EFFECTS OF TIME ON CAPACITY OF PIPE PILES IN DENSE MARINE SAND By F, C. Chow, R. J. Jardine, F, Brucy,’ and J. F. Nauroy* ApstRAct: Investigations into pile behavior in dense marine sand have been performed by the Institut Frangais 4u Pétrole and Imperial College at Dunkirk, northem France. In the most recent series of tess, strain-gauged, ‘open-ended pipe piles, driven and statically load tested in 1989, were retested in 1994. An 85% increase in shaft ‘capacity took place between six months and five years after installation. The possible causes are evaluated in relation to previous case histories, laboratory soil tests, pile corrosion, and new effective stress analyses devel- ‘oped using smaller, more intensively instrumented piles. The available evidence suggests that a circumferential arching mechanism develops during pile driving that limits the radial stresses acting on the pile shaft. It is concluded that creep leads to a breakdown of these arching stresses, allowing increases in radial stress and hence gains in shaft capacity. Increased dilation due to sand aging may also contribute. Finally, the measured pile shaft capacities are compared to predictions made using existing design methods. INTRODUCTION ‘The effects of time on the capacity of displacement piles in clay are well known and are usually explained through con- solidation theory. In granular materials, complete pore pressure equalization is expected within a few hours of driving, after Which load tests are often assumed to measure long-term pile capacity. However, a growing number of reports of longer- term changes in capacity are emerging. Much uncertainty sut- rounds the factors responsible for these changes. "This paper describes static and dynamic load tests on four ‘open-ended piles, 0.324 m in diameter, 11 and 22 m long, driven in dense marine sand at Dunkirk, northern France. The piles were initially installed and tested in 1989 by Brucy etal. (1991) as part of a “CLAROM"” research program. In 1994 the sie was revisited by Imperial College, becoming the sixth location for tests using the highly instrumented Imperial Col- lege Pile (ICP), as shown in Fig. 1. In addition to single ICP tests (Chow 1997) and interaction experiments (Chow 1995), two of the original CLAROM piles were loaded statically in tension. The shaft capacity of an 11 m pile was found to have increased by up to 85% during the intervening five years. Strain-gauge measurements and corrosion inspection ofthe ex- twacted piles provide information on the possible causes. ‘The paper is divided into three parts: a review of previous studies; a description ofthe Dunkirk tests; and an analysis that includes a critical appraisal of the possible causes of setup in sands. Appendix I examines shaft capacity predictions made for Dunkirk using the existing American Petroleum Institute (APD recommendations and. other recently proposed ap- proaches. PREVIOUS STUDIES ‘A small handful of cases have been reported where the ca- pacities of piles in sand reduced with time. These are limited "Bnge, Ceoiechnioal Consuling Group, 1A Queensberry Plave, Lom don SWi 2DL (Former Imperial College) "Reader, Dept. of Civ. Engrg, Impetial College Rd,, London SW7 2BU, "Engr, Tastut Frangls dy Péuole, BP 311, 92506 Ruel! Malmaison, France. “Engr, Institut Frangals du Petre, BP 311, 92506 Rueil Malmaison, France, "Note. Discussion open until August 1, 1998. To extend the closing date one month, a writen request ust be fled withthe ASCE Manager of Journals. The manuscript for this paper was submited for review and possible publication on April 9, 1997. This paper is part ofthe Journal Of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol, 124, No. 3, March, 1998. @ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/98/0003-0254-0264r64.00 + 8.50 per page. Paper No. 15534, to (1) short-term relaxation duc to the recovery of pore pres- sures following dilation during driving (Parsons 1966; Yang 1970; Moller and Bergdah 1981); (2) piles founded on rock (Thompson and Thompson 1985; Samson and Authier 1986); or @) closely spaced pile groups (Davie and Bell 1991; York. ct al. 1994). Long-term reductions would not be expected on ‘most offshore piles in sand under normal loading conditions. ‘Short-term (<24 h) increases in pile capacity afer or during intermission in driving due to pore pressure dissipation have been widely documented (Visser et al. 1985; Raines and Murft 1985). The first account of mediumeterm (1-~100 d) in- creases in