0 100.0 100.0 4A -3.297 4B -7.4511
257
Table A.8. Experimental data - Fixed-Fixed, 1.121 m/sec, 40 0 UCON
DEPTH MEASURED RELI EVEDSITRAINS COEFFICIENTS Equiv. Unifonn Stress
STRAIN [pe] 3+El 3-El Ej -t-Ei - 2 8 ; Exponent of(10) P to Depth Z (ksi)
Z[m] Z/D pe / % pe / % P E / % with A and B ^mn ÎIB.\
El 0 0 0 0 a b
0 0 2 0 A B 0 0
3 0 0.0 0.0 4A 4B
El 1 6 4 -4 a 0.016 b 0.03
0.005 0.025 2 5 A -0.105 B -0.147 -22.5 -2.4 -0.5
3 5 -20.0 15.4 4A -0.422 4B -0.588
1 -2 -2 2 4 a 0.036 b 0.067
0.01 0.050 2 -3 A -0.237 B -0.328 31.7 -0.1 0.6
3 0 6.7 7.7 4A -0.949 4B -1.314
1 -5 -3 7 7 a 0.035 b 0.129
0.015 0.074 2 -5 A -0.231 B -0.632 22.5 -0.1 0.7
3 2 10.0 26.9 4A -0.923 4B -2.529
1 -3 4 10 8 a 0.078 b 0.148
0.02 0.099 2 -2 A -0.514 B -0.725 19.3 -0.6 0.2
3 7 -13.3 38.5 4A -2.057 4B -2.902
1 -7 -1 13 11 a 0.098 b 0.185
0.025 0.124 2 -6 A -0.646 B -0.907 20.1 -0.4 0.5
3 6 3.3 50.0 4A -2.585 4B -3.627
1 -5 3 13 11 a 0.111 b 0.227
0.03 0.149 2 -4 A -0.732 B -1.113 20.1 -0.5 0.3
3 8 -10.0 50.0 4A -2.927 4B -4.451
1 -8 -1 15 13 a 0.124 b 0.26
0.035 0.173 2 -7 A -0.818 B -1.275 20.5 -0.4 0.4
3 7 3.3 57.7 4A -3.270 4B -5.098
1 -10 -2 18 14 a 0.133 b 0.282
0.04 0.198 2 -8 A -0.877 B -1.382 18.9 -0.4 0.5
3 8 6.7 69.2 4A -3.508 4B -5.529
1 -11 -3 19 17 a 0.14 b 0.315
0.045 0.223 2 -10 A -0.923 B -1.544 20.9 -0.3 0.5
3 8 10.0 73.1 4A -3.692 4B -6.176
1 -12 -4 20 14 a 0.145 b 0.328
0.05 0.248 2 -9 A -0.956 B -1.608 17.5 -0.3 0.5
3 8 13.3 76.9 4A -3.824 4B -6.431
1 -31 -35 27 15 a NA b NA
0.055 0.272 2 -25 A B 14.5
3 -4 116.7 103.8 4A 4B
1 -32 -38 26 14 a NA b NA
0.06 0.297 2 -26 A B 14.2
3 -6 126,7 100.0 4A 4B
1 -28 -30 26 12 a 0.125 b 0.38
0.065 0.322 2 -21 A -0.824 B -1.863 12.4 0.5 1.3
3 -2 100.0 100.0 100.0 4A -3.297 4B -7.451
258
% Strain relieved vs. Z/D

Holding Mechanism: Fi)ed-Fi)ed
Immersion Rate: Low 0.146 nVsec (0.48 fl/sec)
Quenchant: Water
120
o
^ 100
ii
"S 80
Pi
e 60
hes
* 40
c
^ 20
0
0 005 01 0.15 02 025 03 035
Z/D
e3+el e3-el
Figure A. 1. Test QASl: % Strain relieved versus Z/D.
%Strain relieved vs. Z/D

Immersion Rate: Low 0.140 nVsec (0.46 ft/sec)
(penchant: Water
120
eli ved
100
ii
80
OS
e 60
"S
tm
40
cn
;^ 20
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Z/D
-e3+el e3-el
Figure A.2. Test QAS2: % Strain relieved versus Z/D.

