ANNA UNIVERSITY

B.E/B.TECH DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/ JUNE 2016

CS 6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
(Regulation 2013)

1) 1. Calculate noise voltage at the input of television RF amplifier using a device that has
200ohm equivalent noise resistance and a 300ohm input resistor. The band width is
6Mhz and T=17C

2. FM & AM:

Phase modulation (PM) is a modulation pattern that encodes information as variations in the
instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. Phase modulation is widely used for transmitting radio
waves and is an integral part of many digital transmission coding schemes that underlie a wide
range of technologies like WiFi, GSM and satellite television.

Frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the
instantaneous frequency of the wave. This contrasts with amplitude modulation, in which the
amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the frequency remains constant.

3. ASK SIGNAL:

4. BANDWIDTH EFFICIENCY:

Bandwidth efficiency refers to the information rate that can be transmitted over a given
bandwidth in a specific communication system.
5. STANDARDS ORGANISATIONS FOR DATA COMMUNICATIONS:

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Electronics Industries Association (EIA)
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

6. PULSE TIME MODULATIONS:

Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a modulation technique

used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this modulation technique can be used
to encode information for transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power supplied
to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such as motors.

7. ENTROPY:

Based on the probability mass function of each source symbol to be communicated, the Shannon
entropy H, in units of bits (per symbol), is given by

8. CYCLIC CODES:

They are error-correcting codes that have algebraic properties that are convenient for efficient
error detection and correction.

9. FREQUENCY REUSE:

Frequency reuse is the process of using the same radio frequencies on radio transmitter sites
within a geographic area that are separated by sufficient distance to cause minimal interference
with each other. Frequency reuse allows for a dramatic increase in the number of customers that
can be served (capacity) within a geographic area on a limited amount of radio spectrum (limited
number of radio channels).

10. RANGE OF BLUETOOTH:

Class 1: range up to 100 meters (in most cases 20-30 meters) Class 2: range up to 30 meters (in
most cases 5-10 meters).
11. (a) (i) The first stage of a 2stage amplifier has a voltage gain of 10,600ohm input resistor
a 1600ohm equivalent noise resistance and 27kohm output resistor. For the second stage
these values are 25,81kohm ,10kohm and 1Mohm.Calculate equivalent noise resistance of
this 2 stage amplifier and also calculate the noise figure of amplifier if it is driven by a
generator whose output impedance is 50ohm.

(ii) INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE OF AM WAVE:

Power is rate at which energy is consumed by load or produced by generator. Whether it is DC

circuit or AC circuit, the value of instantaneous power is obtained by multiplying instantaneous
voltage with instantaneous current. If at any instant of time t the voltage and current values are
represented by sine functions as Vm and Im are the maximum values of the sinusoidal voltage and
current. Here =2 f f is the frequency and is the angular frequency of rotating voltage or
current phasors. It should be clear that for a power system f is usually 50 or 60 Hz
is the phase difference between the voltage and current.

v = Vm sin t

i = Im sin (t-)
Applying trigonometric formula 2.sin A.sin B = cos(A-B) - cos (A+B) we get

It can be written as

This is the equation of instantaneous power. the instantaneous power p is composed of two
terms. The first term is constant because for a given load the phase angle is fixed. It does not
change unless the load is changed. The second term is varying with time sinusoidal due to the
presence of the term cos (2t-). Look that the instantaneous power frequency is twice the
frequency of voltage or current. So the instantaneous power in a single phase circuit varies
sinusoidal. The instantaneous power, p = constant term + sinusoidal oscillating term. In one
complete period the average of oscillating term is zero.

Here is another way to think about the average power.Just observe that the instantaneous power
is negative for a small time. For any time interval you just find the total +ve area A+ (above
horizontal-axis (blue line) and below p curve) and total -ve area A- (below horizontal axis and
above p curve). The net area is obtained by subtracting A- from A+. By dividing this net area
( by the time interval Ti we get the average power(P). You can do this using calculus. What you
will ultimately get is only the first term in the above formula for instantaneous power p.In still
another way it is easier to realize that the formula for instantaneous power p has a constant term
(Vm.Im / 2) cos and the other sinusoidal term (Vm.Im / 2) cos (2 wt - ). Actually p is the
oscillating power which oscillates about the average constant term (Vm.Im / 2) cos .

So the average power is

The above formula can be written as

Or,

The above formula for instantaneous power can be written in another form. This form actually is
an attempt to distinguish the oscillating reactive power from the instantaneous power formula.
Rearranging the terms in equation for instantaneous power above we get
p = |V| | I | cos (1-cow2t) - |V| | I | sin sin2t In this equation the first term |V| | I | cos (1-
cow2t) is oscillatory whose average value is |V| | I | cos . We already talked about this average
power. The second term |V| | I | sin sin2t which is also oscillatory but with zero average
value. The maximum value of this term is |V| | I | sin . This is the so called Reactive power. So
Reactive power is the maximum value of a oscillatory power that is repeatedly drawn from the
source and again returned to the source within each cycle. So the average of this reactive power
is zero. The average power P is called as Real Power. It is also sometimes called active power.
Real power = P = |V| | I | cos It is usually written as P = VI cos . But it should be remembered
that V and I are the rms values of voltage and current. For example when we say single phase
220 volt AC it means the rms value of voltage is 220 volts ( it is not maximum value of voltage
sinusoid) Real power is measured in Watt and the reactive power is measured in VAR (Volt
Ampere Reactive). In power sector these units are too small so real power is measured in
Megawatt (MW) and reactive power in Megavar (MVAR). The letter R at the end denotes
reactive power. Many times students and practicing engineers are confused about the average
power (often simply called power). They think that what they get by multiplying RMS voltage
and RMS current is RMS power. No that is wrong. There is no RMS power. RMS power has no
meaning or not defined. (Also see definition of RMS value, below at the end).

Let us consider a three phase balanced system. A three phase balanced system is analyzed
considering only one phase and neutral return. This is called per phase analysis. So the above
analysis for single phase is true for balanced three phase case. Let the total power here is P t. Then
we get total three phase power as thrice of single phase case .P t = 3 |V| | I | cos It should be
remembered that |V| and | I | are the per phase values. and is the phase angle of load in per
phase analysis. The above formula for balanced three phase system can be written as P t = 3 |Vl|
| Il | cos

11.(b) (i) Describe the relationship between the instantaneous carrier frequency and the
modulating signal for FM.