sand was given by Tavenas and Audy (1972), who meesured an average ~70% rise in capacity between static, Toad tests conducted 12h and 20 d after driving, with no further gains appearing over the following 30 d. Similar trends, were recorded by York et al. (1994) and Svinkin et al. (1994); though in these and the majority of the following cases, the rise in capacity was compared to the dynamic capacities atthe ‘end of initial driving (EOID) and hence include short-term effects. The short-term component may be very large, zero, of negative depending on the sand’s permeability and dilation characteristics, ‘A logarithmic relationship between pile setup and time was proposed by Skov and Denver (1988), though the additional influences of pile size, sand density, and saturation have also been demonstrated (York et al. 1994; Svinkin et al. 1994), Holm (1992) measured long-term setup in dynamic tests on 27 friction piles in deposits with insignificant carbonate con- tenis. Long-term increases were also measured by Seidel etal. (1988). The most recent case of long-term setup was reported sate > a Ate tate FIG. 1. ICP Test Sites 2254 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / MARCH 1998i, — fF a dole Buf rites Si ay aye a FO, 2, increases in Aaa! Teal Seoee wth Tie egelet ‘Shaft of Concrete Pile In Sand [after Ng et al. (1988)] by Tomlinson (1996) for trial piles atthe Jamuna Bridge ‘These were open-ended, steel, 762 mm in diameter and 78 m long, and driven into loose to medium dense micaceous sand. Tension and compression tests were performed 3-10 d after diving, revealing extremely low shaft capacities, around 30% of those expected from cone penetration test (CPT) design ‘methods. A tension test conducted nine months later showed that shaft capacity had increased by a factor of 2.7 due to long- term aging, Static compression load tests were conducted on precast concrete piles for the approach road bridges to inves- tigate the rates of setup. These indicated larger increases of ~3.5 in 50 d, though shaft capacities were deduced indirectly using Chin's (1970) method of analysis and are not as reliable as data from tension tests. The changes in capacity were un- expected and the causes were not established, ‘CAPWAP dynamic analyses indicate that setup occurs pre- dominantly through increases in shaft friction, usually along the lower part of the pile (Samson and Authier 1986; Skov and Denver 1988; Astedt et al. 1992), This trend was con- firmed by P. Bullock and J. H. Schmertmann (personal com- ‘munication, 1995) through long-term static tests on instru- ‘mented concrete piles in sands and silts, Ng et al. (1988) installed a concrete pile equipped with radial stress sensors in ‘medium dense sand in San Francisco, measuring a continuous rise in the radial stress near the pile toe during the intervals between load tests, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Similar increases in radial stress are reported in Axelsson (1998). Salient fea- tures from the 11 medium and long-term studies mentioned carlier are summarized in Table 1. DUNKIRK PILE TESTS: Soll Conditions ‘The Dunkirk test site lies on the coast of northem France, as shown in Fig. 1. The stratigraphy consists of ~30 m of medium to very dense (average D, ~ 75%), marine Flandrian ‘Sand (Holocene) overlain by 3 m of very dense (D,'~ 100%) hydraulic sand fill. Te fill was placed around 1974 during the dredging of the adjacent harbor, and has the same geological origin a5 the underlying natural deposits. Occasional organic layers were found and the water table was 4 m below ground level, Sand fill hydraulically deposited above the water table often possesses high densities due to the effect of the down- ward percolation of water [e.g., de Groot et al. (1988); Hodge (1988)]. Fig. 3 shows the borehole log and CPT measurements ‘made by the Building Research Establishment in 1994, The average relative densities (D,) given before were deduced us- ing Lunne and Christoffersen’s (1983) CPT correlation. Com- TABLE 1. Medium and Long-Term Increases in Capacities of Driven Piles In Sand—Case Histories Equivalent [Average] State! [Max. Tox soi Pie ameter | tangtn | dynamic | ime Reference locaton description ‘ype =) |) |(80) wating} (a) Results wo @ o @ @ | @ a |e ® Tigagmd Rey_ |S Cheer Re, [elon re tesa [Eine 0x0 | s 56 [Pl coon incre im) ‘Quabec, Canost Iexagonal "=70% i 20.4 Samaon and Autor |suepes, Canada sua np sioxrs | 14 | Danas | si \cAPWAP: Rit in 4 below (1986) ‘Sen pth Hamers