259
"/Strain relieved vs. Z/D

(penchant: Water
120
leli ved
_
100
ii
80
e 60
ti
*m 40
in
, ^
)^ 20 1
0 . . - ^
0 005 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

Z/D
e3+el e3-el

Holding Mechanism Fijed-Fi>Ed
(penchant: Water
120
"3
ii 100 4=*
>
Ol
eli
80
02
B 60
"3
km
l/i
40
^ 20
0
0 O05 0.1 0.15 0.2 025 0.3 0.35
Z/D
-e3+el e3-el

260

Holding Mechanism' Free in Space
(Quenchant: 40% UCON (penchant A
a35
Z/D
-e3+el e3-el

Holding Mechanism: Fijed-Fiêd
Quenchant: 40% UCON (Quenchant A
a
ii
>
.a
"3
en
ei
i/i
-20 ^ ms
Z/D
-e3+el e3-el
Figure A.6. Test QAS6; % Strain relieved versus Z/D.

261

Holding Mechanism' Free in Space
Quenchant: 40% UCON (>ienchant A
120
a
> 100
u
eli
80
CC
c 60
A
k.
- 40
l/i
^ 20
0
0 005 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Z/D
e3+el e3-el

Holding Mechanism Fiêd-Fijcd
Quenchant: 40% UCON (penchant A
a
a
>
.Si
OS
ei
u
* *
ir>
-20^ 0:35
Z/D
-e3+el e3-el

262
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Validation of stress invariant

Holding Mechanism; Fixed-Fijed
Immersion Rate: LowO.146 m/sec (0.48 ft/sec)
Qu enchant: Water
"sfilY^ -.
JUUU
4000 - a
a
m S] BE]
3000 -
Stress [psi]
2000 -
SI
1000 - a
0 - 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.D7

-1000 -
m
-2000 ^
Hole Depth [in]
sx+-sy smax+smin
Figure A.9. Test QASl: Stress invariant.

Quenchant: Water
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
d) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.p7

-5000 0
Q. -10000
Vi Q
Vi
u -15000
C/i EI
Q Q Q El B B
-20000 - B
m
-25000
Hole Depth [in]
sx4-sy n smax+-smin
Figure A.10. Test QAS2: Stress invariant.

274

Quenchant: Water
10000
CO
CO
x/i
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Hole Depth [in]
sxty a smaxt^min
Figure A.l 1. Test QAS3: Stress invariant.

HoUing Mechanism: Fiwd-Fiwd
(penchant: Water
5000 -j B
4500 - B
B B B
4000- B
B B
.-= 3500 -
CO
^ 3000 -
g 2500- B
Stre
B
B
t
1000 -
500 -
0 - '
(3 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Hole Depth [in]
sx<-sy a smax+smin

275

Immersion Rate: Low 0.198 m/sec (0.65 fl/sec)
12000
10000 -I Cl SI
8000 o
"=" 6000 El
-^ 4000 -I
SI
S 2000 -1 E) S] Q
Si 0 m
2000 ^) 0!Sl 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0. )7
-4000 -I SI
-6000
Hole Depth [in]
sx<-sy smax^-smin

Holding Mechanism: Fixed-Fijcd
Immersion Rate: Low0.201 m/sec (0.66 ft/sec)
3000
2000 -
^ 1000
BL 0
Vi
^ -1000 ^
Ifl
Hole Depth [in]
sx-f-sy D smax+smin
Figure A. 14. Test QAS6: Stress invariant.

276

hnmersion Rate: High 1,067 m/sec (3.50 fUsec)
2500
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Hole Depth [in]
sx+sy n smaxi-smin

Holding Mechanism: FixBd-Fi>ed
1000
500 -I B B
B B
0 "B B ET -4L
B
^ -500 4> 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0. 37
-1000
o -1500
^ -2000
-2500
B
-3000 H
-3500
Hole Depth [in]
sx+-sy Dsmax-^-smin
Figure A. 16. Test QAS8: Stress invariant.

APPENDIX B
MICROHARDNESS DATA
277
278
Table B.l. Microhardness Data - Annealed

Depth [in] Hardness [HV 50 gf]
0.01 60.4
0.015 60.5
0.02 58.6
0.025 58.4
0.03 60.5
0.035 59.8
0.04 59.2
0.045 58.5
0.05 61
0.055 58.4
0.06 61
0.065 59.8
0.07 59.8
0.075 59.6
0.08 60.1
0.085 58.2
0.09 58
0.095 58.7
0.1 59.5
0.105 60.2
0.11 58.4
0.115 58.8
279
Table B.2. Microhardness Data - Fixed-Fixed, 0.146 m/sec, Water

Depth [in] Hardness [HV 500 gf] Hardness [HRB]
0.01 136.3 74.6
0.015 132.8 73.2
0.02 136 74.5
0.025 136.7 74.8
0.03 128.6 71.5
0.035 128.7 71.5
0.04 137.2 75.1
0.045 130 72
0.05 133.4 73.4
0.055 138 75.5
0.06 132 73
0.065 130.6 72.3
0.07 134.5 73.8
0.075 132.9 73.3
0.08 131.8 72.9
0.085 133.3 73.4
0.09 137.7 75.3
0.095 135.7 74.3
0.1 132 73
0.105 135.4 74.2
0.11 137.7 75.3
0.115 134.1 73.7
280
Table B.3. Microhardness Data - Free in Space, 0.140 m/sec, Water