The pitch/frequency of the Carrier is being changed (modulated) by the Modulator, and depends
on the instantaneous voltage from the Modulator. The instantaneous frequency of a carrier wave
is varied according to a modulator wave such that the rate at which the carrier varies is the rate of
the modulating wave, or modulating frequency. It results from applying an output from the
modulator to the control voltage input of the carrier.

FM is described by the following equation:

f(t) = Acsin[2pfct + sin(2pfmt)]

A sine wave at some carrier frequency fc, which is in Hertz, called the carrier frequency is
modified by adding a phase term to it, which varies with time. The sine function is used again,
but this time with a frequency of f m, which is also in Hertz, called the modulation frequency. The
constant () determines how much effect the modulating sine wave has on the frequency of the
carrier sine wave, and is commonly called the modulating index.
The instantaneous frequency of a carrier wave is varied according to a modulator wave such that
the rate at which the carrier varies is the rate of the modulating wave, or modulating frequency. It
results from applying an output from the modulator to the control voltage input of the carrier.

x(t) = fc + sin(2pfmt)

f(t) = Acsin[2pfct + sin(2pfmt)]

Notice that the modulating sine wave does not actually affect the carrier sine wave's frequency,
but changes instead the period of carrier sine wave. This sort of modulation is phase modulation,
because the phase is changed. It turns out that phase modulation and frequency modulation are
equivalent. When the sine function is used in the above equation, the actual function used to
modulate the frequency is the derivative of the sine function, the cosine function.
Because of the very complex harmonics generated by FM the resulting FM waveform has a rich
harmonic content that can be exploited for music synthesis. In fact, the analogue synthesizer
already does FM of a sort, with the LFO modulating the pitch of the VCO. The only real
difference is that an FM synthesizer will use one oscillator to modulate the frequency of another,
where the fundamental frequency of both oscillators is of a similar order.

In audio-frequency FM, we define as the ratio of the Carrier's peak frequency sweep (the
amount by which the Carrier deviates from its unmodulated frequency) divided by the Modulator
frequency. We write this as follows:

= (Dfc-pk) / fm

The Modulation Index ( ) is directly related to the change in the Peak Carrier frequency
divided by the amplitude of the Modulator. For any given Modulator frequency, it is the
Modulation Index (and, therefore, the amplitude of the Modulator) that determines the amplitude
of each of the components in the spectrum of the output signal.

(ii) Explain the nature of SSB spectrum if the modulating signal is

m(t)=cos2100t+cos22000t and carrier is c(t)=cos210000t.
12.(a) BFSK:

The system for switching the transmitter according to the modulating signal level. If the
switching timing in the synchronization and modulating signal of the two oscillators is not good,
the continuity of the phase between bits cannot be maintained as shown in the figure, resulting in
an unnecessary spectrum that is not in fact used. The out-of-band unnecessary spectrum
interferes with adjacent channels, and this spectrum is called a spurious emission. Spurious
emissions are undesirable from the point of view of effective utilization of radio waves and they
are regulated by the Radio Act.

In many cases, FSK modulation uses a VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator). The VCO changes
the frequency proportionally to the voltage of the modulating signal so that the phase between
bits is continuous. CPFSK (Continuous Phase FSK) is characterized by its low levels of
unwanted emissions (spurious emissions) which cause various adverse effects.
Modulation index

The modulation index of specified low-power radios is normally about 0.8, but with MSK
demodulation with a modulation index of 0.5, synchronous detection is possible making it
advantageous from the point of view of error rate.

The MSK spectrum is not very wide and is concentrated around the carrier frequency. For this
reason the frequency band of the circuit filter can be narrow, with good signal to noise.

FSK

FSK changes the frequency in relation to the signal status so it cannot normally be expressed as a
constellation. However, if the signal point is moved to the circumference and the phase is made
changeable as shown in the figure below, the frequency becomes higher with counter clockwise
rotation and lowers with clockwise rotation, enabling the frequency changes of the FSK
modulated waveform to be expressed as an image.
MSK modulation and demodulation MSK changes the phase 90 degrees (/2) in relation to the
center frequency Fc of the carrier wave with each symbol, so that it can be shown as in the figure
below without being expressed as a constellation. MSK modulation using I and Q signals uses
changes when the signal point is moved to the circumference of the constellation.

The changes and phase shift for the MSK information signal are as follows.
Sub-carrier MSK

There are various method modulation methods for wireless, but sub-carrier MSK modulation is
widely used for specified low-power radio.As shown in the figure below, FM modulation and
demodulation is frequently used in sub-carrier MSK radio components. FM modulation and
demodulation has been used for a long time and the modulation circuits are well-established.
They are cheap and have a low error rate.

MSK modulation is one type of FSK modulation, but it occupies even less bandwidth than FSK
modulation so the bandwidth is interrupted by very little noise. The fact that noise is low means
that it has a high carrier-to-noise ratio and good receiver sensitivity which gives it a long range
with stable communication. The modulation index of sub-carrier MSK modulation is MSK
modulation, so its m = 0.5. The bit rate for sub-carrier MSK for specified low-power radio is
typically 1,200 bps or 2,400 bps. Although you might think this speed is extremely low, by a
rough calculation 150 bytes of data can be sent in one second which is sufficient for many fields
such as tele control and telemetry. If the data transmission rate is low, naturally the error rate is
lower too. This is because, if the transmission rate is low, the transmission band can be narrow
which means that there is less noise to impact demodulation.

However, this only relates to the MSK modulation and MSK demodulation units in the block
diagram above, and not to the bandwidth of the FM modulation and demodulation units. For the
frequency modulation and demodulation units, the signal of the MSK unit signal is the base
band. Naturally, the radio waves are FM radio waves, and the bandwidth and modulation index
of these radio waves are specified separately in relation to the MSK input signal.
Many people will tend to associate MSK modulation with GMSK mobile phones (GSM) in
Europe and elsewhere, and in fact, the MSK aspect is the same. However the bandwidth required
for MSK is not necessarily narrow, and with the aim of using radio effectively, GMSK applies a
Gaussian filter to the square wave modulation data before performing MSK modulation.
However, as a result, the orthogonality of MSK is lost, resulting in many errors. In addition,
GMSK performs highly precise digital modulation of the base band signal such as quadrature
modulation and then the signal is up-converted to radio frequency. There are also GMSK
modulation radios for amateur radio. But types which control VCO with the base band have
problems with modulation accuracy and dont perform synchronous detection,

The center frequency of the carrier is 1,500 Hz and the deviation is 300 Hz. Therefore, the data
1 (mark) frequency is 1,200 Hz and data 0 frequency (space) is 1,800 Hz. The bit phase is offset
by 90 degrees in relation to the respective carrier frequency.

