PHYS2: Motors and Generators

1. Motors use the effect of forces on current-carrying conductors in magnetic

fields

IDENTIFY THAT THE MOTOR EFFECT IS DUE TO THE FORCE ACTING ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A
MAGNETIC FIELD

Size of force on an electric charge moving
through a magnetic field: F = q v B
o q: size of the charge
o v: velocity of the charge
o B: magnetic field strength
Moving electric charges create magnetic fields which interact with the external magnetic field, causing a force
to be applied on the electric charges
A current-carrying loop in a magnetic field has electric charges moving through a magnetic field. Since all these
electric charges experience a force, the entire conductor will experience a force; this is the motor effect

DISCUSS THE EFFECT ON THE MAGNITUDE OF THE FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR OF VARIATIONS IN:
- THE STRENGTH OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD IN WHICH IT IS LOCATED
- THE MAGNITUDE OF THE CURRENT IN THE CONDUCTOR
- THE LENGTH OF THE CONDUCTOR IN THE EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELD
- THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE DIRECTION OF THE EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELD AND THE DIRECTION OF THE
LENGTH OF THE CONDUCTOR

Force is directly proportional to magnetic field strength B

o Because force on a charged particle in a magnetic field is proportional to magnetic field strength
Force is directly proportional to current in the conductor, I
o Because higher current means more moving charged particles per unit time, and each moving charged
particle experiences a force, therefore higher current increases force experienced by the current-
carrying conductor
Force is directly proportional to length of conductor in the field, L
o Because a longer conductor length has more moving charged particles which experience a force due to
the magnetic field
 Force is directly proportional to sine of angle between magnetic field and the conductor, or component of the
field that is at right angles to the conductor
o Force is maximum when conductor is at right angles to field because charged particles move along the
length of the conductor, and force on the charged particles is maximum when they are moving at right
angles to the magnetic field
o Force is zero when conductor is parallel to field
o =

SOLVE PROBLEMS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION ABOUT THE FORCE ON CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTORS IN
MAGNETIC FIELDS USING: F BIlsin

PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION TO DEMONSTRATE THE MOTOR EFFECT

DESCRIBE QUALITATIVELY AND QUANTITATIVELY THE FORCE BETWEEN LONG PARALLEL CURRENT-CARRYING
F II
CONDUCTORS: k 1 2
l d

Qualitatively
Each of two parallel current-carrying conductors will experience a force due
to the interaction of the magnetic fields that exist around each
If the two conductors carry currents in the same direction, then they will
experience a force towards each other (applying right-hand push rule to
force induced on one conductor by magnetic field of the other)
If the two conductors carry currents in opposite directions, then they will
experience forces away from each other.
o Like currents attract; unlike currents repel
The force is equal on both conductors, even if they carry different currents
Force per unit length is proportional to current in each conductor, and
inversely proportional to separation distance
Quantitatively
k = 2.0 x 10-7 N A-2
Since force F is a vector quantity, direction of force must be specified

F II
SOLVE PROBLEMS USING: k 1 2
l d

DEFINE TORQUE AS THE TURNING MOMENT OF A FORCE USING: Fd

Torque is the turning moment of a force. It is the product of the tangential component of the force and the
distance the force is applied from the axis of rotation.
Torque increases when force is applied at greater distance
Torque is greatest when the force is applied at right angles to a line joining the point of application of the force
and the pivot axis
Torque has SI unit newton metre (Nm)
If force is not perpendicular to the line joining point of force application and pivot point, then component of
force perpendicular to the line (sin ) is used instead.
DESCRIBE THE FORCES EXPERIENCED BY A CURRENT-CARRYING LOOP IN A MAGNETIC FIELD AND DESCRIBE THE NET
RESULT OF THE FORCES

Forces are applied to a current-carrying loop in a

magnetic field, which create torque, enabling the
loop to rotate.

Force acting on the sides of the coil that

are perpendicular to the magnetic field can
be calculated using: F nBILsin
o Coil has n turns of wire on it
o Force is proportional to # of turns
of wire
Each end of the coil will experience a force which varies from zero, when the plane of the coil is parallel to the
field, to a maximum when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field. The forces on the two ends can be
shown, by the right-hand palm rule, to be opposite in direction, always parallel to the axis, and alternating in
direction through a full rotation of the coil.
As the forces on the two ends are always opposite in direction, and always parallel to the axis, their net effect
is zero.

Each long side of a current-carrying loop in a magnetic field experiences a force up or down in accordance with
the right-hand push rule. If one side is experiencing a force up, the other will experience a force down
simultaneously
o The net result of these forces is that a torque is created, and the current-carrying loop rotates on its
axis
o The magnitude of force acting on long sides of the loop is constant since current in loop is constant,
magnetic field is near constant, and sides of coil are always perpendicular to magnetic field

However, torque is greatest when the plane of the loop is parallel to the magnetic field, i.e. force acting on
sides of the coil is perpendicular to line joining axle (pivot line) to point of application
Torque decreases as angle between plane of coil
and magnetic field increases
Torque is zero when plane of coil is perpendicular
to the magnetic field, i.e. force acting on sides of
the coil is parallel to the line joining axle to point
of application
o Momentum of coil keeps it rotating even
though torque is very small
o Using more coils prevents the occurrence
of a dead spot with no torque
After every half rotation, when plane of coil is
perpendicular to magnetic field, the commutator
switches direction of electric current, so that side
of coil that is on top experiences a force
downwards, and vice versa
o This keeps coil rotating. If no commutator
was present, the coil would oscillate about
the plane perpendicular to the magnetic
field, and eventually stop moving
DESCRIBE THE MAIN FEATURES OF A DC ELECTRIC MOTOR AND THE ROLE OF EACH FEATURE

Feature Description Role

Stator Non-rotating magnetic part of the motor
Permanent Two permanent magnets on opposite sides
Magnets of the motor, with opposite poles facing
each other. The pole faces are curved to fit
around the armature.
Electromagnets Each stator coil (or field coil) is wound on a
soft iron core attached to the casing of the
motor. The coils are shaped to fit around the
armature.
Provides the external magnetic field, either via
permanent magnets or electromagnets, to cause the
coils to rotate when current is passed through them
The magnets supply the magnetic field which interacts
with the current in the armature to produce the motor
effect.
Each opposed pair of stator coils produces a magnetic
field which interacts with the current in the armature to
produce the motor effect. The iron core concentrates
the field.
Rotor Rotating part of the motor; consists of
armature and coil
Armature Consists of a cylinder of laminated iron
mounted on an axle. Axle protrudes from
the casing, enabling movement of coil to be
used to do work
Rotor coil(s) One or several coils, usually several turns of
insulated wire, wound onto the armature.
Ends of the coils are connected to
commutator
Split-ring Consists of a broad ring of metal mounted
commutator on the axle at one end of the armature, and
cut into an even number of separate bars
(two in a simple motor) separated by
insulating material. Each opposite pair of
bars is connected to one coil.
Brushes Conducting contacts made of compressed
carbon connected to external circuit; spring-
loaded to contact split metal ring of
commutator as it turns
Axle A cylindrical bar of hardened steel passing
through the centre of the armature and the
commutator.
The armature carries the rotor coils. The iron core
greatly concentrates the external magnetic field,
increasing the torque on the armature. The laminations
reduce eddy currents which might otherwise overheat
the armature.
The coils provide torque, as the current passing through
the coils interacts with the magnetic field. As the coils
are mounted firmly on the rotor, any torque acting on
the coils is transferred to the rotor and thence to the
axle.
Makes electrical contact between the rotor coil, and the
external circuit via brushes. Mechanical switch for
reversing the direction of current flowing the coil every
half-turn so that coil continues rotating in same
direction
Connect commutator to the source of emf. Sliding
contact necessary to stop connecting wires from
becoming tangled
The axle provides a centre of rotation for the moving
parts of the motor. Axle protrudes from casing,
enabling movement of coil to be used to do work