0.01 144.5 78.1
0.015 140.1 76.5
0.02 136.5 74.7
0.025 138.9 75.9
0.03 138.9 75.9
0.035 137.8 75.4
0.04 137.8 75.4
0.045 136.2 74.6
0.05 130.4 72.2
0.055 136.2 74.6
0.06 134.4 73.8
0.065 142 77.3
0.07 134.4 73.8
0.075 133.3 73.4
0.08 138 75.5
0.085 131.4 72.7
0.09 139.9 76.4
0.095 141.8 77.2
0.1 141.1 77
0.105 139.9 76.4
0.11 142.9 77.6
0.115 140.6 76.8
281
Table B.4. Microhardness Data - Free in Space, 1.234 m/sec, Water

Depth [in] LHardness [HV 500 gf] Hardness [HRB]
0.01 136.7 74.8
0.015 131.4 72.7
0.02 133.4 73.4
0.025 130.9 72.4
0.03 123.3 69.1
0.035 131.4 72.7
0.04 131.8 72.9
0.045 133.3 73.4
0.05 124.6 69.8
0.055 139 76
0.06 124.9 69.9
0.065 128.7 71.5
0.07 134.2 73.7
0.075 129 71.6
0.08 126.8 70.9
0.085 134.4 73.8
0.09 125.8 70.4
0.095 134.9 73.9
0.1 136.5 74.7
0.105 133.1 73.3
0.11 138.9 75.9
0.115 136.5 74.7
282
Table B.5. Microhardness Data - Fixed-Fixed, 1.301 m/sec. Water

0.01 120.4 67.7
0.015 119 67
0.02 122 68.5
0.025 121.6 68.3
0.03 118.7 66.8
0.035 117.5 66.2
0.04 118.9 66.9
0.045 119 67
0.05 121.1 68
0.055 119 67
0.06 118.7 66.8
0.065 121.7 68.3
0.07 125.6 70.3
0.075 120.4 67.7
0.08 121.9 68.4
0.085 120.2 67.6
0.09 116.2 65.2
0.095 118.2 66.6
0.1 123 69
0.105 123.9 69.4
0.11 122.3 68.6
0.115 124.4 69.7
283
Table B.6. Microhardness Data - Free in Space, 0.198 m/sec, 40% UCON
0.010 128.1 71.3
0.015 130.7 72.3
0.020 135.5 74.2
0.025 133.3 73.4
0.030 128.7 71.5
0.035 125.9 70.4
0.040 126.2 70.6
0.045 127.7 71.2
0.050 128.3 71.4
0.055 128.9 71.6
0.060 129.5 71.8
0.065 128.4 71.4
0.070 129.0 71.6
0.075 127.1 71.0
0.080 129.3 71.7
0.085 130.0 72.0
0.090 132.3 73.1
0.095 131.7 72.8
0.100 133.9 73.6
0.105 131.8 72.9
0.110 130.1 72.0
0.115 131.4 72.7
284
Table B.7. Microhardness Data - Fixed-Fixed, 0.201 m/sec, 40% UCON

0.01 139.9 76.4
0.015 138.9 75.9
0.02 143 77.6
0.025 136.8 74.9
0.03 139.5 76.2
0.035 136.2 74.6
0.04 138.9 75.9
0.045 136.2 74.6
0.05 134.4 73.8
0.055 136.8 74.9
0.06 138.3 75.6
0.065 136.5 74.7
0.07 138.5 75.7
0.075 140.4 76.7
0.08 135.7 74.3
0.085 134.1 73.7
0.09 140.6 76.8
0.095 138.9 75.9
0.1 140.2 76.6
0.105 139.2 76.1
0.11 142.1 77.3
0.115 135.5 74.2
285
Table B.8. Microhardness Data - Free in Space, 1.067 m/sec, 40 o L CON

Depth [in] Hardness [HV 500 gfj Hardness [HRB]
0.01 125.3 70.1
0.015 126.5 70.7
0.02 130.7 72.3
0.025 124.2 69.6
0.03 130.1 72
0.035 126.5 70.7
0.04 120.9 67.9
0.045 125.6 70.3
0.05 126.6 70.8
0.055 125.8 70.4
0.06 123.4 69.2
0.065 121.5 68.2
0.07 119.3 67.1
0.075 123.2 69.1
0.08 123.2 69.1
0.085 124.4 69.7
0.09 122.4 68.7
0.095 123 69
0.1 123.2 69.1
0.105 124 69.5
0.11 124.4 69.7
0.115 125.2 70.1
286
Table B.9. Microhardness Data - Fixed-Fixed, 1.121 msec, 40% UCON