(ii) Compare coherent and non-coherent detection

Coherent signals detectors are those which need carrier phase information and uses other
methods like square law to recover the transmitted data at receiver end. Whereas coherent signals
are the signals, having same frequency and phase. Coherency is measured between 0 to 1. More
will the coherency,the better will be the spectral component of the signal. Time delay may also
occur in coherent systems, due to some adjustments required in matching the frequency and
phase, which is not the case with non-coherent systems. Coherent detection is complex than non-
coherent detection but it gives much better performance too. Moreover coherent detection is less
prone to errors. Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK), Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK),
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) uses the non-coherent detection. Whereas coherent detection is
generally used in optical fiber systems.
The received signal is raised to the Mth power using a nonlinear device. The output of the non
linear device will contain harmonics of the carrier. A bandpass filter will be used to select the
Mth harmonic.

Non-Coherent Detection at receiver - For noncoherent detection phase measurement cannot

be exploited. The upper two branches are configured to detect f1, and the lower two branches are
configured to detect f2. A receiver based on this decision criterion is known as a quadrature
receiver.

Following points must be remembered to know the difference between coherent and non
coherent detector systems : 1.For coherent detection the orthogonality condition leads to a
condition on tone spacing given by: 2 (f1 f2) T = k or f1 f2 = k/2T Therefore, for
coherently detected FSK the spacing between frequencies is k/2T, with a minimum spacing of
1/2T. 2.For noncoherently detected FSK the orthogonality condition leads to a condition on the
frequency spacing given by: 2 (f1 f2) T = 2k For noncoherent FSK the frequency spacing is
therefore k/T with a minimum spacing of 1/T.

Here are several ways of demodulation depending on how parameters of the base-band signal
such as amplitude, frequency or phase are transmitted in the carrier signal. For example, for a
signal modulated with a linear modulation like AM (amplitude modulation), we can use a
synchronous detector. On the other hand, for a signal modulated with an angular modulation, we
must use an FM (frequency modulation) demodulator or a PM (phase modulation) demodulator.
Different kinds of circuits perform these functions. Many techniques such as carrier recovery,
clock recovery, bit slip, frame synchronization, rake receiver, pulse compression, Received
Signal Strength Indication, error detection and correction, etc., are only performed by
demodulators, although any specific demodulator may perform only some or none of these
techniques.
Many things can act as a demodulator, if they pass the radio waves on nonlinearly. For example,
near a powerful radio station, it has been known for the metal sides of a van to demodulate the
radio signal as sound. An AM signal encodes the information onto the carrier wave by varying
its amplitude in direct sympathy with the analogue signal to be sent. There are two methods used
to demodulate AM signals:

The envelope detector is a very simple method of demodulation that does not require a coherent
demodulator. It consists of an envelope detector that can be a rectifier (anything that will pass
current in one direction only) or other non-linear that enhances one half of the received signal
over the other and a low-pass filter. The rectifier may be in the form of a single diode or may be
more complex. Many natural substances exhibit this rectification behaviour, which is why it was
the earliest modulation and demodulation technique used in radio. The filter is usually an RC
low-pass type but the filter function can sometimes be achieved by relying on the limited
frequency response of the circuitry following the rectifier. The crystal set exploits the simplicity
of AM modulation to produce a receiver with very few parts, using the crystal as the rectifier and
the limited frequency response of the headphones as the filter.

The product detector multiplies the incoming signal by the signal of a local oscillator with the
same frequency and phase as the carrier of the incoming signal. After filtering, the original audio
signal will result. SSB is a form of AM in which the carrier is reduced or suppressed entirely,
which require coherent demodulation. For further reading, see sideband.
12.(b) QAM

Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is both an analog and a digital modulation scheme. It
conveys two analog message signals, or two digital bit streams, by changing (modulating) the
amplitudes of two carrier waves, using the amplitude-shift keying (ASK) digital modulation
scheme or amplitude modulation (AM) analog modulation scheme. The two carrier waves of the
same frequency, usually sinusoids, are out of phase with each other by 90 and are thus called
quadrature carriers or quadrature components hence the name of the scheme. The modulated
waves are summed, and the final waveform is a combination of both phase-shift keying (PSK)
and amplitude-shift keying (ASK), or, in the analog case, of phase modulation (PM) and
amplitude modulation. In the digital QAM case, a finite number of at least two phases and at
least two amplitudes are used. PSK modulators are often designed using the QAM principle, but
are not considered as QAM since the amplitude of the modulated carrier signal is constant. QAM
is used extensively as a modulation scheme for digital telecommunication systems. Arbitrarily
high spectral efficiencies can be achieved with QAM by setting a suitable constellation size,
limited only by the noise level and linearity of the communications channel
Transmitter

First the flow of bits to be transmitted is split into two equal parts: this process generates two
independent signals to be transmitted. They are encoded separately just like they were in an
amplitude-shift keying (ASK) modulator. Then one channel (the one "in phase") is multiplied by
a cosine, while the other channel (in "quadrature") is multiplied by a sine. This way there is a
phase of 90 between them. They are simply added one to the other and sent through the real
channel.

Receiver

Multiplying by a cosine (or a sine) and by a low-pass filter it is possible to extract the component
in phase (or in quadrature). Then there is only an ASK demodulator and the two flows of data are
merged back.
In practice, there is an unknown phase delay between the transmitter and receiver that must be
compensated by synchronization of the receivers local oscillator (i.e. the sine and cosine
functions in the above figure). In mobile applications, there will often be an offset in the relative
frequency as well, due to the possible presence of a Doppler shift proportional to the relative
velocity of the transmitter and receiver. Both the phase and frequency variations introduced by
the channel must be compensated by properly tuning the sine and cosine components, which
requires a phase reference, and is typically accomplished using a Phase-Locked Loop (PLL).

In any application, the low-pass filter and the receive filter will be implemented as a single
combined filter. Here they are shown as separate just to be clearer.