IDENTIFY THAT THE REQUIRED MAGNETIC FIELDS IN DC MOTORS CAN BE PRODUCED EITHER BY CURRENT-CARRYING
COILS OR PERMANENT MAGNETS

Magnetic field of a DC motor can be provided either by permanent magnets or by electromagnets

Current that flows through the armature coil can be used in the electromagnetic coils wound around iron cores

SOLVE PROBLEMS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION ABOUT SIMPLE MOTORS USING: nBIAcos

A is area of coil
is angle between plane of coil and magnetic field

IDENTIFY DATA SOURCES, GATHER AND PROCESS INFORMATION TO QUALITATIVELY DESCRIBE THE APPLICATION OF
THE MOTOR EFFECT IN:
- THE GALVANOMETER
- THE LOUDSPEAKER

Galvanometer
o Galvanometer is a device used to measure magnitude/direction of small DC currents
o Coil consists of many loops of wire wrapped around an iron core, connected in series with circuit to be
tested. The iron core strengthens the magnetic field, and also provides electromagnetic damping so that
the pointer stops swinging quickly
o When current flows, coil experiences a force due to presence of external magnetic field
Iron core of coil increases magnitude of this force
 Radial magnets ensure that torque will be constant regardless of deflection, i.e. linear scale
o Needle is rotated until magnetic force acting on the coil is equalled by restoring torque of the spring,
indicating the magnitude of the current on a suitable scale

Loudspeaker
o Consists of circular magnet that has one pole on outside and other on inside
o Voice coil sits in space between the poles
o Amplifier provides a current that changes direction at same frequency as sound to be produced, and has
magnitude in proportion to amplitude of the sound
By motor effect, voice coil is caused to move in and out of the magnet
Voice coil is connected to speaker cone that creates sound waves in the air as it vibrates

2. The relative motion between a conductor and magnetic field is used to

generate an electrical voltage

OUTLINE MICHAEL FARADAYS DISCOVERY OF THE GENERATION OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT BY A MOVING MAGNET

Electromagnetic induction: the generation of an emf (and electric current if in a closed conducting circuit)
through the use of a magnetic field
Wood block: Faraday set out to detect current in a coil of wire by presence of magnetic field set up by another
coil
o Coiled copper wire around a block of wood, and a second length of copper wire was coiled around the
block in the spaces between the first coil
o Coils separated with twine; the primary coil was connected to a battery, the secondary to a
galvanometer
o When primary circuit was closed, Faraday observed a momentary deflection at the galvanometer,
indicating that a current was temporarily created in secondary circuit
o When current in primary circuit was stopped, deflection of galvanometer was in opposite direction
Iron ring: Wound primary coil to one side of a soft iron ring, and secondary coil to other side
 o When current was set up in primary coil, galvanometer needle responded to a degree far
beyond.without an iron core were used
Concluded that when magnetic field of primary coil was changing, a current was induced in
secondary coil
Moving magnet
o Showed that moving a magnet near a coil could generate an electric current in the coil
When a pole of a magnet is brought near one end of the coil, galvanometer needle momentarily
deflected. When pole of magnet is not moving, galvanometer needle is at central point. When
pole of magnet is removed from one end of the coil, galvanometer needle momentarily
deflected in opposite direction
o Magnitude of induced current depends on the speed at which magnet is moving

Rotating copper disc: (first continuous current-generating device)

o Faraday attached two wires to touch a rotating copper disc located between the poles of a horseshoe
magnet. This was the same as moving a magnetic field near an electric circuit. This induced a continuous
direct current.
Faraday's explanation was that the electric current was induced in
the moving disc as it cut a number of lines of magnetic flux
emanating from the magnet (the magnetic field).
Faradays conclusions:
1) To generate a current, there must be relative motion between a conductor and a
magnetic field, and the conductor must be a close conducting circuit.
2) Electric current is induced because the conductor cuts the number of lines of
magnetic flux
3) The magnitude of an induced emf, and hence current, depends on the rate at which flux lines are cut, or the
speed of relative motion between conductor and magnet.

DEFINE MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH B AS MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

Magnetic flux (B): the amount of magnetic field passing through the given area
o Measured in weber (Wb)
Magnetic field strength B, also known as magnetic flux density, is the amount of magnetic flux passing through
per unit area
o Measured in tesla (T), or weber per square metre (Wb m-2)
The stronger the magnetic field at a point, the higher the magnetic flux density B is at that point and the more
magnetic flux lines there are cutting or threading a given area.

DESCRIBE THE CONCEPT OF MAGNETIC FLUX IN TERMS OF MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY AND SURFACE AREA

If a particular area, A, is perpendicular to magnetic field of strength B, then magnetic flux B is product of B and
A
o B = B A
o i.e. magnetic flux is the magnetic field strength or amount of magnetic flux per unit area, multiplied by
total surface area, giving total magnetic flux
Magnetic flux, B, passing through an area is reduced if magnetic field is not perpendicular to the area
o B = B+ A , where B+ is component of magnetic flux density, that is perpendicular to area, A.

DESCRIBE GENERATED POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AS THE RATE OF CHANGE OF MAGNETIC FLUX THROUGH A CIRCUIT
 When there is relative movement between a conductor and a magnetic field, a potential difference is
generated. If the conductor is part of an electric circuit, a current is induced in the circuit.
Faradays Law of Induction: The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the rate at which the
magnetic flux through the circuit is changing with time
o i.e. the change in amount of magnetic flux threading the coil generates a potential difference, hence
creating a current

A change in B can be caused by a change in magnetic field strength, B, or in area of the coil that is
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
If a coil has n turns of wire on it, the emf induced would be n times greater that that produced if the coil had
only one turn of wire.