0.01 138.2 75.6
0.015 140.4 76.7
0.02 138.7 75.8
0.025 137.3 75.1
0.03 132.1 73
0.035 135.7 74.3
0.04 139.5 76.2
0.045 137.7 75.3
0.05 131 72.5
0.055 143.2 77.7
0.06 136 74.5
0.065 133.9 73.6
0.07 137.5 75.2
0.075 133.4 73.4
0.08 135.8 74.4
0.085 136.7 74.8
0.09 136.8 74.9
0.095 137.5 75.2
0.1 137.8 75.4
0.105 142.5 77.5
0.11 143.2 77.7
0.115 134.4 73.8
APPENDIX C
EXAMPLE OF SODDIT INPUT AND OUTPUT FILES
287
288
C l . Example of SODDIT input file

**block 1 control flags
C23456789 123456789 123456789 123456789 123456789 123456789 123456789
123456789
000010000 OOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOO
0000000000
inv297.inp ALUMINUM SHEET 12X3", 0.25"(6.35mm) THICKNESS. ONE SIDE
ADIABATIC,
ID HEAT TRANSFER, THERMOCOUPLE @ 0.05" (1.27mm) FROM SURFACE.
23RD TEST THERM0C0UPLE#14, TOP STRIP, END.
**block 3 print times and print intervals, maximum of 20 and 19 respectively
** tprnt(l) tprnt(2)
0 334.28
** dtprnt(l)
1.
**block 4 general problem constants
dtmin dtmax theta dtempm sigma radius expn fractl fract2
0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 4.761E-13 0. 0.
**block 5**********material property data
**rho dhf treff qstar tabl matnam (start past col 41)
2770. 0. 0.0 A12024
**temp cp cond emit absrp
273 828.43 171.76 0.
373 912.11 190.74 0.
473 966.50 188.69 0.
573 1016.71 187.08 0.
673 1096.21 174.19 0.
1 723 1154.78 170.49 0.
/end of block 5 material property tables
**block 6 automatic node generation data
289
** initial temperature (TINIT)

707.429
**(mat no) (elements/region) (region thickness) (tck Istelem) (tck last elem)
**(NMATR) (NER) (XR) (DXl) (DXF)
1 5 .00635
/end of block 6 automatic node generation data
**block 7 front face boundary condition data
**ibctyl ifmtl tradl
4 0
**nfl ndttq ifst iskp ninv(i),i=l,ninvn
3 1 1 1 1
** time y(ij)
0 720.5089968
0.32 721.7549216
0.536 720.5089968
0.672 720.5089968
298.008 321.1270136
298.168 321.1270136
298.304 321.0097153
298.464 321.0678716
298.624 321.0678716
/end of block 7frontface boundary condition data
block 8 back face boundary condition data
**ibctyn ifmtn tradn (perfectly insulated back face boundary condition)
0
290
C.2 Example of SODDIT output file
************-j^p^^^jjg = 297.inp
************ output file = 297.out

1
ADIABATIC,
input to subroutine ang
tinit= 707.42900
mat] no elem in region 1 st elem last elem
no region thickness thickness thickness
1 5 6.35000E-03 O.OOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOE+00
1
ADIABATIC,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1920
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
times when print interval changes/print intervals
O.OOOOOOE-i-00 3.342800E+02
l.OOOOOOE+00
depths below original surface where temperature histories are printed
291
O.OOOE+00 6.350E-03
dtmin dtmax theta dtempm sigma radiusi expn fractl fract2
l.OOOE-05 l.OOOE+00 l.OOOE+00 2.500E-f01 4.761E-13 0.000E-+-00 O.OOOE+00
l.OOOE-03 5.000E-02
material property data
material number 1 : A12024
rho= 2.7700E+03 dhf = O.OOOOE+00 tref = O.OOOOE+00 qstar = O.OOOOE-HOO tabl =
O.OOOOE+00
i temperature cp k emit absrp enthalpy
1 2.7300E+02 8.2843E+02 1.7176E+02 O.OOOOE+00 O.OOOOE+00 2.3758E+05
1 nodal data
node X initial temp
1 O.OOOOOE+00 7.07429E+02
2 1.27000E-03 7.07429E+02
3 2.54000E-03 7.07429E+02
4 3.81000E-03 7.07429E+02
5 5.08000E-03 7.07429E+02
6 6.35000E-03 7.07429E+02
1 element data
ne ni nj nmat dxi areai voli ngap
1 1 2 1 1.27000E-03 l.OOOOOE+00 1.27000E-03 0
2 2 3 1 1.27000E-03 l.OOOOOE+00 1.27000E-03 0
3 3 4 1 1.27000E-03 l.OOOOOE+00 1.27000E-03 0
4 4 5 1 1.27000E-03 l.OOOOOE+00 1.27000E-03 0
5 5 6 1 1.27000E-03 l.OOOOOE+00 1.27000E-03 0
292
1 time dependent boundary condition data
ibcty ifmt trad ninvn nft ndttq ifst iskp
1 4 0 0.00 1 3 1 1 1
n 0 0 0.00
t/c table no and corresponding node no for inverse solution
1 1
time dependent boundary condition table no 1
inverse option with 1 thermocouples
i time(i) y(i,l) y(i,2) y(i,3) y(i,4) y(i,5) y(i,6) y(i,7)
1 O.OOOOOOE+00 7.205090E+02
2 3.200000E-01 7.217549E+02
3 5.360000E-01 7.205090E+02
*** 2.981680E+02 3.211270E+02

