Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
OBJECTIVES PG 1
5.0 CONCLUSION PG 31
OBJECTIVES
Traversing is the process of measuring the length and direction (bearing) of the sides of a traverse. A
traverse is a series of successive straight lines that are connected. The angles are measured by using a
surveying instrument with a rotating telescope for measuring horizontal and vertical angles called the
theodolite. Stations are set out to define a series of traverse lines or legs, the plan lights of which can be
measured as can the angles between pairs of lines at each station. There are three types of traverse
(Figure 1.0.1):
(1) Closed loop traverse, where the legs form a closed polygon.
(2) Closed tied ( or connecting or link) traverse, where the traverse runs between two stations
of known position
(3) Open traverse, where the lines, although starting from a known position, do not finish at
one.
Figure
1.0.1
Types of
traverse
Source:
John
Muskett
(1995).
Site
An open traverse (Figure 1.1.1) consist of known points plotted in any corresponding linear direction, but
do not return to the starting point or close upon a point of equal or greater order accuracy. (For example:
the line center survey of a highway, railroad, etc). This lack of geometric closure means that there is no
geometric verification possible with respect to the actual positioning of the traverse stations. In route
surveys, open traverse station positioning can be verified by computation from available tied-in field
markers as shown on property plans, or through the use of global positioning system (GPS) receivers.
1.2 CLOSED TRAVERSE
Figure
1.2.1
The location where the traverse begins is known as a closed traverse (Figure 1.2.1). For the traverse to
end, the initial traverse point has to be observed. The surveyed reading that was taken backwards to the
formerly observed location is horizontal and angular with the closed traverse or is an observed existing
point. When depicted graphically, the closed traverse looks like what is called a shape in geometry, with
the shape having no opening.
Figure
1.2.2
Closed
Connecting
traverse
SOURCE:
http://surveying.structural-analyser.com/chapter07/
Connecting traverse looks like an open traverse, except that it begins and ends are points (or lines) of
known position (and direction) at each end of the traverse (Figure 1.2.2).
1.3 NORTHING
There are three reference directions or datum meridians that are used as traverse references:
Magnetic North
Magnetic North is the direction indicated by a magnetic compass. Magnetic North moves slowly
with a variable rate. It fluctuate over time, this meridian is time dependent. A compass needle
points to the magnetic north pole.
Grid North
Grid North is the direction of a grid line which is parallel to the central meridian on the National
Grid.
True North
The earth rotates on the geographic north and south poles. True North is the direction of a
meridian of longitude which converges on the North Pole. The south and North Pole are directly
opposite to one another.
Figure 1.3.1 Grid North, True North and Magnetic North
Sources: http://www.drillingformulas.com/magnetic-declination-and-grid-convergent-and-their-applications-in-directional-
drilling/
1.4 AZIMUTHS
The azimuth of a line is the clockwise horizontal angle between the line and a given direction or meridian.
Azimuths are reference from North. South is sometimes used as a reference for geodetic surveys that cover
vast areas. An azimuth angle would have a positive value between 0 and 360o.
1.5 BEARINGS
Bearings are based on a directional compass. The four main directions of a compass are known
as cardinal points. They are North (N), East (E), South (S) and West (W). Sometimes, the half-
cardinal points of North-East (NE), North-West (NW), South-East (SE) and South-West (SW) are
shown on the compass. The bearing of a point is the number of degrees in the angle measured in
a clockwise direction from the north line to the line joining the centre of the compass with the point.
A bearing is used to represent the direction of one point relative to another point.
o Requires the direction of at least one line within the traverse to be known or assumed
o For many purposes, an assumed direction is sufficient
o A magnetic bearing of one of the lines may be measured and used as the reference for
determining the other directions
o For boundary surveys, true directions are needed
o The latitude of a line is its projection on the north-south meridian and is equal to the length
of the line times the cosine of its bearing.
o The departure of a line is its projection on the east-west meridian and is equal to the
length of the lie times the sine of its bearing.
o The latitude is the y component of the line and the departure is the x component of the
line.
Accuracy= 1: (P/Ec)
Recommended Network Principal stations Principal stations Seldom less Seldom less
spacing of principal stations 10 to seldom less than seldom less than than 0.1km in than 0.1km in
stations. 15km other 4km, except in km, except in tertiary surveys tertiary surveys
surveys seldom metropolitan area metropolitan area in metropolitan in metropolitan
less than 3km. surveys, where the surveys where the area surveys; as area surveys; as
limitation is limitation is required for required for
0.3km. 0.2km. other surveys. other surveys.
Source: https://engineering.purdue.edu/~asm215/topics/travcalc.html
o Rectangular X and Y coordinates of any point give its position with respect to a reference
coordinate system
o Useful for determining length and direction of lines, calculating areas, and locating points
o You need one starting point on a traverse (which may be arbitrarily defined) to calculate
the coordinates of all other points
o A large initial coordinate is often chosen to avoid negative values, making calculations
easier.