The rate at which magnetic flux changes, and hence emf produced, is varied by:
o decreasing the distance between the conductor and the magnetic field, as the flux lines are closer
together nearer the magnet;
o increasing the strength of the magnet, as there are more flux lines in the same space in a stronger field
o increasing the speed of the relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic field, as the
conductor cuts more flux lines per unit time
o increasing the angle between the direction of motion of the conductor and the direction of the magnetic
field from near zero towards 90 degrees, as the conductor cuts the maximum number of flux lines per
second when its motion is at right angles to the field.
o Using a coil with more turns
Cause of the induced emf and induced current
o As conductor moves relative to magnetic field, the direction of force on electrons within the conductor
can be found using right-hand palm rule
Movement of electrons leaves a deficiency of electrons (a positive charge) at one end of the
conductor, i.e. there is an emf between the ends of the conductor
If this conductor is part of an external circuit, a current will flow through the circuit

PERFORM AN INVESTIGATION TO MODEL THE GENERATION OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT BY MOVING A MAGNET IN A

COIL OR A COIL NEAR A MAGNET

PLAN, CHOOSE EQUIPMENT OR RESOURCES FOR, AND PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION TO PREDICT AND
VERIFY THE EFFECT ON A GENERATED ELECTRIC CURRENT WHEN:
- THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE COIL AND MAGNET IS VARIED
- THE STRENGTH OF THE MAGNET IS VARIED
- THE RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN THE COIL AND THE MAGNET IS VARIED

ACCOUNT FOR LENZS LAW IN TERMS OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND RELATE IT TO THE PRODUCTION OF BACK
EMF IN MOTORS

Lenzs Law: The direction of an induced emf (and current) is such that it produces a magnetic field which
opposes the original change in flux that produced the emf.
Using Lenzs Law: Use right-hand rule for coils. Point thumb in direction opposing the change in external
magnetic field. Curl of fingers indicates the direction of induced current in the coil
 Principle of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be transformed from
one form to another
o If the opposite of Lenzs Law were true, a changing flux in a coil would induce an emf creating a current
that produced a magnetic flux in the same direction as the original change of flux. This would lead to a
greater change in flux threading the coil indefinitely, and the induced current would continue to
increase in magnitude, fed by its own changing flux
Since Principle of Conservation of Energy clearly states that energy cannot be created without
doing any work, this clearly cannot occur.
o When a magnet is moved towards or away from a coil, the resultant change in magnetic flux as a
result of the induced current opposes the original change in magnetic field, so that work must be
done to move the magnet relative to the coil. This ensures that the electrical energy induced in the
coil, has come from work done in moving the magnet (Principle of Conservation of Energy)
If the south pole of a bar magnet is inserted into the coil the current induced in the coil will flow
in a direction such that it produces a south pole opposing the insertion of the bar magnet.
Pushing the bar magnet against this field means that work must be done.
Back emf in motors: Electric motors use input voltage to produce a current in the coil, to make coil rotate in
external magnetic field. However, an emf is induced in a coil that is rotating in an external magnetic field. If this
emf was in same direction as the supply emf, the current would increase, and motor coil would rotate faster
and faster indefinitely.
o Due to the Principle of Conservation of Energy, this cannot occur. The induced emf is in opposite
direction to supply emf

EXPLAIN THAT, IN ELECTRIC MOTORS, BACK EMF OPPOSES THE SUPPLY EMF

Back emf: electromagnetic force that opposes the main current flow in a circuit. When the coil of a motor
rotates, a back emf is induced in the coil due to its motion in the external magnetic field.
Net voltage across the coil equals supply emf minus the back emf
o Back emf opposes the supply emf
o Supply emf is constant, back emf is proportional to speed of motor
With no load, speed of armature coil increases until back emf is equal to external emf
o When this occurs, there is no voltage and current flowing through the coil. There is no net force acting
on the coil and the armature rotates at constant rate
When there is a load, coil rotates at a slower rate, causing a decrease in back emf, until the net voltage across
the coil and current flowing through it is higher to provide the torque to match the extra load
If the motor is overloaded, it rotates too slowly, back emf is much reduced, and the voltage across coil may be
too high, resulting in a high current that could burn out the motor.
o When motor is starting, back emf is small and so current in the coil will be large. To prevent burning out
the motor, a starting resistance is placed in series with the coil, which is removed once the motor
speeds up.

EXPLAIN THE PRODUCTION OF EDDY CURRENTS IN TERMS OF LENZS LAW

Eddy current: circular current induced in a conductor that is stationary in a changing magnetic field, or that is
moving through a magnetic field.
Lenzs Law: An induced emf always gives rise to a current that creates a magnetic field that opposes the original
change in flux through the circuit
That is, the polarity of the magnetic field produced by the eddy current is such that it opposes the relative
motion of the magnetic field that induced the eddy current.
E.g. a metal plate is being moved down, through a magnetic field
directed into the page
Right-hand push rule: On the bottom part of B, positive
charges are moving downwards, and magnetic field is into
the page. Using right-hand push rule, it can be seen that
the charges experience a force to the right. In the region
of I, charged particles experience no force, so theyre free
to move back left in this region. Hence a clockwise eddy
current is created. Similarly, positive charges experience a
force to the right in the upper region of B, contributing to
an anticlockwise eddy current.
Lenzs Law: In the bottom region, the plate is being
removed from a magnetic field directed into the page. Applying Lenzs Law and right-hand rule for coils, it can
be seen that a clockwise current will create a magnetic field which opposes this change. In the upper region, an
anticlockwise eddy current opposes the increase in magnetic field lines into the page.

The sides of the eddy current loops that are inside the magnetic field experience a force due to the magnetic
field. Using the right-hand push rule, this force is determined to be upwards
o The direction of force on the eddy current due to external magnetic field is always a retarding force,
which opposes any motion.

GATHER, ANALYSE AND PRESENT INFORMATION TO EXPLAIN HOW INDUCTION IS USED IN COOKTOPS IN ELECTRIC
RANGES

Applying an alternating current through the induction coil sets up a rapidly changing magnetic field that induces
eddy currents in the metal of the saucepan
Eddy currents cause an increase in temperature of the metal
o Resistance heating: Due to resistance of saucepan, collisions between moving charges and atoms of the
metal causes heating
o Hysteresis loss: Atoms in the saucepan tend to line up with the magnetic field. The continuous
movement of the magnetic particles, as they try to align themselves with the high frequency alternating
magnetic field, produces molecular friction. This, in turn, produces heat.
Heat produced in metal saucepan is used to cook the food
Advantages:
o Without loss of thermal energy that occurs with gas cooking
Does not warm the air around it
Induction cooktop itself is not directly heated
o Induction cookers are more efficient (80%) than gas cookers (43%)
Disadvantages:
o Cookware must be made of ferrous material
o Almost instantaneous heating may burn food
o Requires flat-bottomed pans

GATHER SECONDARY INFORMATION TO IDENTIFY HOW EDDY CURRENTS HAVE BEEN UTILISED IN ELECTROMAGNETIC
BRAKING

Eddy currents are used for electromagnetic braking in many free-fall amusement park rides. A copper plate
attached to the ride capsule passes between fixed magnets near the bottom of the ride, inducing eddy currents
and associated magnetic poles in the copper plate. As the plate approaches, a like pole is induced which is
repelled by the fixed magnet, resisting the ride capsules forward motion. As the plate leaves, an opposite pole
is induced which is attracted to the fixed magnet, again resisting the rides forward motion. The ride slows
down smoothly because the strength of the eddy currents, and hence that of the magnetic fields and forces
produced, are directly proportional to the speed of the copper plates movement. As the ride slows, the braking
force is reduced.

