Acidic Environment

Common Substances:

Acidic Neutral Basic

Vinegar (Acetic Acid) Water Baking Soda (NaHCO3)
Lemon Juice (Citric Acid) Salt (NaCl) Washing Powder (NaCO3)
Soft Drink (Carbonic Acid) Sugar (Glucose) Antacid

An Indicator is a compound that changes colour as [H+] changes.

Indicator Low Mid High Range

Litmus Red Purple Blue 5.0 - 8.0
Bromothymol Blue Yellow Green Blue 6.0 - 7.6
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Crimson 8.3 - 10.0
Methyl Orange Red Orange Yellow 3.1 - 4.4

Everyday Uses of Indicators include:

- Testing the pH of soils as some plants grow best in slightly acidic environments and others in
slightly basic ones. Fertilisers can neutralise basic soils and CaCO3 for acidic. Neutral BaSO4
(white background) is added to wet soil sample with a universal indicator to test pH.
- Testing pH of swimming pools as if the pH is not acidic enough, bacteria wont be killed and
if its too acidic it will be irritating to the eyes and other sensitive body parts. Sodium
hypochlorite (NaOCl) can be added to kill microbes and be tested with a universal indicator.

Acidic Oxides oxidise with non-metals on the right side of the PT. They react with bases to form salts
or react with water to form acids:
- () + 2 () 2 3()
- () + 2 () 2 3()
- () + 2() 2() + 3() + 2 ()

Basic Oxides oxidise with metals on the left side of the PT. They react with acids to form salts or
react with water to form bases:
- () + 2 () 2()
- () + () () + 2 ()

Amphoteric Oxides oxidises with metals before the metalloids. They react with acids and bases:
- () + 6() 23() + 32 ()
- () + 2() 22() + 2 ()

Neutral Oxides dont react with acids or bases:

- ()
- ()
Equilibrium is a closed system where the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of reverse
reaction.

Le Chateliers Principle states that When an equilibrium system experiences a change, it will shift to
counteract the change. The factors that can affect an equilibrium are:
Concentration is only not effected by solids:
If the concentration of X is increased, in accordance with LCP the equilibrium system will shift to
counteract the change and favour the reaction that decreases the concentration of X.
Temperature will favour endothermic or exothermic reaction:
If the temperature is increased, in accordance with LCP the equilibrium system will shift to
counteract the change and favour the endothermic reaction.
Pressure is for partial pressures of reactants and vessel volume. Noble gases wont effect it:
If the pressure is increased, in accordance with LCP the equilibrium system will shift to counteract
the change and favour the reaction that produces less gaseous moles.

The Carbon Dioxide Water equilibrium is:

2() 2()
2() + 2 () 2 3() < 0
+
2 3() 3 () + ()
+
3 () 32 () + ()

The conditions that will affect this equilibrium are:

Concentration:
If CO2 or H2O is added the equilibrium will shift right. Adding carbonates or acid will shift to the left.
Adding base will shift right.
Temperature:
An increase in temperature will shift equilibrium to the left.
Pressure:
If reaction vessel is decreased or CO2 is increased the equilibrium will shift right.

Decarbonation Practical Errors:

- Drink may have evaporated. On the same hot plate set a beaker with equal volume of water
and after heating subtract weight loss of the control.
- During heating soda could spit. Using a hot plate rather than a Bunsen burner and stir to
promote even heating.

Sulfur Dioxide is a colourless gas that causes serious health problems adversely affecting the
respiratory system.
Natural sources are:
- Volcanoes
- Geysers
- Bushfires
- Biological decay
Industrial sources are:
- Impurities in fossil fuels when they are combusted
 - Smelting of ores
2() + 32() 2() + 2()

Nitrogen Oxides are critical components of photochemical smog and haze.

Natural sources are:
- Lightning strikes where the high temperature in the vicinity of bolt causes
2() + 2() 2()
2() + 2() 22()
Industrial sources are:
- Fossil fuel combustions which create the heat necessary for the above reaction
- Power plants

The concentrations of these oxides have been shown to be increasing in industrialised areas and
cities, primarily due to the combustion of fossil fuels and smelting of metal ores. This has been
evidenced through measuring air quality which is much worse when compared to other areas,
though these equipment has only been available for 50 years. There are also indirect evidence in the
form of photochemical smog and acid rain which reduces pH of water systems, damages
infrastructure and the natural environment. Thus there is valid reason for concern about their
release into the environment due to the direct and indirect evidence of their increasing
concentrations and the damage they pose.