Given that X and Y coordinates of any starting point A, the X and Y coordinates of the next point B are
determined by:
Source: http://www.johnsonlevel.com/News/TheodolitesAllAboutTheodo
2.1 THEODOLITE
A theodolite is a precision instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes.
Theodolites are used mainly for surveying applications, and have been adapted for specialized
purposes in fields like metrology and rocket launch technology. A modern theodolite consists of a
movable telescope mounted within two perpendicular axes the horizontal or trunnion axis, and the
vertical axis. When the telescope is pointed at a target object, the angle of each of these axes
can be measured with great precision. Like other leveling instruments, a theodolite consists of a
telescope mounted on a base. The telescope has a sight on the top of it that is used to align the
target. The instrument has a focusing knob that is used to make the object clear. The telescope
contains an eyepiece that the user looks through to find the target being sighted. An objective lens
is also located on the telescope, but is on the opposite end as the eyepiece. The objective lens is
used to sight the object, and with the help of the mirrors inside the telescope, allows the object to
be magnified. The theodolite's base is threaded for easy mounting on a tripod.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
-Face left: The theodolite position in which the vertical circle is on the viewers left while he looks
into the telescope.
-Face right: The theodolite position in which the vertical circle is on the viewers right while he
looks into the telescope.
-Horizontal circle: The graduated circle in the horizontal plane that the theodolite reads out to
measure horizontal angles.
-Horizontal clamp: Thumbscrew that can be used to _x the angle of the theodolite with respect to
the vertical axis.
-Vertical axis: When the horizontal clamp is tight, the instrument can be translated horizontally
with the slow-motion screw.
-Line of collimation: The line of sight through the centre of the telescope crosshairs.
-Optical plummet: Small telescope whose eyepiece is near the bottom of the theodolite that looks
at the directly beneath the theodolite and is used for centring.
-Round of angles: A complete set of angle measurements performed _rst in the face-left, then in
the face-right position.
-Slow-motion screw: The adjustment screw used to translate the theodolite in the horizontal or
vertical plane when the horizontal or vertical clamp is tightened.
-Vertical axis: The axis about which the horizontal circle pivots.
-Vertical circle: The graduated circle in the vertical plane that the theodolite reads out to measure
vertical angles.
FUNCTION OF THEODOLITE COMPONENTS
Components of theodolite and its function shown below (Figure 2.1.1 & Figure 2.1.2):
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/shantynurul/describing-object-theodolite
1) Targeting Sight is used to take aim hard object. Position targeting sight at the top binoculars
of theodolite and this part made of plastic.
2) Objective lens is used for viewing the object. Position of this part in front of binoculars of
theodolite.
3) Place battery.
4) Vertical angle adjustment buttons are used to reset the vertical angle.
5) Adjustment buttons angle 0 horizontal is used to reset the horizontal angle.
6) Smooth horizontal screw driver used to drive a subtle tool to horizontal.
7) Horizontal angle locking screw is used to lock the horizontal movement of equipment.
8) Nivo setter screw use to adjust device balance position.
9) Power switch ON/OFF is used to turn on or turn off the appliance.
10) Display window is used to show vertical and horizontal corner perusal digitally.
Figure 2.1.2 Components of Theodolite
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/shantynurul/describing-object-theodolite
11) Sight adjusting screw is used to adjust the point of sight that shot right direction.
12) Point adjusting screw lens view finder is used to adjust the clarity of the lens.
13) Tuners lens view finder is used to adjust the clarity of the lens.
14) Vertical angle locking screw used to lock the vertical movement apparatus.
15) Smooth vertical screw driver used to drive tools subtly in the vertical direction.
16) Nivo tube used to determine the erectness of tool.
DIGITAL LCD MONITOR (Figure 2.1.3)
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/Ehabtariq/surveying-by-using-digital-theodolite
A tripod is made up of three legs, each with metal points called shoes; and a head which the
theodolite or other leveling device attached.
Source: http://www.johnsonlevel.com/News/WhatisaTripodHowdoTripods
HEAD
The head of the tripod is attached to the legs and allows a steady surface to connect leveling
devices. The tool you are using will dictate the type of tripod head needed. For most theodolite
applications, a dome head (Figure 2.2.1) is used. There are three different kinds of heads which
includes flat head, dome head and threaded base.
POINTS
Each tripod, whether fixed or adjustable, has metal points (Figure 2.2.1) on the end of the legs
for added stability and can help provide a stable environment for the leveling tools on top of the
tripod. When working outdoors, points on the bottom of the tripod are essential, but when
working indoors, metal points can slide or scratch floors. Some tripods can be purchased with
rubber attachments which prevents either of these from happening.