Some trains have electromagnets close to the metal rails to induce eddy currents in the rails. These eddy
currents produce magnetic fields in the rails, a like pole ahead of each electromagnet and an opposite pole
behind it. The interaction between the electromagnets and the induced magnetic poles opposes the forward
motion of the electromagnets and the train to which they are attached. Because the strength of the induced eddy
currents is proportional to the speed of the train, the braking force is reduced as the train slows, resulting in a
smooth stop.

Triple beam balances commonly used in school laboratories have an aluminium plate fixed to the end of the
beam. As the beam swings, the plate passes through the field of a permanent horseshoe magnet. Eddy currents
are induced in the plate, setting up magnetic fields and damping the motion of the balance.

3. Generators are used to provide large scale power production

DESCRIBE THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF A GENERATOR

Component of Description
generator
Rotor rotating part of an electrical rotating machine
Consists of a single loop of wire made to rotate within a magnetic field, or several
coils of wire wound on an armature.
*In power station generators, rotor is field electromagnet
Armature A cylinder of laminated iron mounted on an axle around which coils are wound.
Torque is applied to the axle to make the rotor spin.
Coil Each coil usually consists of many turns of copper wire wound on the armature. The
two ends of each coil are connected either to 2 opposite bars of a split-ring
commutator (DC) or to 2 slip rings (AC)
Stator stationary functioning parts of an electrical rotating machine
The fixed part of the generator that supplies the magnetic field in which the coils
rotate. It may consist of two permanent magnets with opposite poles facing and
shaped to fit around the rotor. Alternatively, the magnetic field may be provided by
two electromagnets.
*In power station generators, stator consists of coils wound around a
circular iron core
Field Each electromagnet consists of a coil of many turns of copper wire wound on a soft
electromagnets iron core. The electromagnets are mounted such that opposite poles face each
other and wrap around the rotor.
Brushes The brushes are carbon blocks that maintain contact with the ends of the coils via
the slip rings (AC) or the split-ring commutator (DC), and conduct electric current
from the coils to the external circuit.
 Generator primarily consists of a coil of wire that is forced to rotate about an axis in a magnetic field
o As coil rotates, magnetic flux threading the area of the coil changes, which produces a changing emf
across the ends of the wire, in accordance with Faradays Law of Induction: The induced emf in a coil is
equal in magnitude to the rate at which the magnetic flux through the coil is changing with time
o If the coil of a generator is forced to rotate at a constant rate, flux threading the coil varies in a
sinusoidal manner
When plane of coil is parallel to magnetic field, magnetic flux is zero, change in magnetic flux
is maximum/minimum, and emf is maximum/minimum
When plane of coil is perpendicular to magnetic field, magnetic flux is maximum, change in
magnetic flux is zero, and emf is zero
*Just as a motor has a dead spot when coil is perpendicular to magnetic field
Coil is often wound onto an iron core armature,
which behaves like an electromagnet, intensifying
the changes in flux threading the coil, and
increasing magnitude of emf that is induced
When number of turns of wire on armature is
increased, emf induced increases because coil
behaves like a number of individual coils
connected in series

PLAN, CHOOSE EQUIPMENT OR RESOURCES FOR, AND

PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION TO DEMONSTRATE THE PRODUCTION OF AN ALTERNATING CURRENT

COMPARE THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF A GENERATOR TO AN ELECTRIC MOTOR

Similarities:
Each consists of a stator that provides a magnetic field and a rotor that rotates within the magnetic field.
(unless power station generator)
The magnetic field may be supplied either by permanent magnets or by electromagnets.
The rotor in both an electric motor and a generator consists of coils of wire wound on a laminated iron
armature and connected through brushes to an external circuit.
An electric motor (both DC and universal) and a DC generator are similar in that their rotor coils are connected
to the external circuit through a split-ring commutator.

Differences:
An AC generator is different as its rotor coils are connected to the external circuit through slip rings.
An AC induction motor is different from a generator as its rotor coils are not connected to an external circuit
and its field is always supplied by electromagnets.
A power station generator has current-carrying coils in the stator, and the field electromagnet as the rotor,
whereas a motors stator produces the magnetic field, and rotor is comprised of current-carrying coils.
Terminals of a generator go to a circuit with a load, whereas the terminals of a motor go to an emf source, and
the motor itself is the load.

Function
An electric motor converts electrical energy into rotational kinetic energy. A generator converts rotational
kinetic energy into electrical energy. A motor rotates when current is supplied while a generator supplies
current when rotor is made to rotate.
DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AC AND DC GENERATORS

AC generator: coil is connected to external circuit by slip rings

o Slip rings maintain a constant connection between the rotating coil and the external circuit; brushes
make contact with slip rings and transfer the current to terminals of the generator
o Since each terminal is continually connected to one long side of the coil, the emf produced periodically
alternates its direction
Produces an alternating current (AC)
DC generator: coil is connected to external circuit by a split ring commutator
o Direct current produced varies with time, but when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to magnetic
field (emf is zero), the commutator reverses the linkage between the two terminals and two long sides
of the coil
This ensures that current always flows in one direction in the external circuit
o Output from DC generator can be made smoother by including more coils set at regular angles on the
armature. Each coil is connected to two opposite segments of a multi-part commutator, and brushes
only make contact with the segments connected to the coil producing greatest emf at the particular
time (one that is parallel to magnetic field)

GATHER SECONDARY INFORMATION TO DISCUSS ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF AC AND DC GENERATORS AND

RELATE THESE TO THEIR USE

DC generator:
Commutator consists of a number of metal bars separated by narrow gaps filled with insulating material
o Commutator bars wear down until insulating material protrudes, and prevents brushes from making
proper contact with the bars, reducing generators efficiency
o Pieces of metal worn from commutator bars can become lodged in the gaps, causing a short between
bars and reducing generator output
o Spring pressure keeps brushes in contact with multi-part commutator, and wears them down, so
brushes need to be replaced regularly
DC generators require higher maintenance than AC generators, and so are less suited for
industrial applications
Very large DC machines cannot be built with commutators, because of upper limits: brushes
current density and maximum voltage of each commutator segment
Current is generated in rotors
o The larger the current produced, the heavier the rotor coils must be, placing high demands on bearings
 o Drawing large currents through commutator-brush connection increases electric arc formation as brush
breaks contact with each bar in turn, reducing generators efficiency
This limits usefulness of DC generators to low current applications
Output can be made smoother by arranging many coils in a regular pattern around the armature. Brushes
arranged to make contact only with commutator bars corresponding to the coils producing the greatest emf at a
particular time (the coil parallel to magnetic field)
o Results in output voltage that ripples about a mean value
o Advantage for use with equipment that needs a steady voltage rather than a sinusoidally varying voltage