Plat, Sar [Medium dense hydro Jones square | os | 3 S| 100 |inerete fa between load Francie, nd Tess near te ple base Califia Mi, Himborg, [Sand and it Iconerte quae | 039s | ars | Dands | 23 |cAPWAP: x incresod nese < ‘Genaaay pile toe Sele eta. 1988) |Barwon Bridge, |Very lowevery dente |conerte quae | 0508 | —i87 | Dana's | 535 [som increase in capacty ‘Aus "ay Pies foonded 2 m | with taped toe ino imerone iim cigvay, | Sweden, aious its and sans niga [Concrete squwe 0305-0268 | vasous | Dana's | 300 |~80% increase over 200 4 Gtioim and | ater ae carbonate cote ‘or 27 ton ples Kacat (1995) ‘ued ets. (992) ora Sweden Joose-cese, needium |Concree squwe | 30s | 263 | Dp | 64 |CAPWAP: 808 increas in od 10s icin ‘capt of fcton ples York ea (194) [JKC oterational Jedi dense, medium |Movotbe,inbee [0288-0200] 20 | Dana's | 224 |~s0% soup ater 20 ‘Arpor. New York, ["te sand ~2em tek [and sel ‘mor in dese sane United Sines | cay and pat ayer near ‘toe Svinkia et (1994) | Alsbama, Unted [sity send Iconcete quae fi.os2-osis} 215 | Danis | 25 [60% seupin20¢ st nied Sines [2 ster: Dene and loose |consee square | oss | — S| 270 |~som average incase in face ster 2004 ‘Tomlnron (1996) |samuns Bridge, |Loosemelum dent, sty, Concrete square 2s | pants; | 86; |0,esimated om chin ‘Banglades ‘mel fae, micseout | ae tsar | 0762 | 78 S| 270 | analyse, measured d- nnd fncined ‘ally ‘Axelson 1988) | vary, Sweden [Laonormatim dese wat [onsets agewe | 026s | 19 | 216 |cAPWAP:intamented igaded plac sand ‘means increase Ia with te Wa CAPWAP = Gyoanic sue wave maya (Goble and Rasaohe 1980) JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / MARCH 1998 /255,BoreFae Tog cre, ad wip eg CPT, Pad ne a ep locked ak cacgeatieaiceal Shnéed SIND wo casa el Pets ate ro nts Depth tm) | meoing cer FIG. 3. Dunkirk Stratigraphy parison of CPT tests conducted in 1988 and 1994 shows no {ime-related increases in penetration resistance. ‘The Flandrian Sand is Uniform, fine to medium, subrounded to rounded, with mean particle ‘size, Dip ~ 0.25 mm, The average composition is 84% quartz, 8% feldspar, and 8% cal- cium carbonate shell fragments. Bulk densities of 17.1 kN/m* and 19.9 kN/m? were measured above and below the water lable, respectively. Direct shear box tests indicate a constant volume interface angle of friction, 8,,= 27° (using a mild steel interface with centerline-average roughness, R, ~ 8 jm), and a critical state friction angle, 6.,~ 31° (@; = 50-300 kPa). Traxial tests on samples at D, = 75% and p' = 200 kPa revealed a peak internal angle of friction, &, = 37°; the triaxial critical state angle was 4, 32°. Further details on soil properties are given by Chow (41397) and Kuwano (1996) CLAROM Tests Four open-ended, steel, pipe piles were installed as part of the CLAROM program. These had external diameters of 0.324 im, embedded lengths between 11 and 22 m, and, in two cases, internal pile shoes. Thirty resistance strain-gauges were fitted to the short piles. Tables 2 and 3 give the pile dimensions and testing depths. TABLE 2. Dunkirk ile Dimensions Dimensions oe ) a] i | uw oy @f{|o@ |] eternal diameter (=) 0324 | 0324 | 0328 | _osm4 ‘Wall thickness (mm) a7 jit |e | 127 Wall thickness atte of internal shoe (mm) | 191 | 127 | aga _| 127 Pile driving took place in December 1988 and testing oc- curred between May and September 1989. All four piles were tested dynamically and static load tests (in tension followed by compression) were performed on the short piles. The tests ‘were repeated after the soil plugs had been cored out to within 1 diameter of the base, as set forth in Table 3. Full accounts, of testing procedures and results are given by Brucy et al. (0991) and Brucy and Meunier (1992). The original strain- ‘gauge readings were later reviewed at Imperial College, where residual loads were deduced using the Hunter and Davisson (1969) approach. Imperial College Tests ‘Two piles, CS (11 m) and LS (22 m), were selected for tension testing in 1994, Pile LS had not undergone static load- TABLE 3, Dunkirk lle Testing Datos “Testing Datos and Pile Depths Stage activity cs cL ts m7 ( @) @ a) o) © T Driving Tasae as THis -16788 122-148 2 First retrike, RST ‘snars9 523189 ‘4/89 ‘5/23/89 = [Depth ()] 1d nd 20 20 3a Tension tes, T1892 sais rss = = eS (Depth (my) 113 3 = = es Compression test, 89a 622/89 also = a 4 Soil plug removal 0/89 3089 ‘as0re9 ‘s0re9 3 Second restrike, RSTK2 B19 9/1/89 aa1/89 S189 6 Tension tes, T'895 sn389 snT189 =a = S (Depth (m)] 116 116 = = @ ‘Compression