Interference and noise

In moving to a higher order QAM constellation (higher data rate and mode) in hostile
RF/microwave QAM application environments, such as in broadcasting or telecommunications,
multipath interference typically increases. There is a spreading of the spots in the constellation,
decreasing the separation between adjacent states, making it difficult for the receiver to decode
the signal appropriately. In other words, there is reduced noise immunity. There are several test
parameter measurements which help determine an optimal QAM mode for a specific operating
environment. The following three are most significant:[8]

Carrier/interference ratio
Carrier-to-noise ratio
Threshold-to-noise ratio

13.(a) DATA COMMUNICATION NETWORK ARCHITECTURE:

Network architecture is the design of a communication network. It is a framework for the

specification of a network's physical components and their functional organization and
configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as well as data formats used in its
operation.

In telecommunication, the specification of a network architecture may also include a detailed

description of products and services delivered via a communications network, as well as detailed
rate and billing structures under which services are compensated.

The network architecture of the Internet is predominantly expressed by its use of the Internet
Protocol Suite, rather than a specific model for interconnecting networks or nodes in the
network, or the usage of specific types of hardware links.

Physical layer
The physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it
defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or optical
cable. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, hubs, repeaters, network
adapters, host bus adapters (HBA used in storage area networks) and more. Its main task is the
transmission of a stream of bits over a communication channel.
Data-linking layer

The data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between
network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical layer.
Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint media,
characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network architecture,
which included broadcast-capable multi-access media, was developed independently of the ISO
work in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sub layering and management functions not
required for WAN use. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding
window, is present in data link protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local
area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on the Ethernet, and on
other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used.
Sliding-window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the transport layer by protocols
such as TCP, but is still used in niches where X.25 offers performance advantages. Simply, its
main job is to create and recognize the frame boundary. This can be done by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and the end of the frame. The input data is broken up into frames.

Network layer

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length
data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a different network,
while maintaining the quality of service requested by the transport layer (in contrast to the data
link layer which connects hosts within the same network). The network layer performs network
routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery
errors. Routers operate at this layersending data throughout the extended network and making
the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme; values are chosen by the network
engineer. The addressing scheme is not hierarchical. It controls the operation of the subnet and
determine the routing strategies between IMP and ensures that all the packs are correctly
received at the destination in the proper order.

Transport layer

The transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable
data transfer services to the upper layers. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given
link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are
state and connection oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments
and retransmit those that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the
successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. Some transport layer
protocols (such as TCP, but not UDP) support virtual circuits that provide connection-oriented
communication over an underlying packet-oriented datagram network, where it assures the
delivery of packets in the order in which they were sent and that they are free of errors. The
datagram transportation deliver the packets randomly and broadcast it to multiple nodes.

The transport layer multiplexes several streams on to one physical channel. The transport headers
indicate which message belongs to which connection.
Session layer

This layer provides a user interface to the network where the user negotiates to establish a
connection. The user must provide the remote address to be contacted. The operation of setting
up a session between two processes is known as "binding". In some protocols, it is merged with
the transport layer. Its main work is to transfer data from the other application to this application
so this application is mainly used for transferred layer.

Presentation layer

The presentation layer establishes context between entities on the application layer, in which the
higher-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a
mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are
encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the stack. This layer provides
independence from data representation (e.g. encryption) by translating between application and
network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application
accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called
the syntax layer.[citation needed] The original presentation structure used the basic encoding rules of
Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASSN), with capabilities such as converting an BODICE-coded
text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to
XML.

Application layer

The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts
with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application
programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions typically include
identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing
communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the
identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit.

Distributed computing

In distinct usage in distributed computing, the term "network architecture" often describes the
structure and classification of a distributed application architecture, as the participating nodes in
a distributed application are often referred to as a "network". For example, the applications
architecture of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) has been termed the Advanced
Intelligent Network. There are any number of specific classifications but all lie on a continuum
between the dumb network (e.g. Internet) and the intelligent computer network (e.g. the
telephone network). Other networks contain various elements of these two classical types to
make them suitable for various types of applications. Recently the context aware network, which
is a synthesis of two, has gained much interest with its ability to combine the best elements of
both.

A popular example of such usage of the term in distributed applications, as well as PVCs
(permanent virtual circuits), is the organization of nodes in peer-to-peer (P2P) services and
networks. P2P networks usually implement overlay networks running over an underlying
physical or logical network. These overlay network may implement certain organizational
structures of the nodes according to several distinct models, the network architecture of the
system.

(ii) Baudot, ASCII and EBCDIC

The Baudot code, invented by mile Baudot,[1] is a character set predating EBCDIC and ASCII.
It was the predecessor to the International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2), the tele printer code
in use until the advent of ASCII. Each character in the alphabet is represented by a series of bits,
sent over a communication channel such as a telegraph wire or a radio signal. The symbol rate
measurement is known as baud, and is derived from the same name.

The code position assigned to Null was in fact used only for the idle state of tele printers. During
long periods of idle time, the impulse rate was not synchronized between both devices (which
could even be powered off or not permanently interconnected on commuted phone lines). To
start a message it was first necessary to calibrate the impulse rate a sequence of regularly timed
"mark" pulses (1) by group of 5 pulses, which could also be detected by simple passive
electronic devices to turn on the teleprinter; this series of pulse was generating series of
Erasure/Delete and also initializing the receiver state to the Letters shift mode, however the first
pulse could be lost, so this power on procedure could then be terminated by a single Null
immediately followed by an Erasure/Delete character. To preserve the synchronization between
devices, the Null code could not be used arbitrarily in the middle of messages (this was an
improvement to the initial Baudot system where spaces were not explicitly differentiated, so it
was difficult to maintain the pulse counters for repeating spaces on teleprinters). But it was then
possible to resynchronize devices at any time by sending a Null in the middle of a message
(immediately followed by a an Erasure/Delete/LS control if followed by a letter, or by a FS
control if followed by a figure). Sending Null controls also did not cause the paper band to
advance to the next row (as nothing was punched), so this saved precious lengths of punchable
paper band. On the opposite the Erasure/Delete/LS control code was always punched and always
shifted to the (initial) letters mode.

The Shift to Letters code (LS) is also usable as a way to cancel/delete text from a punched tape
after it has been read, allowing a safe destruction of the message before recycling the punched
band. For that function, it also plays the same role of filler as the Delete code in ASCII (and in
other 7-bit or 8-bit encodings, including EBCDIC for punched cards). Once codes for a fragment
text has been replaced by arbitrary number of LS codes, what follows is still preserved and
decodable. It can also be used as an initiator to make sure that the decoding of the first code will
not give a digit or another symbol from the figures page (because the Null code may be
arbitrarily inserted near the end of a punch band or at start of it, and has to be ignored, whereas
the Space code is significant in text).