AC generator (alternator):
Slip rings have continuous, smooth surface, allowing brushes to remain continuously in contact with slip ring
surface
o Hence, brushes in AC generators dont wear out as fast as in DC generators
o No possibility of creating electrical short circuit between commutator segments because slip rings are
already continuous
Therefore, AC generators require less maintenance and are more reliable than DC generators,
so most commercial generators are AC
In power stations AC generators, current is produced in stator windings rather than in the rotor; rotor is the
field electromagnet that spins with 50 Hz frequency
o Power generators have three sets of coils mounted at angles of 120 to each other on stator
Produces three sets of voltage signals (three-phase power generation)
o Much easier to draw current through a fixed stator connection, rather than through a commutator and
moving rotor
AC generators are better suited to high current demands, and ideal for generating electricity on
a large scale for distribution over a wide area
Output is always sinusoidal
o Cannot be used for equipment that needs a steady voltage without rectifying and smoothing circuit

Transmission of AC vs. DC
Disadvantages of AC:
o Energy loss by electromagnetic radiation
o Skin effect
o Proximity effect
o Needs heavier duty cable insulation than DC, and higher towers for transport of power, since AC is more
dangerous than DC of same voltage
Disadvantages of DC:
o Heat loss because transformers cannot be used to step-up voltage
o Voltage changes are difficult

DISCUSS THE ENERGY LOSSES THAT OCCUR AS ENERGY IS FED THROUGH TRANSMISSION LINES FROM THE
GENERATOR TO THE CONSUMER

Simple Resistive Energy Losses:

Power stations are usually located close to primary energy sources, far away from cities where consumers are
located
o Transmission lines can have large resistance over a large length
o Transmission lines are typically made of either (high purity) copper or aluminium, as these metals have
low resistivity
Power lost in transmission line is given by formula: Ploss = I2R
o Power lost is proportional to square of current
 Using step-up transformers to increase voltage and reduce current before transmission, reduces power loss
o AC is the type of electricity generally transmitted over long distances, since transformers can be used to
change voltage of AC currents
Step-down transformers are used closer to the consumer to step down the voltage for practical applications
Generators output 23 kV, transformers step up voltage to 330 kV, major terminal substation steps down to 132
kV, terminal substation steps down to 33 kV, zone substation steps down to 11 kV, pole transformers step
voltage down to 415V for industry and 240V for domestic consumption
o Carrying high voltage requires high poles or towers and large insulators. These are expensive to build
and maintain and have an adverse effect on the visual environment.
Skin Effect:
An AC current creates a changing magnetic field, which induces eddy currents in the conductor. These eddy
currents alter the uniform current density in a conductor. AC tends to travel
through outer portion of a conductor, reducing effective cross-sectional area, and
increasing resistance/heating losses.
o As frequency is increased, depth to which current flow can penetrate
decreases
o DC does not suffer from this loss because direct current does not create a
changing magnetic field.
Proximity Effect and Electromagnetic Radiation
Inductive Energy Losses:
Induction of eddy currents in metal parts of transmission towers is minimised by
distance at which wires are held away from the tower by insulators
Energy losses in Transformers: (given in another DotPoint)

ASSESS THE EFFECTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF AC GENERATORS ON SOCIETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Ramifications of AC generators:
Because AC electricity can easily be transformed, it can be transmitted cheaply over great distances, allowing a
wide range of primary energy sources to be exploited. This has allowed the development of extensive, reliable
AC electricity networks for domestic and industrial use throughout much of the world.
Society:
Many tasks that were once performed by hand can now be accomplished with electrical appliances
o Domestic and industrial work now requires less labour
Nevertheless, has not increased leisure time as people work to earn the money to buy the many
electrical appliances available
Women are freed from household chores and able to work, yet this raises difficulties in
childcare
Reduction in unskilled jobs
Increase in unemployment
Ready availability of electricity has led to increasing dependency on electricity
o Any disruption to power supply compromises safety, causes widespread inconvenience and loss of
production
Hospitals are forced to have a back-up electricity supply just in case
A major electricity failure can precipitate an economic crisis
Social values may give way to economic pressures
o In developing countries, poorest people often lose their livelihood to make way for new energy
developments to power AC generators
Increased rates of electrical fires and electrocutions due to the high voltages necessary for AC transmission
Environment:
Air pollution from burning fossil fuels may cause acid rain
 o Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates
o AC power generating plants can be located far away from urban areas, shifting pollution away from
homes and workplaces
Carbon dioxide released by burning fossil fuels to power AC generators has contributed to greenhouse effect
Nuclear power stations leave radioactive waste that will last for a long time
Power transmission lines cut through environmentally sensitive areas
Assess:
Many people enjoy increased convenience and leisure, and many new industries flourish on new technologies
made possible by electricity
For others, it has led to dislocation and unemployment
Development of electricity has led to environmental degradation

ANALYSE SECONDARY INFORMATION ON THE COMPETITION BETWEEN WESTINGHOUSE AND EDISON TO SUPPLY
ELECTRICITY TO CITIES

Edison favoured generating and supplying direct current (DC), while Westinghouse promoted the use of alternating
current (AC) electricity

Edison had initial advantage

Technology for DC generation was well established, and it worked well over short distances
DC worked well for incandescent lamps which were standard load at the time, and motors
DC systems could be used with storage batteries, as backup power supplies
Edison had invented a meter to allow customers to be billed for energy proportional to consumption, but this
meter only worked with direct current
Tesla devised a system for generation and transmission of AC power. He partnered with George Westinghouse to
commercialize this system
Edison had vested interest in DC as he owned hundreds of DC power stations, all of his electrical inventions ran on
DC, and the Edison Electric Light Company powered its lights using DC
Published a booklet entitled A Warning, describing fatal AC accidents
Attempted to prove that AC was dangerous by electrocuting animals in a public demonstration using a
Westinghouse AC generator
Lobbied against use of AC in state legislature
Convinced authorities to use AC for the electric chair, to promote idea that AC was deadlier than DC
o Hired Harold Brown and his assistant Dr. Peterson to develop an AC electric chair
o Dr. Peterson headed a committee that advised government on AC as best method of electrocution
Westinghouses AC current was able to be more efficiently transmitted over long distances, and ultimately came to
be the dominant form in which electricity is generated world-wide
1) Successful distribution of AC was demonstrated in London, Italy, Paris
2) In a demonstration, AC was transmitted 160km from Frankfurt with 77% efficiency (far more than with DC)
3) Westinghouse offered to power the worlds first all-electric fair for half the previous price, and was given the
contract
4) Westinghouses AC system was chosen over Edisons DC to power the fairgrounds of the Worlds Columbian
Exposition
5) Against Edisons proposal, Westinghouse won the international Niagara Falls Commission contract. AC system
was used to transmit electric power from Niagara Falls to Buffalo
6) Teslas invention of the polyphase induction motor which operates only on AC and proved economical for
factories and consumer machines, supported Westinghouses AC current over Edisons DC