*** 2.983040E+02 3.210097E+02
*** 2.984640E+02 3.210679E+02
*** 2.986240E+02 3.210679E+02
time dependent boundary condition table no. 2 (ifmtn = 0)
i time hr qrad ch p
1 O.OOOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOOE+00
2 l.OOOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOOE+00
1 sandia one-dimensional direct and inverse thermal program
soddit contracting grid version 01-01-93
ADIABATIC,
the date/time is Tue Jul 27 15:13:06 1999
293
theta = 1.00 kr(12)=0
summary of inverse calculations for 1 thermocouples
time tsurf q tinput tcalc
0.32000 716.6086 3.4635E+05 721.75 716.61
0.53600 718.8487 2.5238E+05 720.51 718.85
0.67200 719.5251 1.9027E+05 720.51 719.53
297.68000 321.1369-2.4699E+03 321.30 321.14

297.84000 321.1183-2.1103E+03 320.95 321.12
298.00800 321.0988-1.9598E+03 321.13 321.10
298.16800 321.0820-1.7888E+03 321.13 321.08
**********surface energy balance terms**********
timeq stot sdot qcond qconv qrin qrout qchem
time
O.OOOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOE+00
O.OOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOE+OO O.OOOOOE+00 O.OOOOOOE+OO
1 sandia one-dimensional direct and inverse thermal program
soddit contracting grid version 01-01-93
ADIABATIC,
the date/time is Tue Jul 27 15:13:06 1999
theta = 1.00 kr(12)=0
t/c depths
X O.OOE+00 6.35E-03
294
O.OOOE+00 7.074E+02 7.074E+02

nodal/element data for restart option, set kr(2)=3
1 1 1.2700E-03 321.08200 l.OOOOE+00 1.2700E-03 0
2 1 1.2700E-03 321.09344 l.OOOOE+00 1.2700E-03 0
3 1 1.2700E-03 321.10248 l.OOOOE+00 1.2700E-03 0
4 1 1.2700E-03 321.10902 l.OOOOE+00 1.2700E-03 0
5 1 1.2700E-03 321.11298 l.OOOOE+00 1.2700E-03 0
0 0 O.OOOOE+00 321.11430 O.OOOOE+00 O.OOOOE+00 0
cpu time = 0.6 sec
APPENDIX D
HOLDING MECHANISM ENGINEERING DRAWINGS
295
296
. 50
.50
2.30
.50 H - -50
,
r 1
.50
/
/ ^
^X^ \
1 .po
31
.50
.50 - - .25
5 . 40 5-40
3.50
.50 -
Jk ^ ^ .50
1
y
.31
' ' ^ - ^
90
1 .00 - .25 .40
PYonl view Rishi side view
Figure D. 1. Base part of holding mechanism.
2 . 3 0 -
.50
50 j - ^ - .50
.50
.31
.26 -H
5.40 1 .00 5.40
3-50
2.20
.25 --|
^ ^
.31
1 . 0 0 H-H 40
Front view Rieht side view
Figure D.2. Base part of holding mechanism with extension.