NOTE: This table presumes the space called "1" by Baudot and Murray is rightmost, and least
significant. The way the transmitted bits were packed into larger codes varied by manufacturer;
the most common solution allocates the bits from the least significant bit towards the most
significant bit (leaving the three most significant bits of a byte unused).
Table of ITA2 codes (expressed as hexadecimal numbers)

In ITA2, characters are expressed using five bits. ITA2 uses two code sub-sets, the "letter shift"
(LTRS), and the "figure shift" (FIGS). The FIGS character (11011) signals that the following
characters are to be interpreted as being in the FIGS set, until this is reset by the LTRS (11111)
character. In use, the LTRS or FIGS shift key is pressed and released, transmitting the
corresponding shift character to the other machine. The desired letters or figures characters are
then typed. Unlike a typewriter or modern computer keyboard the shift key isn't kept depressed
whilst the corresponding characters are typed. "ENQuiry" will trigger the other machine's
answerback. It means "Who are you?"

CR is carriage return, LF is line feed, BEL is the bell character which rang a small bell (often
used to alert operators to an incoming message), SP is space, and NUL is the null character
(blank tape).

Note: the binary conversions of the codepoints are often shown in reverse order, depending on
(presumably) from which side one views the paper tape. Note further that the "control"
characters were chosen so that they were either symmetric or in useful pairs so that inserting a
tape "upside down" did not result in problems for the equipment and the resulting printout could
be deciphered. Thus FIGS (11011), LTRS (11111) and space (00100) are invariant, while CR
(00010) and LF (01000), generally used as a pair, are treated the same regardless of order by
page printers.[21] LTRS could also be used to overpunch characters to be deleted on a paper tape
(much like DEL in 7-bit ASCII).

The sequence RYRYRY... is often used in test messages, and at the start of every transmission.
Since R is 01010 and Y is 10101, the sequence exercises much of a teleprinter's mechanical
components at maximum stress. Also, at one time, fine-tuning of the receiver was done using two
coloured lights (one for each tone). 'RYRYRY...' produced 0101010101..., which made the lights
glow with equal brightness when the tuning was correct. This tuning sequence is only useful
when ITA2 is used with two-tone FSK modulation, such as is commonly seen in Radioteletype
(RTTY) usage.

US implementations of Baudot code may differ in the addition of a few characters, such as #, &
on the FIGS layer.
The Russian version of Baudot code (MTK-2) used three shift modes; the Cyrillic letter mode
was activated by the character (00000). Because of the larger number of characters in the Cyrillic
alphabet, the characters !, &, were omitted and replaced by Cyrillics, and BEL has the same
code as Cyrillic letter .

ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code
standard.

Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO 646 (1967)
that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English
alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United
Kingdom's pound sterling (). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since
ASCII suited the needs of only the USA and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its
own version that supported French characters.

Many other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters (e.g. , , , ),
currency symbols (e.g. , ), etc. See also YUSCII (Yugoslavia).

It would share most characters in common but assign other locally useful characters to several
code points reserved for "national use". However, the four years that elapsed between the
publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during
1967[48] caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards
for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their
own assignments to these code points.

ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, is a 7-bit character set. It does not make any additional codes
available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape
codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were
rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and therefore which
character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one
variant anyway.

Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to "national use" code points
that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French,
or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had
to write, and thus read, something such as

C trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C, although their late introduction and
inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their
computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or
Usenet) contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those
programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer
asking if they should go for lunch, could get "N{ jag har sm|rg}sar" as the answer, which should
be "N jag har smrgsar" meaning "No I've got sandwiches".
8-bit codes

Eventually, as 8-, 16- and 32-bit (and later 64-bit) computers began to replace 18- and 36-bit
computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in
memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit, relatives of ASCII. In most cases these
developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding
additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters.

Encodings include ISCII (India), VISCII (Vietnam). Although these encodings are sometimes
referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard.

Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-
drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0 to 31
with more graphics. Kaypro CP/M computers used the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek
alphabet.

The PETSCII code Commodore International used for their 8-bit systems is probably unique
among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963, instead of the more common ASCII-
1967, such as found on the ZX Spectrum computer. Atari 8-bit computers and Galaksija
computers also used ASCII variants.

The IBM PC defined code page 437, which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols
such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions.
Operating systems such as DOS supported these code pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs
supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational
Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal as one of the first extensions
designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined Mac
OS Roman and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and
typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets.

The ISO/IEC 8859 standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) finally provided a standard that most
systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A
popular further extension designed by Microsoft, Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-
1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1,
Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encodings until
2008 when UTF-8 became more common.[45]

ISO/IEC 4873 introduced 32 additional control codes defined in the 809F hexadecimal range,
as part of extending the 7-bit ASCII encoding to become an 8-bit system.[49]

Unicode

Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set (UCS) have a much wider array of
characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII
rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS
support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using natural
numbers called code points) and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called UTF-8,
UTF-16 and UTF-32).

ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode (1991) character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-
bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be
backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is
identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly,
forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as
special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII
extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.[50]

To allow backward compatibility, the 128 ASCII and 256 ISO-8859-1 (Latin 1) characters are
assigned Unicode/UCS code points that are the same as their codes in the earlier standards.
Therefore, ASCII can be considered a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of
Unicode/UCS, and ASCII (when prefixed with 0 as the eighth bit) is valid UTF-8.

13.(b) (i)For PCM with following parameters maximum analog input frequency=4Khz maximum
decoded voltage at the receiver +2025v and maximum dynamic range =46dB.Determine minimum
sample rate, minimum number of bits, resolution and quantization error.
(ii) COMPARE THE VARIOUS PULSE ANALOG MODULATION TECHNIQUES.

There are two types of pulse amplitude modulation:

Single polarity PAM: In this a suitable fixed DC bias is added to the signal to ensure that all the
pulses are positive. Double polarity PAM: In this the pulses are both positive and negative.

Pulse-amplitude modulation is widely used in modulating signal transmission of digital data,

with non-baseband applications having been largely replaced by pulse-code modulation, and,
more recently, by pulse-position modulation.

In particular, all telephone modems faster than 300 bit/s use quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM). (QAM uses a two-dimensional constellation).The number of possible pulse amplitudes
in analog PAM is theoretically infinite.