Advantages of Westinghouses AC over Edisons DC electricity

Energy losses through transmission wires
 o Transforming DC power from one voltage to another was difficult and expensive due to the need for a
large spinning rotary converter or motor-generator set,
To counter energy losses through transmission wires with DC, Edison generated power close to
where it was consumed, and installed large conductors
o AC could be generated at low voltages, stepped up to high voltages for transmission over large
distances, and stepped down again for consumer use, all with simple transformer coils
High voltage/smaller current meant smaller energy losses over long distances
Power stations could be further apart, and conductors could be lighter and cheaper, than with
DC current
DC could only be generated/distributed at voltages at which it was used by consumers, but the voltage of an AC
current could be changed as required through transformers
o DC operated at the same voltage level throughout; e.g. a 100 volt lamp at the customer's location would
be connected to a generator supplying 110 volts, to allow for some voltage drop in the wires
DC voltage depends on speed of rotation of generators armature. High speeds were needed for
high voltages to allow for long distance transmission, but low voltages were needed by
consumers
o AC could be generated at a voltage maximising the generators efficiency, stepped up to high voltages
for transmission over large distances, and stepped down again for consumer use
The Return of Edisons DC?
DC doesnt cause energy losses through electromagnetic induction or electromagnetic radiation
AC current loses energy by releasing electromagnetic radiation
Switching between DC and AC at high/low voltages is now possible through solid-state switching
Skin effect means AC tends to travel through outer portion of a conductor, reducing effective cross-sectional
area, and increasing resistance/heating losses.
Three-phase AC transmission requires at least 3 conductors, whereas DC transmission requires only two
conductors, reducing cost of conductors over long distances
AC generating stations must be synchronised so that they operate at the same frequency and are kept in phase
with each other
Underground/underwater cables transmit DC more effectively than AC
DC could become the preferred current over long distances

GATHER AND ANALYSE INFORMATION TO IDENTIFY HOW TRANSMISSION

LINES ARE:
INSULATED FROM SUPPORTING STRUCTURES
PROTECTED FROM LIGHTNING STRIKES

Insulated from supporting structures:

Suspension insulators separate high voltage transmission lines from
metal support towers
o Individual sections of insulators are disk shaped
To increase distance a current has to pass to reach the
support structure
Less likely to get wet (water is a conductor)
To minimise dust/grime accumulation (possible
conductors)
o Metal links between individual sections are isolated from each
other, so there is no continuity of conductance
o The higher the voltage, the longer the insulation chain
 Static dischargers are also placed between insulators and support structures

Protected from lightning strikes:

If lightning strikes a transmission line, a power surge may occur through the transmission line, which could
damage a nearby substation
Uppermost wires in a power tower are called shield conductors
o Normally carry no current, and are directly connected to transmission towers
Shield conductors can conduct the charge between earth and clouds as it builds up, to
neutralise charge distribution
In the event of a lightning strike, the current is safely conducted to the ground through the metal transmission
tower
o Towers are well earthed, with a large surface area of metal buried in the ground
Towers are widely spaced, so that in case one tower is struck by lightning, adjacent towers suffer no damage

4. Transformers allow generated voltage to be either increased or decreased

before it is used

COMPARE STEP-UP AND STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMERS

Step-up transformer Step-down transformer

Consist of two inductively coupled coils wound on a laminated iron core
More turns in the secondary coil than the
primary coil
Higher output voltage than input voltage
Lower output current than input current
Used at power stations to increase voltage and
reduce current for long-distance transmission
Used in television sets and computer monitors
to increase voltage to operate cathode ray tubes
Fewer turns in the secondary coil than the primary
coil
Lower output voltage than input voltage
Higher output current than input current
Used at substations and in pole transformers to
reduce transmission line voltage for domestic and
industrial use
Used in computers, radios, and CD players to reduce
household electricity to very low voltages for
electronic components

IDENTIFY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE RATIO OF THE NUMBER OF TURNS IN THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
COILS AND THE RATIO OF PRIMARY TO SECONDARY VOLTAGE

Transformers must have an iron core of high magnetic permeability so that almost all the magnetic flux
produced in the primary coil threads the secondary coil
When an alternating current from the input line flows through primary coil, a constantly changing magnetic flux
is created and threads secondary coil, producing an AC voltage at secondary coil terminals with same frequency
as the supplied AC voltage (mutual induction)
The changing magnetic field creates a back emf in the primary coil that opposes the original current. This back
emf is almost equal to the original emf in the primary coil, so that the exciting current in the primary coil is
 very small. This ensures that the Law of Conservation of Energy is followed, as energy has been transferred from
primary coil to secondary coil
Rate of change of flux through both coils is the same. Faradays Law is used to show that secondary voltage is
found using:

=
Similarly, input primary voltage, is given by:

=
Therefore, relationship between ratio of
number of turns in the primary and secondary
coils and the ratio of primary to secondary
voltage, is given by the transformer equation

=

In the transformer circuit schematic, the
two lines represent the iron core
In actual transformers, windings are wound on top of each other,
not on separate legs, to reduce leakage inductance

Step-up transformer:
Provides an output voltage that is greater than the input voltage, and output current that is lower than input
current
ns is greater than np, so vs will be greater than vp
Secondary coil has more turns than primary coil, so secondary voltage will be greater than primary voltage
Step-down transformer:
Provides an output voltage that is less than the input voltage, and output current that is higher than input
current
ns is lesser than np, so Vs will be lesser than Vp
Secondary coil has less turns than primary coil, so secondary voltage will be smaller than primary voltage

EXPLAIN WHY VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATIONS ARE RELATED TO CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Principle of Conservation of Energy: energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be transformed from
one form to another
o The rate of energy input to the primary coil must be greater than or equal to the rate of supply of
energy from the secondary coil
i.e. input power output power

Therefore, in the ideal transformer: =

V p Ip = V s Is

=

Thus, voltage transformations in a transformer are related to conservation of energy because output power
cannot be greater than input power. Therefore, when the voltage is raised from primary to secondary coils, the
current is proportionally lowered.
GATHER AND ANALYSE SECONDARY INFORMATION TO DISCUSS THE NEED FOR TRANSFORMERS IN THE TRANSFER OF
ELECTRICAL ENERGY FROM A POWER STATION TO ITS POINT OF USE

Electricity is consumed in homes and industry at 240V/415V. If there were no transformers, electricity would
have to be generated and distributed at same voltages. To supply power demands at these low voltages,
currents would have to be high
o Power lost in transmission line is given by formula: Ploss = I2R
Power lost is proportional to square of current
o Power stations are usually located close to primary energy sources, far away from cities where
consumers are located. Transmission lines can have large resistance over a large length
o Therefore, without the use of transformers to step-up voltage before long-distance transmission, power
losses would be significant
This would require many power stations spaced every few kilometres, separate power stations
to produce different voltages, and an expensive, unsightly web of cables
Using step-up transformers to increase voltage and reduce current before transmission, reduces power loss
o AC is the type of electricity generally transmitted over long distances, since transformers can be used to
change voltage of AC currents
Step-down transformers are used closer to the consumer to step down the voltage for practical applications

EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF TRANSFORMERS IN ELECTRICITY SUB-STATIONS

Generators output 23 kV, transformers step up voltage to 330 kV, major terminal substation steps down to 132 kV,
terminal substation steps down to 33 kV, zone substation steps down to 11 kV, pole transformers step voltage down to
415V for industry and 240V for domestic consumption

The role of transformers in electricity sub-stations is to progressively reduce the voltage as it comes closer to the
consumer. At each stage, the output voltage is chosen to match the power demand and the distances over which supply
is needed.