txt, '890 snares sraare9 = = 1 Tension tes. T sR914 = Sars = (Depth md] 116 = 24 = 8 Extraction, EXT sn7794 sa1/94 a0 9/198 286 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING /MARCH 199‘TABLE 4. Dunkirk Pile Teste: Static, Dynamic, and Extraction Loads Stage Tost os cL is i « @) @ @ © © 1 Diving 333 (233, 600) NM 7.120 (1,280, 840) NM 2 First restrike, RSTKI 1230 NM 3,400 NM 3a ‘Tension test, T892 395 458 1,730 (estimated) = ES Compression test, C898 1,200 (623, 577) 1,199 (692, 507) = = 3 ‘Second resrke, RSTK2 368 NM NM 6 ‘Tension tet, T89 25 348 = & Compression test, C89 99 (535, 664) 1,200 (676, $24) = = 7 ‘Tension test, T'94 330 3,200 (estimated) = 8 (Corrected extraction, EXT NM —s10 3100+ =3100 ‘Nose: Total loads, Or are in KN; In compresion tests, the numbers in parentheses are (Q., Qa: NM ing before. The tests were caried out in conjunction with Pre- cision Monitoring and Control Lt. ‘A'12 m long reaction beam was used, and maintained load tests were performed following a procedure similar to that used in 1989, Piles CS and LS were loaded in increments of 100 and 150 KN, respectively, with each inerement being raintained for 30 min. AS the ereep rates increased, indicating impending failure, the losd increments were reduced to achieve a well-defined failure point. The average rate of dis- placement prior to failure was 0.02 mm/min. The tension failure” loads were defined at a pile head displacement of| ‘one-tenth of the pile diameter (D/10). Following research with smaller piles at Dunkirk (Chow and Jardine 1997), the 1989 compression failure loads (which were preceded by tension tests) were defined after a downward displacement equal to the upward tension movement plus D/10. Bighty-five percent of the strain gauges on pile CS were still functioning in 1994, and these were rezeroed and logged uring loading. Chow (1997) gives full details of their cali- bration, performance, andthe resolution of problems with fluc- tuations inthe supply-voltage. Corrections for residual stresses were deduced using “Method 3” proposed by Briaud and Tucker (1984). Tn addition to the previous well-controlled tests, simpler ten- sion tests were conducted on the CLAROM piles as they were extracted by hydraulic jacking. The loads required to initiate movement were measured with a calibrated pressure gauge connected 10 the jack system. The 2 m long reaction beam Used in this exercise probably led to surcharge-induced in- ‘creases in shaft capacities. Simple elastic stress analyses in- dicated increases of ~11%, and the extraction loads were cor- fected accordingly. Pile LS could not be extracted, even after 8 corrected load of ~3,100 KN had been applied. “The peak pile capacities and corrected extraction loads are provided in Table 4. Results from 11 m Piles ‘The ductile load-displacement curves displayed in Fig. 4 show how the average shaft resistance developed in test CS/T°94 was 85% and 72% greater than that measured five years earlier in CS/T'89a and b, respectively. This surprising increase was confirmed by the high load required to extract CL. Fig. 5 compares the inferred residual loads present after driving to those measured following compression tests. With ‘one exception, (CS/C’89a) (the low residual base loads prob- ably result from the retention of high positive internal shear stresses in the soil plug after unloading), similar forces (150~ 250 KN) were maintained at the pile toe, suggesting that no significant changes in axial loads took place between 1989 and 1994. Figs. 6 and 7 display the “true” axial load and shear stress profiles, corrected for residual stresses. The higher capacity in ‘CS/T'94 arose primarily from greater shear stresses below ~4 m depth, reinforcing the findings of Samson and Authier. 1600 Total load (KN) tension faster rate of placement FIG, 4, Plle CS Load-Displacement Behavior ‘Aal load (kN) 0 momma Depth (ny FIG. 5. PlleCS Residual Loads Piles CL and CS developed similar axial load and shear stress distributions in the 1989 tests, confirming Brucy et al.'s earlier conclusion that the pile shoe had no noticeable effect. Results from 22 m Piles Pile LS was loaded in tension to 2,500 KN, the full capacity of the loading frame, without pile failure being achieved. As LJOUFINAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / MARCH 1998 / 257shown in Fig. 8, the maximum pile head displacement was 16 mm, (~D/20) and the final creep rate was less than 0.01 ‘mm/min, Thé ultimate load was tentatively evaluated