14.(a) The generator polynomial of (7,4) cyclic code is given by G(D)=1+D+D.Compute all
non systematic code words.
14.(b) Consider a systematic block code whose parity check equations are,

P1=m1+m2+m4

P2=m1+m3+m4

P3=m1+m2+m3

P4=m3+m2+m4

Find generator matrix and parity check matrix for this code
How many errors can be detected and corrected ?
If the received code word is 10101010.Find syndrome.
15.(a) GSM system

Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for digital
cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to
create a common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a
pan-European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many
countries outside of Europe will join the GSM partnership.

The GSM Network

GSM provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications define the functions
and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware. The reason for this is to
limit the designers as little as possible but still to make it possible for the operators to buy
equipment from different suppliers. The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the
switching system (SS), the base station system (BSS), and the operation and support system
(OSS). The basic GSM network elements are shown in Figure 2.
The Switching System
The switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing and subscriber-related
functions. The switching system includes the following functional units:

Home location register (HLR): The HLR is a database used for storage and management of
subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data
about subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity
status. When an individual buys a subscription from one of the PCS operators, he or she is
registered in the HLR of that operator.

Mobile services switching center (MSC): The MSC performs the telephony switching functions
of the system. It controls calls to and from other telephone and data systems. It also performs
such functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.

Visitor location register (VLR): The VLR is a database that contains temporary information
about subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is
always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR
connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the
mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without
having to interrogate the HLR each time.
Authentication center (AUC): A unit called the AUC provides authentication and encryption
parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of each call. The AUC
protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular world.

Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is a database that contains information about the
identity of mobile equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile
stations. The AUC and EIR are implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined AUC/EIR
node.

The Base Station System (BSS)

All radio-related functions are performed in the BSS, which consists of base station controllers
(BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).

BSC-The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links between the MSC and BTS.
It is a high-capacity switch that provides functions such as handover, cell configuration data, and
control of radio frequency (RF) power levels in base transceiver stations. A number of BSCs are
served by an MSC.

BTS-The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The BTS is the radio equipment
(transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the network. A group of BTSs are
controlled by aBSC.

The Operation and Support System

The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching
system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support system
(OSS). The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls
the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized,
regional, and local operational and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM network.
An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and support the maintenance
activities of different operation and maintenance organizations.

Additional Functional Elements

Other functional elements shown in Figure 2 are as follows:

Message center (MXE)-The MXE is a node that provides integrated voice, fax, and data
messaging. Specifically, the MXE handles short message service, cell broadcast, voice mail, fax
mail, email, and notification.

Mobile service node (MSN)-The MSN is the node that handles the mobile intelligent network
(IN) services.
Gateway mobile services switching center (GMSC)-A gateway is a node used to interconnect
two networks. The gateway is often implemented in an MSC. The MSC is then referred to as the
GMSC.

GSM interworking unit (GIWU)-The GIWU consists of both hardware and software that
provides an interface to various networks for data communications. Through the GIWU, users
can alternate between speech and data during the same call. The GIWU hardware equipment is
physically located at the MSC/VLR.

GSM Network Areas

The GSM network is made up of geographic areas. As shown in Figure 3, these areas include
cells, location areas (LAs), MSC/VLR service areas, and public land mobile network (PLMN)
areas. The cell is the area given radio coverage by one base transceiver station. The GSM
network identifies each cell via the cell global identity (CGI) number assigned to each cell. The
location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber is paged. Each LA is served
by one or more base station controllers, yet only by a single MSC (see Figure 4). Each LA is
assigned a location area identity (LAI) number.

GSM Specifications
Before looking at the GSM specifications, it is important to understand the following basic
terms:
Bandwidth-the range of a channel's limits; the broader the bandwidth, the faster data can sent
Bits per second (bps)-a single on-off pulse of data; eight bits are equivalent to one byte.

Frequency-the number of cycles per unit of time; frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) Kilo (k)-
kilo is the designation for 1,000; the abbreviation kbps represents 1,000 bits per second
Megahertz (MHz)-1,000,000 hertz (cycles per second) Milliseconds (ms)one-thousandth of a
second Watt (W)-a measure of power of a transmitter Specifications for different personal
communication services (PCS) systems vary among the different PCS networks. Listed below is
a description of the specifications and characteristics for GSM.
Frequency band-The frequency range specified for GSM is 1,850 to 1,990 MHz (mobile station
to base station).

Duplex distanceThe duplex distance is 80 MHz. Duplex distance is the distance between the
uplink and downlink frequencies. A channel has two frequencies, 80 MHz apart.channel
separationThe separation between adjacent carrier frequencies. In GSM, this is 200 kHz.

Modulation-Modulation is the process of sending a signal by changing the characteristics of a

carrier frequency. This is done in GSM via Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK).

Transmission rate-GSM is a digital system with an over-the-air bit rate of 270 kbps.
Access method-GSM utilizes the time division multiple access (TDMA) concept. TDMA is a
technique in which several different calls may share the same carrier. Each call is assigned a
particular time slot.

Speech coder-GSM uses linear predictive coding (LPC). The purpose of LPC is to reduce the bit
rate. The LPC provides parameters for a filter that mimics the vocal tract. The signal passes
through this filter, leaving behind a residual signal. Speech is encoded at 13 kbps.

GSM Subscriber Services

There are two basic types of services offered through GSM: telephony (also referred to as
teleservices) and data (also referred to as bearer services). Telephony services are mainly voice
services that provide subscribers with the complete capability (including necessary terminal
equipment) to communicate with other subscribers. Data services provide the capacity necessary
to transmit appropriate data signals between two access points creating an interface to the
network. In addition to normal telephony and emergency calling, the following subscriber
services are supported by GSM:

Dual-tone multi frequency (DTMF)DTMF is a tone signaling scheme often used for various
control purposes via the telephone network, such as remote control of an answering machine.
GSM supports full-originating DTMF.

Facsimile group III-GSM supports CCITT Group 3 facsimile. As standard fax machines are
designed to be connected to a telephone using analog signals, a special fax converter connected
to the exchange is used in the GSM system. This enables a GSMconnected fax to communicate
with any analog fax in the network.

Short message services-A convenient facility of the GSM network is the short message service.
A message consisting of a maximum of 160 alphanumeric characters can be sent to or from a
mobile station. This service can be viewed as an advanced form of alphanumeric paging with a
number of advantages. If the subscriber's mobile unit is powered off or has left the coverage area,
the message is stored and offered back to the subscriber when the mobile is powered on or has
reentered the coverage area of the network. This function ensures that the message will be
received.