DESCRIBE THE PURPOSE OF TRANSFORMERS IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

and
DISCUSS WHY SOME ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES IN THE HOME THAT ARE CONNECTED TO THE MAINS DOMESTIC POWER
SUPPLY USE A TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a magnetic circuit with two multi-turn coils wound onto a common core, designed to change the
size of an alternating (AC) voltage, so that the single voltage produced by an e.m.f. source in a circuit can be
changed as required

Domestic supply is 240V AC, and industrial supply is 415V AC, but printed circuit boards, semiconductor devices, and
other electronics typically need 3-4V
o Step-down transformers used in electronic appliances to provide lower voltages, e.g. for amplifier circuits in
radios, cordless telephones, laptop computers
Small appliances e.g. mobile phone chargers, require low DC voltages to recharge the batteries
A step-down transformer-rectifier power-cube may be built into plug of power supply lead
that connects to main supply
o Rectifiers convert AC to DC
Or normal power lead may connect mains to built-in power supply unit that contains a step-
down transformer-rectifier
Also found in answering machines, digital cameras, computers, phones, and other devices
Cathode ray tubes in television screens need up to 25kV, to accelerate electrons towards the screen
 o Step-up transformers are placed between AC supply and the component to provide very high voltages to
drive cathode ray tubes
Many appliances e.g. televisions, contain step-up and multi-tapped step-down transformers,
capable of supplying a range of different voltages for various components
There may be external connections (taps) to various intermediate points on the winding to allow
selection of the voltage ratio.

DISCUSS THE IMPACT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSFORMERS ON SOCIETY

The development of transformers has made it possible to transmit electrical energy efficiently over great distances, and
then stepped down at the point of use
Even very remote communities now have access to grid-supplied electricity which is stepped down locally by
transformers
o Raised living standards in rural communities e.g. through electric lighting, refrigeration
o Increased the scope of rural industries
Large cities have been allowed to spread, because electricity can be transmitted over long distances.
o People dont have to live close to a power source to have access to electricity
o This has led to social dislocation as people have moved further from family, friends and workplaces.
Industry is decentralised, and no longer clustered around power stations or other sources of energy.
o Facilitated the development of industrial areas away from residential areas.
Relocated pollution away from homes, but it means that many people now spend significant
time travelling between home and work.
Ready availability of electricity due to transformers has led to increasing dependency on electricity
o Electricity to every home has become an affordable necessity rather than a luxury.
o Any disruption to power supply compromises safety, causes widespread inconvenience and loss of
production
Hospitals are forced to have a back-up electricity supply just in case
A major electricity failure can precipitate an economic crisis
Reduced pollution and cost of electricity
o Without transformers to transmit electrical energy efficiently over large distances, many more power
stations with their associated pollution would be necessary to supply power to their local areas.
o Without transformers, different industries requiring different voltages would have to build generators
to produce those specific voltages.
Development of transformers was crucial in determining the success of the AC system over DC electricity, and in
the widespread proliferation of electricity grids

PERFORM AN INVESTIGATION TO MODEL THE STRUCTURE OF A TRANSFORMER TO DEMONSTRATE HOW SECONDARY

VOLTAGE IS PRODUCED
Vp np
SOLVE PROBLEMS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION ABOUT TRANSFORMERS USING:
Vs ns
GATHER, ANALYSE AND USE AVAILABLE EVIDENCE TO DISCUSS HOW DIFFICULTIES OF HEATING CAUSED BY EDDY
CURRENTS IN TRANSFORMERS MAY BE OVERCOME

Energy is lost through induction of eddy currents in iron core of transformers, as these eddy currents partially
oppose the magnetic field in the transformer by Lenzs law
o Circulation of eddy currents in transformer core generates heat because of the irons resistance. This
heat is an energy loss from the electrical system, and excessive heating can damage the transformer
o As transformer starts to heat up, eddy current heat losses will be even greater, since resistance of metal
increases with temperature
To minimise this energy loss:
Transformer cores are made of laminated iron (many thin layers of iron sandwiched together with thin
insulating layers separating them)
o This limits eddy currents to one lamina thickness, and
hence reduces heat loss

o Since 2 and , hence in each

lamination is decreased (to if 4 laminations), and Ploss
in each lamination decreased to 1/16, and total Ploss is
reduced to 25%
o Since laminations reduce width of each layer, each layer
has a higher resistance to eddy currents
Transformer cores made of granular ferrites are used, which
allow magnetic flux to change freely but have a high resistance
to eddy currents (high magnetic permeability but low electrical conductivity)
Iron alloyed with 3% silicon to increase resistivity by 350%

To cool down the transformer so that it isnt damaged by overheating, and to reduce resistance:
Cooling fins on outside of transformer allow heat to dissipate faster over larger surface area
Transformer case may be made of black material so that internal heat is efficiently radiated outside
Electric fan to assist air circulation, to remove excess heat faster
o Thermostatically controlled, i.e. starts working at a certain temperature
Transformer case may be filled with non-conducting oil in radiator pipes, transporting internal heat to the
outside where it can be dissipated
o Oil may circulate by convection, or may be assisted by a pump
Large transformers are located in well-ventilated areas to maximise airflow around them for cooling

Other Sources of Energy Loss in Transformers:

Winding resistance (Copper Loss)
o Current flowing through windings causes resistive heating of conductors
Leakage inductance
o Any flux traversing a path that goes outside the windings may give rise to eddy currents in support
structures, causing heat loss
Hysteresis loss
o Magnetic domains of the core tend to line up with the magnetic field. The continuous movement of the
magnetic domains, as they try to align themselves with the changing magnetic field, produces a
molecular friction resulting in heat loss
Magnetorestriction
o Magnetic flux in the core causes it to physically expand and contract with each cycle of the magnetic
field, causing losses due to frictional heating

5. Motors are used in industries and the home

usually to convert electrical energy into more useful
forms of energy

DESCRIBE THE MAIN FEATURES OF AN AC ELECTRIC MOTOR

 There are two main types of electric motors that run on AC: universal motors and induction motors.