at ~3.2 ‘MN using the three independent approaches described in Table 5. Pile LL was extracted at ~3.1 MN, In comparison with the dynamic analysis at EOID, the shaft capacity appeared to have increased by ~140%. Corrosion After extraction, it was clear that severe corrosion had oo- curred along the upper 7 m of pile shaft in the unsaturated and oxygenated sand strata. The rust product in this zone had com- bined with dissolved carbonates to produce a strongly adhering. sand-rust-carbonate layer, up to 5 mm thick. Below 7 m, the short piles only showed slight corrosion, confined mainly 10 the instrument channels. Pile LL suffered moderate corrosion between 11.5 m and 14 m, with only slight corrosion below this level. 1 ON) 0 2 ANALYSIS ‘Comparison with Previous Studies Figs. 9 and 10 summarize the Dunkirk trends together with data from the sources listed in Table 1. Fig. 9 shows the change in total capacity with time, and involves combined shaft and base resistances. The Dunkirk points were derived from the 1989 restrike and compressive load tests and the 1994 tension capacities, plus estimated base resistances. Fig, 10 shows the more limited data set, covering shaft resistance alone. There is a high degree of scatter for the following rea- + Differences exist in the definition of initial total capacity, Qro. Tavenas and Audy (1972), Astedt et al. (1992), and P. Bullock and J. H. Schmertmann (personal communi- cation, 1995) assessed Oro from tests conducted 6-48 h after driving. In the remaining cases, Qre was measured at EOID; short-term pore pressure effects may play dif- ferent roles in these instances, Although not strictly comparable, both dynamic and static load tests are not distinguished, ‘The same static loading failure criterion was not used by all authors Shaft capacities from tension and compression tests are plotted. At Dunkirk, capacities in tension were ~25% lower than those in compression. ‘The case histories indicate that, while base resistance gains ‘are relatively small, shaft capacity increases by around 50% (£250) per log cycle of time in the medium to long term. ‘The Dunkirk tests show that the process does not halt after 20, 4, as suggested by Tavenas and Audy (1972). Basic Mechanisms Research by Lehane et al. (1993) in loose to medium dense sand at Labenne showed that the local shear stresses acting on a pile shaft at failure, +,, followed the simple Coulomb failure criterion 175 (oe + Aofhian 8, a where oj, = radial effective stress on pile shaft after installation and equalizatic increase during pile loading (due prin- trons (Pa) Dat (m) FIG. 7. Pile CS Smoothed Shear Distributions at Fallure 288 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / MARCH 1998Tot oad 89 Pla eed dapacenant (am) FIG, 8. LS/T'94Load-Displacement Curve cipally to dilation); and tan 8, = interface angle of friction at failure. More details on these components and their variation with pile and sand properties are given by Lehane and Jardine (1994b) and Jardine and Overy (1996). Bearing in mind (1), there are three possible reasons, given next, for the 85% increase in shaft capacity measured at Dun- kirk. Chemical Effects or Corrosion ‘The obvious corrosion of the upper 7 m of pile shaft led to the initial hypothesis that corrosive or chemical effects were responsible for the gains in capacity. Bonding of the sand par- ticles to the pile surface could have led either to an increase in operational 8, or strong bonding at the interface that forced TABLE 5. Evaluation of Ultimate Load of Pile LS in Test 704 Estimated tutimats toad Method (uN) a) @ ‘Comparison ofthe final eroep rate with that recorded | —3.2 In test CS/T°94 indicated that LS was loaded to ~79% ofits ultimate load, Chin's hyperbolic load-displacement analysis sug- -38 ‘ested ~~3.8 MN; however, the Dunkirk piles did (3.1 after 239% ‘ot behave in a perfectly hyperbolic manner. In a | corection) check against test CS/T°94, the method overpre ited pile capacity by 23%. Pile LL chaving the same dimensions as LS but with] ~3.2 ut the pile shoe) was extracted under a corected tensile force of ~3.1 MN. LS could not be ex- tracted at this load the principal displacement shear band out into the sand mass, leading to peak local friction angles close to @ and stronger dilation daring shearing. In addition, the creation of the ine soluble ferric oxide rust product could have led to volume increases and a consequent rise in radial stress, o. ‘An increase in friction angle from 8, = 27° to, at-most, 