Acid Rain refers the deposition of acidic components in rain, snow or fog which has a pH less than or
equal to 5. It can form with sulfur and nitrous oxides.
2() + 2 () 2 3()
22() + 2() 23()
3() + 2 () 2 4()
22() + 2 () 2() + 3()
Effects:
Natural
- Acid rain that seeps into soil can dissolve nutrients such as magnesium and calcium
(essential for plant growth) and leach them from the soil.
- Causes aluminium to be released into soil (makes it difficult for plants to absorb water)
- In high altitudes acidic fogs strip away the cuticle on leaves of plants, leaving them exposed
to bacterial infections, insects and the cold.
Marine
- Reduces pH of waterways and will kill aquatic life as they only survive in narrow pH ranges.
- Can wash nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates in which heavily accelerate algal
blooms. This causes drastic decrease in DO and makes the water toxic eventually.
Built
- Steel gradually erodes with acid
- Corrodes metal structures decreasing structural integrity and safety
- Erodes materials such as statues with carbonates, particularly calcium carbonate

3() + 2 4() 4() + 2() + 2 ()

History of Acids
 Antoine Lavoisier
Definition of an acidity was that it was caused by the presence of oxygen in a compound. He knew
that when dissolved in water, phosphorus and sulfur oxides created acidic solutions. Exceptions to
his definition are HCl and HF.
Humphry Davy
Davy continued Lavoisiers work only to disprove it. Though Lavoisier believed oxygen was present in
HCl, Davy performed many experiments but never found any oxygen compounds. He put forward his
own theory that all acids contained hydrogen that could be replaced with a metal and that bases
were substances that reacted with acids to form a metal salt and water. Examples are HCl and H2SO4
and exceptions where CO2 and SO2.
Svante Arrhenius
Arrhenius defined acids as neutral compounds that when ionised in solution produce H+. A base was
a substance that when ionised in water produce OH-. Also looked at strengths of acids, in that more
conductive it was the stronger it was. Examples are HCl, NaOH and H2SO4 and exceptions are NH4,
SO2, CO2 and CaO.
Bronsted-Lowry
Acids are defined as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors. For example acids donate a
proton in water forming a hydronium ion and bases accept a proton forming a hydroxide ion. It takes
into account that not all bases needed to have a hydroxide ion, as long as it could accept a proton.

Amphiprotic substances can donate and accept protons, e.g H2O

pH Calculations
= 10 [+ ]
+ = 14
[ + ][ ] = 1014

Citric acid or 2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid is a triprotic acid and is stronger than acetic.

pH scale is a quantitative logarithmic scale used to express the hydrogen ion concentration of a
solution. A pH lower than 7 is acidic, greater than 7 is basic and a difference of 1 pH results in a
tenfold change in [H+].

Determining pH
Indicator
Indicators provide a quick, cheap method of estimating pH but do not provide very accurate results
and at best only provides a range in which the pH lies. They are also considered a destructive form of
testing as their use will contaminate the solution which they are testing.
pH Meter
A pH meter is a voltmeter connected to the pH electrode which measures the conductivity of the
solution. This is proportional to the [H+] and this data is converted into a measurement of pH. Before
use it must be standardised:
1. Electrodes should be rinsed with distilled water
2. Dry
3. Place electrodes into standardised solution of known pH so they do not strike the bottom of
the beaker.
Measuring:
1. Remove electrodes from standardised solution.
 2. Rinse with distilled water
3. Dry
4. Place in unknown solution and read pH.
For consecutive uses the pH meter should be rinsed and dried between measurements. It should
also be periodically standardised to ensure calibration has not drifted.

Concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute for a given volume of solution
Dilute solution contains a small amount of solute for a given volume of solution.
Strength of an acid is the degree to which an acid dissociates in solution. An acid that undergoes
complete ionisation is considered a strong acid while in a weak acid only a portion of it is ionised.

Microbial spoilage of food causes losses of up to 40% of food for human consumption worldwide
and additives are added to maintain freshness and prevent it from spoiling or oxidising.
- Acetic acid is used a food preservative since ancient times
- Citric acid is used in preservation of fruit juices, cheese and salad dressing
- Phosphoric acid is used as a preserving agent in baked goods, cured meat and cereal
- Ascorbic acid improves nutritional value by adding vitamins.