LEGS
The most common materials for tripod legs are steel, aluminium, fibreglass and wood. Among all
the materials the most durable and yet heaviest is steel; however, the lightweight and sturdy is
aluminium. Wood and fibreglass legs are the most accurate materials used in making tripod legs
because of their lack of sensitivity to changes in temperature.
2.3 OPTICAL PLUMMET
An optimal plummet is an attachment plate used to attach a surveying instrument, for example a
theodolite, total station, GNSS antenna or target to a tripod. Optical plummet also can know as
tribrach (Figure 2.3.1). Optical instrument are used for surveying purposes and are supported on,
and attached to, the upper end of a tripod by means of a tribrach device. The tribrach used a
simple screw fixing to the tripod plate; its relatively easy to replace and the plate can be
modified to fit other mountings such as scaffold tube, railway lines and more. Its small and light
and makes cheap tripods work harder. A good tribrach will get precise results from a poor tripod
but not the other way around. Tribrachs are equipped with a bulls eye bubble for leveling and
optical plummets for setting up precisely on a survey mark.
The ability to leapfrog back sight, instrument point and foresight by using interchangeable
tribraches increases the speed, efficiency and accuracy of the traverse survey. Whenever
possible, the tribrach should be detached from the instruments and placed on the tripods for
either theodolite or EDM setups.
This procedure speeds up the setting up process and protects the instrument from accidents. In
some cases, the same tribrach can be used to perform angular or distance measurement, as well
as GPS observations from the same survey point.
A spirit level, bubble level or simply a level is an instrument designed to indicate whether a surface
is horizontal (level) or vertical (plumb).(Figure 2.5.1) Different types of spirit levels may be used
by carpenters, stonemasons, bricklayers, other building trades workers, surveyors, millwrights and other
metalworkers, and in some photographic or video graphic work.
To centre the bubble in a tubular vial with a three-screw levelling head. This is usually necessary only in a jig transit
or a theodolite. If desired, turn the instrument so that the vial is parallel to the line joining two levelling screws. (Figure
2.5.2) Turn these screws simultaneously in opposite directions by equal amounts until the bubble is centered.
Turn the instrument until the vial is at right angles to its original position, i.e., at right angles to the line of the two
levelling screws just used. Centre the bubble, using the third screw only. Turn the instrument back to its original position
and check the position of the bubble. If it does not centre, repeat the procedure. Never touch the levelling screws
after the first sight has been taken.
Source: https://www.hofstragroup.com/article/how-use-three-screw-leveling-head-transits-theodolites-levels/
Plumb-bobs come in many different shapes and can be highly decorative items. Some collectors
of these fundamental tools estimate there to be over 10,000 different shapes of plumb-bob.
There are many different shapes of plumb-bob and most of them work just as well as others,
though some may be suited better to certain tasks depending on their individual shape.
However, the material they are made from, their symmetry and how balanced they are perhaps
more important than their shape.
For precision marking, it is advised to choose a plumb-bob with a fine tip such as the "carrot",
"cone" or "pencil".(Figure 2.6.2) These would be ideal for jobs where you need to accurately
transfer points from one place to another.
1. The theodolite will be placed on a particular point as a starting point. The angles that we
get from the theodolite should be read from left to right in order to obtain a more
accurate reading.
2. For theodolite to provide acceptable results, the axes must bear the correct relationships
to each other, the bubbles must be correctly set, the optical plummet must give reliable
centering, vertical indexing must be satisfactory and there should be no eccentricity of the
circles.
3. The vertical axis should be truly vertical when the plate bubble is central.
4. Angles should be observed more than once so that inconsistent values can be identified
and rejected.
5. A mean of several consistent values can be taken, giving more reliable measure than a
single one.
6. The total angles must be 360.
7. Using the correct formula such as trigonometry traversing calculation technique to solve the
misclosure error; however using the compass rule to calculate the latitude and departure.
3.0 FIELD DATA
HEIGHT
THEODOLITE STATION TOP BOTTOM VERTICAL HORI-ZONTAL
OF
STATION SIGHTED STADIA STADIA ANGLE ANGLE
THEODOLITE
A B 218.9 181.1 884340
1ST 703240
A D 210.7 189.3 875820
126.00
A B 218.9 181.0 2725640
2ND 703540
A D 210.7 189.4 2720220
B C 211.0 189.0 883340
1ST 1025540
B A 218.9 181.3 884250
120.50
B C 211.0 189.0 2712700
2ND 1025540
B A 218.9 181.1 2711750'
C B 211.0 188.9 873300
1ST 744040
C D 217.8 182.2 883740
131.30
C B 211.1 188.9 2722900
2ND 743920
C D 217.6 182.0 2712300
D C 217.8 182.2 890100
1ST 1114630
D A 210.6 189.4 875320
121.20
D C 217.9 182.1 2705920
2ND 1114410
D A 210.5 189.3 2720720
A 703410
B 1025540
C 744000
D 1114520
SUM 3595510
744112.5- 6737.5
C N 6737.5 W
180 - 10 - 1025652.5
= 6737.5
= 7385 744112.5
S 7385 W
B
1025652.5
1114632.5
D N 10 E
S 603522.5 E 703522.5
3.4.1 LENGTH
A
ACCURACY =1 : ( P / Ec )
= 1 : 116.644 / 0.019
= 1 : 6139
For average land surveying an accuracy of about 1 : 3000 is typical hence the
accuracy of 1 : 6139 is acceptable.