297
.50 .50
5.00
.50
- 1 nc\
1 . uu
Right side view Left side view Front view
Figure D.3. Top part of holding mechanism.
Figure D.4. Assembly of holding mechanism.

r
APPENDIX E
THERMAL SPECIMEN ENGINEERING DRAWINGS
298
299
CO
CO
CVI <yv
<j>
O o
O O
<r-
ii
B
a
O O 'B
O O o
Vi
a
O o
C!
ii
O O
B
O
O
Ou
tu
O
 O
ur^
O
.UU o
KTI
oo
CO
CTi
300
Vi
ii
-4->
B
c
'B
c
o
Vi
"6
tt-1
o
C/5
c
c
o
PQ
Qu
rsi
B
3
<
t-l
Q I
0 O
303
CO oo
VM\\UK4M.^\IM\\ -^
- '-^ ji O
1
CO
(9

D O o o
x>

(20
c
c
0 o
Vi
Vi
> 0 ^ Vi
0 ' ' O
w.
u
@ ^ tu
Ul
0 ^
@ ^
0 ^
0
0-
0 o
--l-0-- - ( ^ - - # 0 - -
[ '
304
kr^ ko u-> QO
CM ^ <=>
1
CQ
1 i i
-|- ^ nv4JifHiwniw\W\ 0 o
1
UJ
0 o o
0 ~l ^
1
rr%
hole;
0 0
a 0 o CO
'CL
mocoi
0 o
0 o Ul
(U
0 0
01J
0 c
15
ction
c
0 0 ^^^
a
a Vi
Vi
Vi
O
km

u
td
a
km
GO
a 0 0

[_

Jul ^
305
UTi
o
u^ ^-
T3
a
cd
O
u
O
o
O cd
cx
r' tii
(U
u
GO
APPENDIX F
DIGITAL DISPLAY PROGRAMS
306
307
Table F. 1. Digital display programs

Display settings Program 1 Program 2
decpnt 0.000 0.000
round 0.010 0.010
Lo-udt 0.2 0.2
Hi-udt 0.3 0.3
dipl 3 3
rAEl 0.0 32
Segte 1 1
APPENDIX G
LAB VIEW PROGRAM
308
309
B*
1 LJ:
m s^ f^
J. I
1^1
ids; R]^ pilfer

^^^^:z::i.i::::::z:z"::''"rr:::.'î::.~. \
g
km
GO
o
>
Xi
cd
4 4 4ji|-i'Âkk
o
ii
Um
J^ A f 4 4 4 f A 4
MNaAMWAMRAiVA.V.VÛWWW-.->
i?
B
I ^
Ldl B
Id
B
.3.
[I ii
I i
APPENDIX H
DATA ACQUISITION CALIBRATION DATA AND CURVES
310
311
Table H. 1. Data acquisition data for thermocouples l-(5.

RTD TC#1 TC#2 TC#3 TC#4 TC#5 TC#6
rc] rci
54.046 55.210 56.641 57.840 57.331 54.950 57.739
61.880 64.655 65.450 66.945 66.369 64.451 66.956
69.393 72.035 73.282 74.501 74.134 72.211 74.418
83.667 86.521 87.918 88.900 89.114 86.710 89.007
94.418 98.401 98.866 100.085 100.512 97.756 100.251
104.597 108.839 109.054 110.339 110.651 108.085 110.380
114.368 118.810 118.965 120.178 119.958 118.011 120.432
122.825 127.768 127.738 129.049 129.036 126.841 129.327
130.264 135.472 135.294 136.630 136.100 134.323 136.976
136.022 141.173 140.959 142.122 142.116 139.845 142.397
142.566 147.574 147.503 148.897 149.045 146.427 149.338
147.407 152.745 152.288 153.688 153.247 151.327 153.915
153.806 159.419 158.898 160.351 160.557 158.024 160.701
155.035 160.785 160.160 161.684 161.239 159.319 162.180
177.754 179.319 178.623 179.509 181.464 184.895 183.968
216.883 218.288 217.595 218.155 219.898 223.674 222.415
270.705 268.082 266.149 268.552 270.391 274.335 272.955
289.521 277.332 276.139 278.165 279.962 284.450 283.566
338.411 335.082 336.963 337.134 339.216 344.895 343.649
369.951 362.828 367.296 365.793 368.458 373.372 371.181
404.704 385.812 405.318 399.086 404.444 407.101 405.518
446.765 432.363 437.059 440.410 440.140 449.172 448.649
485.209 783.126 471.613 478.009 481.975 486.736 486.241
312
Table H.2. Data acquisition data for thermocouples 7-12