Naturally occurring acids:

- Citric acid in citrus fruits
- Methanoic acid in bee stingers
- Hydrochloric acid in stomach
Naturally occurring bases:
- Metal oxides Fe2O3 in ores
- NH3 produced by the decomposition of plant and animal matter

When an acid donates a proton or base accepts a proton, they form a conjugate base or acid, whose
strength is inversely proportional to the original acid.
+
2 3() + 2 () 3() + 3 ()

HCO3- is the conjugate base of H2CO3 and is strong where H2CO3 is weak.

The ions that consist a salt can be acidic, neutral or neutral. Strong acids and bases form a weak
conjugate pair that reacts very weakly with water, while weak acids and bases form a strong
conjugate pair that reacts strongly with water. Thus salt produced between an acid and base will
either be acidic or basic depending on the strength of the conjugate pairs.

A Buffer is a solution containing a weak acid and its conjugate base that can resist small changes in
pH. For example the normal pH of blood is 7.4 and can be fatal if pH rises or falls too much as many
chemical reactions in the body such as those involving protein are pH dependant. An important
buffer is the bicarbonate buffer.
+
() + 3() 2 3()
If H is increased by LCP the equilibrium shifts right, reducing acidity. If OH- are added, they are
+

removed by neutralisation with the H+. This decreased H+ and the equilibrium shifts left.
An acid-base titration is the quantitative analysis of the concentration of an unknown acid or base
solution using the neutralisation reaction that occurs between them.
- Equivalence Point is the point at which stoichiometrically equivalent moles of the acid and
base have combined to completely neutralise each other, leaving behind the salt.
- End Point is the experimentally determined equivalence point and is when the indicator
changes colour in solution.
- Standard or Titrant is the solution with known concentration. It should be in available in a
soluble solid form, extremely pure and stable, high molecular weight to reduce weighing
errors and anhydrous so its concentration does not change in contact with air.
Preparing standard is as follows:
1. Weigh a dry sample of solid anhydrous Na2CO3 and place in dry beaker.
2. Dissolved in small volume of water.
3. Rinse volumetric flask and funnel thrice with distilled water.
4. Transfer solution to volumetric flask with funnel.
5. Fill volumetric flask up to etched mark.
6. Place stopper and invert several times to ensure solution is homogenously mixed.
Conducting titration is as follows:
1. Clean conical flask, pipette and burette with water, then pipette and burette with respective
solutions.
2. Transfer accurately measured volume of standard to conical using pipette.
3. Add 5 drops of suitable indicator.
4. Add unknown solution to burette.
5. Swirl the flask with one hand and slowly run the solution from the burette into the flask until
a permanent colour change is observed.
6. Repeat for reliability.

Alkanols are alkanes with hydroxyl groups. They are polar molecules and interact via dispersion
forces and 1 hydrogen bond per molecule.
Alkanoic Acids are alkanes with carboxyl groups. They are polar molecules and interact via dispersion
forces and 2 hydrogen bond per molecule.
Esters form through the reaction between an alkanoic acid and alkanol:
Alkanol + Alkanoic Acid Alkyl Alkanoate + Water

Esterification
- Concentrated sulfuric acid is used as a catalyst and dehydrating agent to push the
equilibrium to completion.
- Gas phase reaction to increase reaction rate by increasing particle collision rate.
- Heated with an indirect source of heat as the alkanols and esters are flammable.
- Heated under reflux to prevent the loss of any volatile reactants or products.
- Boiling chips promotes even heating.

1. Add 10mL of ethanol, 12 mL of ethanoic acid, 4mL of concentrated H2SO4 and several boiling
chips into a 100mL round bottom flask.
2. Attach a reflux condenser over the flask and boil the mixture for 45 minutes in a water bath.
3. Allow mixture to cool and transfer to separating funnel.
4. Add 50mL of 1M Na2CO3 and remove bottom layer (water and soluble salt).
5. Fractional distillation to purify remaining ester.
Safety:
- Reactants are flammable to no open flames.
- Fumes may be noxious to perform in well ventilated environment.
- Sulfuric acid is corrosive so keep running water at hand.

Many esters have pleasant odours and are found naturally in many fruits and flowers. They are often
manufactured to be used as flavourings or scents in perfumes, cosmetics and artificial food
flavouring. Fatty alcohols made from methyl esters are also used to produce lubricants and
detergents.
Ethyl Ethanoate smells like pear drops and is widely used as a solvent in nail polish removers and the
industry (low cost and low toxicity).