3.6 ADJUST COURSE LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE
N coordinate E coordinate
STATION REMARKS
Latitude Departure
A 100.000 118.505 lat. check
37.146 6.542 (Course lat. And dep.)
B 137.146 125.047
8.599 -20.307
C 145.745 104.740
-35.313 -4.740
D 110.432 100.000 dep. check
-10.432 18.505
A 100.000 118.505
N2 = N1 + Lat1-2
E2 = E1 + Dep1-2
Where
N2and E2 = the Y and X coordinates of station 2
N1 and E1 = the Y and X coordinates of station 1
Lat1-2 = the latitude of course 1-2
Dep1-2 = the departure of course 1-2
THE ADJUSTED LOOP TRAVERSE PLOTTED BY COORDINATES
200
150
N 145.745
E 104.740 C
N 137.146
B E 125.047
Y axis (north, N)
D
N 110.432
E 100.000 A
100
N 100.000
E 118.505
50
50 100 150
X axis (east, E)
3.8 AREA OF TRAVERSE
= x (56044.12 54530.61)
= x 1513.51
= 756.755 m
4.0 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
There are a few factors that we have learned that could have affected the leveling work and
there are also steps that could have been avoid and taken to get a more accurate reading. The
recommendations are:
1. The theodolite will be placed on a particular point as a starting point. The angles that we
get from the theodolite should be read from left to right in order to obtain a more
accurate reading.
2. For theodolite to provide acceptable results, the axes must bear the correct relationships
to each other, the bubbles must be correctly set, the optical plummet must give reliable
centering, vertical indexing must be satisfactory and there should be no eccentricity of the
circles.
3. The vertical axis should be truly vertical when the plate bubble is central.
4. Angles should be observed more than once so that inconsistent values can be identified
and rejected.
5. A mean of several consistent values can be taken, giving more reliable measure than a
single one.
6. The total angles must be 360.
7. Using the correct formula such as trigonometry traversing calculation technique to solve the
misclosure error; however using the compass rule to calculate the latitude and departure.
5.0 CONCLUSION
Surveying is the practice of taking measurement of features on and occasionally above or below,
the earths surface to determine their relative positions. The practice may be more precisely
described as land surveying to distinguish it from quantity surveying, building surveying and other
forms of surveying. In this fieldwork, we are able to practice and carry out the closed loop
traverse survey that is located at the Taylors University Block E car park. Closed loop traverse is
a loop traverse starts and ends at the same point, forming a closed geometric figure called a
polygon which is the boundary lines of a tract land. Before start to conduct this fieldwork, we
roughly marked four points of stations which are stations A, B, C and D in a piece of paper so we
can easy to understand. All stations must be stated on the site to form a loop traverse.
For our first attempt, we failed to get an accuracy of at least 1:3000. This is due to the reason of
we forgot to adjust the theodolite plate bubble in a correct position which will affect our collected
readings. Other than that, we also didnt able to take the height of instrument. Therefore, we
actually did a lot of mistake at the first attempt fieldwork. So we decided to redo the survey for
getting more accurate readings to complete our fieldwork report.
For our second attempt, we are able to obtain the most accurate readings. During the survey, we
will take turns to do different tasks such as collect readings or takes leveling rod at particular
point. The horizontal reading we taken in twice so that we able to obtain the average reading
which is more accurate. Besides, we also did recorded the top stadia, middle stadia and bottom
stadia readings to calculate the length of the perimeter of the traverse since we are not using the
measuring tape or other instruments. This method is called stadia method. Other than that, we are
using the correct formula to solve all the error or mistake for our readings.
Overall, this fieldwork has taught us a lot of hand-on knowledge about the surveying. The
principle to be adopted in surveying is that of working form the whole to the part. Work should
commence with a control survey to establish the positions of plan control stations and the levels of
temporary benchmarks throughout the site. Measurements taken should be of adequate precision;
the whole to part method will reduce the likelihood of errors accumulating.
Lastly, our thanks also go to our lecturer, Mr. Chai Voon Chiet for giving us an opportunity to
learn and carry out the survey. Besides, he also provides sufficient guidelines to ensure us able to
conduct and obtain the accurate readings throughout the whole fieldwork.