Cell broadcast-A variation of the short message service is the cell broadcast facility. A message
of a maximum of 93 characters can be broadcast to all mobile subscribers in a certain geographic
area. Typical applications include traffic congestion warnings and reports on accidents.
Voice mail-This service is actually an answering machine within the network, which is
controlled by the subscriber. Calls can be forwarded to the subscriber's voice-mail box and the
subscriber checks for messages via a personal security code.

Fax mail-With this service, the subscriber can receive fax messages at any fax machine. The
messages are stored in a service center from which they can be retrieved by the subscriber via a
personal security code to the desired fax number.

Supplementary Services
GSM supports a comprehensive set of supplementary services that can complement and support
both telephony and data services. Supplementary services are defined by GSM and are
characterized as revenue-generating features. A partial listing of supplementary services follows.

Call forwardingThis service gives the subscriber the ability to forward incoming calls to
another number if the called mobile unit is not reachable, if it is busy, if there is no reply, or if
call forwarding is allowed unconditionally.

Barring of outgoing callsThis service makes it possible for a mobile subscriber to prevent all
outgoing calls.

Barring of incoming callsThis function allows the subscriber to prevent incoming calls. The
following two conditions for incoming call barring exist: baring of all incoming calls and barring
of incoming calls when roaming outside the home PLMN.

Advice of charge (AoC)The AoC service provides the mobile subscriber with an estimate of
the call charges. There are two types of AoC information: one that provides the subscriber with
an estimate of the bill and one that can be used for immediate charging purposes. AoC for data
calls is provided on the basis of time measurements.

Call holdThis service enables the subscriber to interrupt an ongoing call and then
subsequently reestablish the call. The call hold service is only applicable to normal telephony.
Call waitingThis service enables the mobile subscriber to be notified of an incoming call
during a conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore the incoming call. Call
waiting is applicable to all GSM telecommunications services using a circuit-switched
connection.

Multiparty serviceThe multiparty service enables a mobile subscriber to establish a

multiparty conversationthat is, a simultaneous conversation between three and six subscribers.
This service is only applicable to normal telephony.
Calling line identification presentation/restrictionthese services supply the called party with
the integrated services digital network (ISDN) number of the calling party. The restriction
service enables the calling party to restrict the presentation. The restriction overrides the
presentation.

Closed user groups (CUGs)CUGs are generally comparable to a PBX. They are a group of
subscribers who are capable of only calling themselves and certain numbers.

15.(b) MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUE

In telecommunications and computer networks, a channel access method or multiple access

method allows several terminals connected to the same multi-point transmission medium to
transmit over it and to share its capacity. [1] Examples of shared physical media are wireless
networks, bus networks, ring networks and point-to-point links operating in half-duplex mode.

A channel-access scheme is based on a multiplexing method, that allows several data streams or
signals to share the same communication channel or physical medium. Multiplexing is, in this
context, provided by the physical layer.[a]

A channel-access scheme is also based on a multiple access protocol and control mechanism,
also known as media access control (MAC). This protocol deals with issues such as addressing,
assigning multiplex channels to different users, and avoiding collisions. The MAC-layer is a sub-
layer in Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model and a component of the Link Layer of the
TCP/IP model.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

The frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) channel-access scheme is based on the

frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) scheme, which provides different frequency bands to
different data-streams. In the FDMA case, the data streams are allocated to different nodes or
devices. An example of FDMA systems were the first-generation (1G) cell-phone systems, where
each phone call was assigned to a specific uplink frequency channel, and another downlink
frequency channel. Each message signal (each phone call) is modulated on a specific carrier
frequency.

A related technique is wavelength division multiple access (WDMA), based on wavelength-

division multiplexing (WDM), where different datastreams get different colors in fiber-optical
communications. In the WDMA case, different network nodes in a bus or hub network get a
different color.

An advanced form of FDMA is the orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA)

scheme, for example used in 4G cellular communication systems. In OFDMA, each node may
use several sub-carriers, making it possible to provide different quality of service (different data
rates) to different users. The assignment of sub-carriers to users may be changed dynamically,
based on the current radio channel conditions and traffic load.
Time division multiple access (TDMA)

The time division multiple access (TDMA) channel access scheme is based on the time-division
multiplexing (TDM) scheme, which provides different time-slots to different data-streams (in the
TDMA case to different transmitters) in a cyclically repetitive frame structure. For example,
node 1 may use time slot 1, node 2 time slot 2, etc. until the last transmitter. Then it starts all over
again, in a repetitive pattern, until a connection is ended and that slot becomes free or assigned to
another node. An advanced form is Dynamic TDMA (DTDMA), where a scheduling may give
different time sometimes but some times node 1 may use time slot 1 in first frame and use
another time slot in next frame.

As an example, 2G cellular systems are based on a combination of TDMA and FDMA. Each
frequency channel is divided into eight timeslots, of which seven are used for seven phone calls,
and one for signalling data.

Statistical time division multiplexing multiple-access is typically also based on time-domain

multiplexing, but not in a cyclically repetitive frame structure. Due to its random character it can
be categorised as statistical multiplexing methods, making it possible to provide dynamic
bandwidth allocation. This requires a media access control (MAC) protocol, i.e. a principle for
the nodes to take turns on the channel and to avoid collisions. Common examples are
CSMA/CD, used in Ethernet bus networks and hub networks, and CSMA/CA, used in wireless
networks such as IEEE 802.11.

Code division multiple access (CDMA)/Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA)

The code division multiple access (CDMA) scheme is based on spread spectrum, meaning that a
wider radio spectrum in Hertz is used than the data rate of each of the transferred bit streams, and
several message signals are transferred simultaneously over the same carrier frequency, utilizing
different spreading codes. The wide bandwidth makes it possible to send with a very poor signal-
to-noise ratio of much less than 1 (less than 0 dB) according to the Shannon-Heartly formula,
meaning that the transmission power can be reduced to a level below the level of the noise and
co-channel interference (cross talk) from other message signals sharing the same frequency.

One form is direct sequence spread spectrum (DS-CDMA), used for example in 3G cell phone
systems. Each information bit (or each symbol) is represented by a long code sequence of several
pulses, called chips. The sequence is the spreading code, and each message signal (for example
each phone call) use different spreading code.