rc] rci rci rci lci
54.046 54.561 57.741 57.535 53.349 57.664 57.591
61.880 64.164 66.883 66.407 65.546 66.659 66.669
69.393 71.992 74.479 74.231 74.021 74.205 74.540
83.667 86.526 88.893 88.743 88.697 88.693 89.217
94.418 97.523 99.919 99.674 99.972 99.261 98.852
104.597 107.756 110.257 109.813 110.118 109.644 110.189
114.368 117.732 120.212 119.770 120.092 119.663 120.192
122.825 126.446 129.111 128.588 128.991 128.247 129.437
130.264 134.058 136.685 136.231 136.595 135.847 137.202
136.022 139.655 142.306 141.971 142.146 141.436 142.286
142.566 146.050 148.907 148.405 148.762 148.116 148.875
147.407 150.883 153.761 153.243 153.672 152.860 154.596
153.806 157.423 160.568 159.879 160.301 159.195 160.421
155.035 158.804 161.922 161.158 161.601 160.669 161.848
177.754 186.253 183.802 182.013 185.017 185.258 185.669
216.883 230.224 224.278 220.958 224.611 226.051 223.965
270.705 281.143 274.291 273.096 277.198 278.768 275.923
289.521 292.178 284.072 282.550 285.724 288.270 285.073
338.411 351.590 343.102 343.517 344.191 348.405 345.290
369.951 382.786 370.561 373.577 375.578 380.823 375.009
404.704 410.676 398.089 407.855 411.162 416.052 408.793
446.765 459.401 446.030 449.186 452.511 456.399 452.724
485.209 498.124 480.806 485.693 492.161 496.617 488.666
313
Table H.3. Data acquisition data for thermocouples 13-18.

rc] rci
47.580 48.998 53.539 49.684 49.365 48.688 53.901
52.763 53.959 58.575 54.421 54.308 53.366 58.655
65.499 67.087 71.509 67.070 67.429 65.995 71.532
76.677 80.159 82.485 81.502 79.558 77.625 82.956
92.168 95.193 98.987 95.031 96.025 93.684 98.853
98.567 101.857 105.450 101.619 102.758 100.232 105.103
111.950 115.996 119.291 115.518 116.835 114.217 118.666
129.482 136.069 137.998 135.527 136.412 134.761 137.036
154.818 162.090 163.839 160.910 162.247 161.816 162.573
167.800 181.594 183.924 181.048 184.566 185.570 184.616
215.500 232.005 233.019 230.570 232.616 234.674 233.959
229.300 234.853 236.618 233.163 235.834 236.669 237.280
281.900 286.585 289.552 284.340 288.604 288.529 289.594
317.100 316.476 318.602 314.914 316.827 318.583 318.817
346.000 343.549 345.655 338.393 343.851 344.267 346.140
380.600 375.849 376.550 371.324 376.186 377.107 378.142
415.000 416.238 419.574 410.200 416.981 415.465 420.357
446.800 448.276 452.871 444.337 448.030 446.651 453.117
476.100 473.996 476.718 467.499 472.187 472.630 478.161
497.200 493.537 496.544 486.143 494.123 494.422 497.152
314
Calibration Curve - Thermocouple 1
500
450
U 400 -
* 350
M)
1 ^^
200
v=0.9474x +9.9257
S 100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Thermocouple Reading [ C|
Figure H. 1. Calibration curve for thermocouple 1
500
450
JJ 400
350
(M)
y=0.%34x+8.1168
c5 200
G 150
QC 100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Thermocouple Reading [ "Cl
Figure H.2. Calibration curve for thermocouple 2,

315
Calibration Curve - Thennocouple 3
500
450
U" 400
' 350
OD
G 300
y=0.9633x+9.2846
I 250
(S 200
C^ 100
50 ^
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Thermocouple Reading ( C]
Figure H.3. Calibration curve for thermocouple 3.
500
450
C 400
* 350 -
0
y =0.9725x4-8.3034
fi 300-
1 250
ii
ttl 200
Q 150
q^ 100
50 -
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Thermocouple Reading [ ^'C]

316
500
450
{J 400
' 350
OX)
.S 3 ^ v=0.9973x+3.8742
1 250-
ii
X 200 -
150 -
a: 100-
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Thermocouple Reading [ ''C]
500
450
C7 400
350 -
OX)
.S ^ ^ y=0.9854x+7.3251
1 250 ^
S 200
O 150 -
ftj 100
50 -
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Thermocouple Reading [ "Cl

317
500 1
450 - ^ ^
u 400 - ^ ^ ^
350 - ^ ^
OX)
300 - ^ ^ ^ y = 1.0264x-t-0.6652
c
250 - ^ - ^
ii
200 H ^ / ^
RTD
150 -
100 -
50 - /
0 - 1 1 1 1 1
(3 100 200 300 400 500
Thermocouple Reading [ "C]

!
1
Figure H.7 Calibration curve for thermocouple 7.
500 -1
450 -
CJ 400-
"" 350
OX) y=0.9758x+8.571
1 250
(2 200
Q 150 -
0^ 100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500

318
500 -1
450
cr 400 -
350 -
OX)
.S ^ ^ v=0.9893x + 6.2154
I 250 H
^ 200 -
^^ '
fX 100 ^
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Thermocouple Reading [ "CJ
500
450
C 400
^ 350
OX)
y = 1.0025x+4.7923
.S 300
1 250 ^
05 200
O 150
Oi 100 -
50 -
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Figure H. 10. Calibration curve for thermocouple 10.