Universal motor: a series-wound motor that may be operated on either AC or DC electricity

o Used for small machines e.g. portable drills or food mixers
Similar in construction to a DC motor (uses a split-ring commutator)
o Except the external magnetic field is supplied by stator electromagnets that are connected in series
with the coils of the armature via brushes
Since current and magnetic field are both changing direction 50 Hz with AC input, the motor will
continue to rotate in the same direction
o A variable resistor controls speed of the motor by varying the current through coils of the armature and
field coils of the stator.
o A universal motor will always rotate in the same direction, regardless of which way it is connected to
the DC source
o Universal motors have laminated stator cores, so that the changing magnetic field produced by the
stator does not induce eddy currents in the stator core itself

Parts of a DC motor (altered for universal motor)

Feature Description
Stator Each stator coil (or field coil) is wound on a
Electromagnets soft iron core attached to the casing of the
motor. The coils are shaped to fit around the
armature.
Rotor Rotating part of the motor; consists of
armature and coil
Armature Consists of a cylinder of laminated iron
mounted on an axle. Axle protrudes from the
casing, enabling movement of coil to be used
to do work
Rotor coil(s) One or several coils, usually of several turns
of insulated wire, wound onto the armature.
Ends of the coils are connected to
commutator
Split-ring A broad ring of metal mounted on the axle at
commutator one end of the armature, and cut into an even
number of separate bars (two in a simple
motor). Each opposite pair of bars is
connected to one coil.
Brushes Conducting contacts made of compressed
carbon connected to external circuit; spring-
loaded to contact commutator as it turns
Axle A cylindrical bar of hardened steel passing
through the centre of the armature and the
commutator.
Role
Each opposed pair of stator coils (connected in
series with armature coils) produces an external
magnetic field which interacts with the current in
the armature cause the coils to rotate. The iron
core concentrates the field.
The armature carries the rotor coils. The iron
core greatly concentrates the external magnetic
field, increasing the torque on the armature. The
laminations reduce eddy currents which might
otherwise overheat the armature.
The coils provide torque, as the current passing
through the coils interacts with the magnetic
field. As the coils are mounted firmly on the
rotor, any torque acting on the coils is
transferred to the rotor and thence to the axle.
Mechanical switch for reversing the direction of
current flowing the coil every half-turn so that
coil continues rotating in same direction
Connect commutator to the source of emf.
Necessary to stop connecting wires from
becoming tangled
The axle provides a centre of rotation for the
moving parts of the motor. Axle protrudes from
casing, enabling movement of coil to be used to
do work

Induction motor: An AC motor in which torque is produced by the interaction of a rotating magnetic field produced by
the stator, and currents induced in the rotor
Stator of a three-phase induction motor consists of three sets of opposing coils, each of which is connected to a
different phase of the mains electrical supply
o Iron core in each coil
 o Therefore, the magnetic field in the cylindrical space inside the stator rotates at 50 Hz
Squirrel-cage rotor consists of a few conducting bars made of aluminium or copper arranged to form a cylinder
o Two end rings at the ends of the bars short-circuit the bars
o Bars and end rings encased in a laminated iron armature, which is mounted on an axle
How it works
o As magnetic field is moving with respect to the rotor bars, a current is created in the bars
o Bars carrying this current in a magnetic field, experience a force
The force is always in same direction as movement of the magnetic field
o Cage is constantly slipping behind the magnetic field (especially when heavy load) so that there is
relative motion between the cage and magnetic field, so the cage experiences a torque
Slip speed: difference between speed of the rotating magnetic field and speed of the rotor

Advantages of AC Induction Motors:

Three-phase motors are self-starting
No brushes/commutators
o Less frictional wear, no electrical discharges as brushes cross the gaps between rings
Simpler to construct, easier to maintain, and more robust/reliable
Run on AC
Smaller and lighter for equivalent power output
Make less noise when they run
Large output, and therefore suited for industrial uses

Disadvantages of AC Induction Motors:

Maximum speed is 50 Hz (due to AC current input) or 3000 rpm, limiting their uses in industry
Single-phase motors are not self-starting, and have low efficiency
Only operate on AC
Starting torque is high, but they start slowly
Induction motors lose efficiency when starting through production of larger eddy currents

PERFORM AN INVESTIGATION TO DEMONSTRATE THE PRINCIPLE OF AN AC INDUCTION MOTOR

GATHER, PROCESS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION TO IDENTIFY SOME OF THE ENERGY TRANSFERS AND
TRANSFORMATIONS INVOLVING THE CONVERSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY INTO MORE USEFUL FORMS IN THE HOME
AND INDUSTRY
 Principle of Conservation of Energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be transformed from
one type to another
*Note
o An energy transfer occurs when energy in one form moves from one object or location to another
object or location as the same form of energy, e.g. heat transferred by conduction from the electric
heating element to the water in a domestic hot water system.
o An energy transformation occurs when energy is changed from one form to another form within an
appliance, e.g. electrical energy changed into useful rotational kinetic energy in a food processor.

From Electrical Energy:

Hair dryer (home):
o Some electrical energy is transformed into heat due to eddy currents in the laminated iron core, as parts
of the motor are heated up
o Electric motor transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy (the rotor spins)
Mechanical energy of rotor is transferred to axle and to fan.
o Mechanical energy of the rotor is transformed into sound, and transferred into the kinetic energy of air
particles by a fan that is attached to the axle
o The air passes through a heating element where electrical energy is transformed into heat energy (i.e.
kinetic energy of particles) and light energy.
o Heat energy is transferred out of the hair dryer by direct conduction to the air particles, and by
convection as the air particles carry the energy from the dryer

Analysis e.g. In electric kettles and toasters, current from the mains causes heating in a high-resistance element

To Electrical Energy
Solar cell (industry):
o Transforms radiant energy from the sun into electrical energy
Coal-fired power plant (industry):
o Chemical energy of coal transformed into heat energy (kinetic energy of particles) as it is burned
o Heat energy transformed into kinetic (mechanical) energy as moving steam
o Kinetic energy of steam converted into rotational mechanical energy of turbine
o Mechanical energy of turbine converted into electrical energy via a generator
 Microphone (home/industry)
o Converts kinetic energy of air particles (sound) into electrical energy
Batteries
o Transform chemical energy into electrical energy

Transfer of Electrical Energy:

Transformer (home/industry): Electrical energy is transferred from the primary coil to the secondary coil
o Occurs in plug-in voltage adaptors for many small (home) appliances such as CD players, and in welders
too
o Electrical energy in primary coil is converted into magnetic potential energy by creating a changing
magnetic field. As a result, charged particles in secondary coil experience a force and move as a result of
their magnetic potential energy within the magnetic field, and so their magnetic potential energy is
converted into electrical energy.
Induction motor (home/industry): Electrical energy is transferred by induction from the stator to the rotor
Cathode ray tube (home): Transfers electrical energy from power supply, to the screen in the form of a beam of
electrons
Hair dryer (home): Heat energy is transferred out of the hair dryer by direct conduction to the air particles, and
by convection as the air particles carry the energy from the dryer