Another form is frequency-hopping (FH-CDMA), where the channel frequency is changing very
rapidly according to a sequence that constitutes the spreading code. As an example, the Bluetooth
communication system is based on a combination of frequency-hopping and either CSMA/CA
statistical time division multiplexing communication (for data communication applications) or
TDMA (for audio transmission). All nodes belonging to the same user (to the same virtual
private area network or piconet) use the same frequency hopping sequency synchronously,
meaning that they send on the same frequency channel, but CDMA/CA or TDMA is used to
avoid collisions within the VPAN. Frequency-hopping is used to reduce the cross-talk and
collision probability between nodes in different VPAN:s.
As a subdivision of FH-CDMA is : "fast hopping" where frequency of hopping is very high than
message frequency content and "slow hopping" where hopping frequency is comparable to
message frequency content. The subdivision is necessary as they are considerably different.

Space division multiple access (SDMA)

Space-division multiple access (SDMA) transmits different information in different physical

areas. Examples include simple cellular radio systems and more advanced cellular systems which
use directional antennas and power modulation to refine spatial transmission patterns.

Power division multiple access (PDMA)

Power-division multiple access (PDMA) scheme is based on using variable transmission power
between users in order to share the available power on the channel. Example includes multiple
SCPC modems on a satellite transponder, where users get on demand a larger share of the power
budget to transmit at higher data rates.

(ii) Briefly explain the process of channel assignment in cellular networks.

In radio resource management for wireless and cellular networks, channel allocation schemes
allocate bandwidth and communication channels to base stations, access points and terminal
equipment. The objective is to achieve maximum system spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz/site by
means of frequency reuse, but still assure a certain grade of service by avoiding co-channel
interference and adjacent channel interference among nearby cells or networks that share the
bandwidth.

Channel-allocation schemes follow one of two types of strategy:[1]

1. Fixed: FCA, fixed channel allocation: manually assigned by the network operator
2. Dynamic:
1. DCA, dynamic channel allocation
2. DFS, dynamic frequency selection
3. Spread spectrum

FCA

In Fixed Channel Allocation or Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA) each cell is given a
predetermined set of frequency channels. FCA requires manual frequency planning, which is an
arduous task in TDMA and FDMA based systems, since such systems are highly sensitive to co-
channel interference from nearby cells that are reusing the same channel. Another drawback with
TDMA and FDMA systems with FCA is that the number of channels in the cell remains constant
irrespective of the number of customers in that cell. This results in traffic congestion and some
calls being lost when traffic gets heavy in some cells, and idle capacity in other cells.
If FCA is combined with conventional FDMA and perhaps or TDMA, a fixed number of voice
channels can be transferred over the cell. A new call can only be connected by an unused
channel. If all the channel are occupied than the new call is blocked in this system. There are
however several dynamic radio-resource management schemes that can be combined with FCA.
A simple form is traffic-adaptive handover threshold, implying that calls from cell phones
situated in the overlap between two adjacent cells can be forced to make handover to the cell
with lowest load for the moment. If FCA is combined with spread spectrum, the maximum
number of channels is not fixed in theory, but in practice a maximum limit is applied, since too
many calls would cause too high co-channel interference level, causing the quality to be
problematic. Spread spectrum allows cell breathing to be applied, by allowing an overloaded cell
to borrow capacity (maximum number of simultaneous calls in the cell) from a nearby cell that is
sharing the same frequency.

FCA can be extended into a DCA system by using a borrowing strategy in which a cell can
borrow channels from neighboring cell which is supervised by Mobile Switching Center (MSC).

DFS

Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) may be applied in wireless networks with several adjacent
non-centrally controlled access points. The access points automatically select frequency channels
with low interference levels. DFS is supported by the IEEE 802.11h wireless local area network
standard. DFS is also mandated in the 5470-5725 MHz U-NII band for radar avoidance.[2]

DCA

A more efficient way of channel allocation would be Dynamic Channel Allocation or Dynamic
Channel Assignment (DCA) in which voice channel are not allocated to cell permanently,
instead for every call request base station request channel from MSC. The channel is allocated
following an algorithm which accounts the following criteria:

Future blocking probability in neighboring cells and Reuse distance

Usage frequency of the candidate channel
Average blocking probability of the overall system
Instantaneous channel occupancy distribution

It requires the MSC to collect real time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribution and
Received Signal Strength Indications (RSSI). DCA schemes are suggested for TDMA/FDMA
based cellular systems such as GSM, but are currently not used in any products.[citation needed]
OFDMA systems, such as the downlink of 4G cellular systems, can be considered as carrying
out DCA for each individual sub-carrier as well as each timeslot.

DCA can be further classified into centralized and distributed. Some of the centralized DCA
schemes are:

First available (FA): the first available channel satisfying reuse distance requirement is
assigned to the call
 Locally optimized dynamic assignment (LODA): cost function is based on the future
blocking probability in the neighboring cells
Selection with maximum usage on the reuse ring (RING): a candidate channel is selected
which is in use in the most cells in the co-channel set

DCA and DFS eliminate the tedious manual frequency planning work. DCA also handles bursty
cell traffic and utilizes the cellular radio resources more efficiently. DCA allows the number of
channels in a cell to vary with the traffic load, hence increasing channel capacity with little costs.

Spread spectrum

Spread spectrum can be considered as an alternative to complex DCA algorithms. Spread

spectrum avoids cochannel interference between adjacent cells, since the probability that users in
nearby cells use the same spreading code is insignificant. Thus the frequency channel allocation
problem is relaxed in cellular networks based on a combination of spread spectrum and FDMA,
for example IS95 and 3G systems. Spread spectrum also facilitate that centrally controlled base
stations dynamically borrow resources from each other depending on the traffic load, simply by
increasing the maximum allowed number of simultaneous users in one cell (the maximum
allowed interference level from the users in the cell), and decreasing it in an adjacent cell. Users
in the overlap between the base station coverage area can be transferred between the cells (called
cell-breathing), or the traffic can be regulated by admission control and traffic-shaping.

However, spread spectrum gives lower spectral efficiency than non-spread spectrum techniques,
if the channel allocation in the latter case is optimized by a good DCA scheme. Especially
OFDM modulation is an interesting alternative to spread spectrum because of its ability to
combat multipath propagation for wideband channels without complex equalization. OFDM can
be extended with OFDMA for uplink multiple access among users in the same cell. For
avoidance of inter-cell interference, FDMA with DCA or DFS is once again of interest. One
example of this concept is the above mentioned IEEE 802.11h standard. OFDM and OFDMA
with DCA is often studied as an alternative for 4G wireless systems.