319
500
450
{J 400
' 350
OX)
.S 3 ^ ' y = 1.0155x-h 3.3893
I 250
(5 200
^^^
f^ 100
50 -
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
o.
Figure H. 11. Calibration curve for thermocouple 11
500
450
U 400
"" 350 -
OX)
1 250 ^ y=0.9958x+6.1822
200
^^
0^ 100
50 -
0
0 100 200 300 400 500

320
500 T
450 i
U 400 -
350 -
OX)
c 300
v=0.985x+6.5283
Iii 250
DC200 -
O 150
H
100 -
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Thermocouple Reading [ C]
500
450 -
CJ" 400
350 -
tt)
c 300
v = 0.983 lx +9.8058
1 250
C^ 200
fi 150 -
Ct 100
50 -
0 -
0 100 200 300 400 500

321
500
450
cr 400
350
OX)
C 300
v=0.9689x + 8.1811
I 250-
X 200
CC ^100
^
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
500
450
cr 400
-- 350
OX)
M 300
250 y=0.9835x-I-7.3835
200
^^
tf 100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500

322
500
450
U" 400
350
OX)
.S 300 -\ v=0.9877x-(-5.9428
I 250
tf 200 -
tf ^100
^-
50 -
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
o.
Thermocouple Reading [ C]
500
450
cr 400
350
OX)
.S 300 y=0.9857x+9.4774
"S 250
tf 200
100
tf
^^
50 -
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
o.

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MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES AND DISTORTION

IN RAPIDLY QUENCHED COMPONENTS

NIKOLAOS APLITSIOTIS, B.S.M.E.

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

Deanjdf the Graduate School

4.1. List of thermocouple calibration curves 40

1.1. Holding mechanisms under investigation 2

A Hole drilling calibration coefficient for finite area strains, kpsi"^

h Dimensionless hole drilling calibration constant

<j^' Stress along the y transformation axis

X Shear stress, kpsi

1.2 Parameters Under Investigation

1.2.2 Immersion Rate

1.2.3 Holding Mechanism

Figure 1.1. Holding mechanisms under investigation

Figure 1.2. Development of residual stresses during rolling

2.2 Quenching and Quenchants

of coatings on the surface to decrease distortion and provided a comparison of different

clean, safe, inexpensive, and presents no environmental pollution. Kobasco [149]

2.3 Measurement of Residual Stress

184] presented an analytical theory of quenching macroscopic residual stresses in

2.4 Measurement of Distortion

3.1 Method of Residual Stresses Measurement

3.2 Destructive Methods

3.2.1 Hole Drilling Method

Rosette strain gauge

3.2.2 Ring Core Method

3.2.3 Layer Removal Method

Rosette strain gauge

3.3 Non-Destructive Methods

3.3.1 X-ray Diffraction Method

3.3.2 Ultrasonic Method

4.1 Brief Description

Figure 4.1. Quenching apparatus.

Figure 4.2. Main components of quenching apparatus

4.2.2 Centrifugal Pump and Piping

4.2.3 Electric Motor and Clutch

Figure 4.3. Inductive proximity sensor.

Figure 4.4. Digkal display.

4.3 Data Acquiskion

4.4 Distortion Measurements

Figure 4.5. Dial gauge set-up.

Alignment Setup Eyepiece

Illuminator Vertical Height

Figure 4.6. RS-200 drilling mill alignment set up.

High-Speed To Air Supply

Figure 4.7. RS-200 drilling mill with the ak turbine assembly.'

Figure 4.8. RS-200 experimental set-up.

4.6 Holding Mechanism

Figure 4.9. Holding mechanism assembly.

4.7.1 Digital Display Calibration

\ = _rev Imin 18//? \m (42)

Furthermore, Eq. 4.2 can be further simplified to

where V is the instantaneous velocky of the lowering mechanism in m/sEC, C is a

Digital Display Calibration Curve

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Digital Display Reading [m/sec]

Actual velocity Linear

Figure 4.10. Digkal display calibration curve

4.7.2 Data Acquiskion Calibration

4.7.3 Dial Gauge Calibration

Calibration Cui"ve - Thermocouple 8

{) 100 200 300 400 500

Thennocouple Reading I "C]