6 = 37° would lead to a 48% increase in 7, on pile CS. Move- ‘ment of the shear band $ mm into the sand mass would pro- duce an additional 3% rise in surface ares. Shear box tests indicate that dilation in soilsoil tests is approximately four times greater than in interface tests. An analytical model cal- ‘brated against the instrumented ICP tests at Dunkirk (Chow 1997) suggests this would lead to a ~59% increase in 7, The combined effect of these increases in local shaft resistance along the upper 7 m of pile where corrosion and bonding were observed would have produced an increase in average shaft resistance of ~60%, leaving a 16% shortfall to be derived from iron oxide volume increases. Typical see] corrosion rates under atmospheric conditions (“BS 8004" 1986) and calcu- lations based on molar reactions suggest a ~0.25 mm radial expansion over 5 yt, which could easly account for the 16% shortfall. However, metallurgical experience shows that in re- era Tte tania Drab Grae Ou a a oar 1) Bite & Somers Stor Deore 10s)" Teruaon 980) Sette as 2 Araaeon 108) Saree a mance Y Aateatet 1007 Donec 1 omar iean Somes 7/9 Timo after driving (days) Notes: Dstapaits tom Bulock & Schrarimann (198) and Tomfnson (196) are for changes in shat apacty eny. “The potas boseconebusen, Fie. pr the Dunk 1004 tas ware ‘Increases in Total Pile Copacity with Time uraiod assuring they remained the vam ab C890, JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GECENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / MARCH 1998 / 259Fetes Toe aa ‘Sanson Aa (1986) ‘Sele a (88) ‘awa ta (182) oc Stan (198) “anon (108) awenen 108), q 3 50% nereane Periogeycle ‘Time after driving (days) Note: The compressan sha capaci at Jamun Bge (Tomlinson 1896) were estimated Chin anaes. FIG. 10, Increases In Shaft Capacity with Time radial changes are much lower, since iron oxide is highly porous and compressible. While the foregoing calculations suggest that corrosive ef- feots might account for the 85% measured increase in shaft resistance, the shear stress distributions given in Fig. 7 directly contradict the corrosion argument: 7, increased most strongly below the water table (4 m), where corrosion and sand bonding were far less apparent. Furthermore, reports in the literature show similar degrees of setup for piles of corroding and non- corroding materials (steel, concrete, and timber) installed above and below the water table, and in carbonate-free sands. ‘Although the corrosion explanation was initially attractive, it is unlikely to be the principal cause of pile setup in sand. Effects of Age on Sand Properties Several researchers have noted that newly deposited or den- ified hydraulic fills can undergo increases in CPT resistance with time. Laboratory tests on aged samples have also dis- played increases in siiffness, dilation, and (Daramola 1980; Schmertmann 1991), Mitchell and Solymar (1984) pos- tulated that the formation of silica acid gel at the particle con- tacts has a cementing effect, creating a cohesive strength in- tereept (c’) in aged sands, through Mesti et al. (1990) and ‘Schmertmann (1991) argued thatthe effects of secondary com- pression or creep are greater, causing increased micro-inter- locking, higher friction angles (@’), and stronger dilation on shearing. Pile driving causes large disturbance to the volume of soil surrounding the pile, possibly resulting in reductions strength and dilatancy that might be reestablished with time. inary grain studies by Astedt et al. (1992) did not reveal ‘any link between pile setup and grain angularity, and there ‘were mo indications of pressure solutions or precipitations, though the authors noted that these may have been destroyed uring samy ing. ‘Aging was found to affect the direct interface resistance of dense, saturated Dunkirk sand in the laboratory (Chow 1997). ‘Samples were prepared at D, = 85% and were left to “age” under o = 300 kPa before slow shearing at 0.08 mm/min. A stainless-steel interface (R, ~ 8 jum) prevented corrosion. No changes in 8,, were detected over 63 d, and failure was ‘ductile in all cases. However, shear stiffness and dilation an- gles both increased with age, as shown in Fig. 11. The samples lunderwent imperceptible increases in density during the aging period, so the changes in behavior must be attributable to mi crostrictural rearrangements of the sand grains and their con- tacts with time, Lehane and Jardine (19940) show that sand stiffness (G) and interface dilation (8h) affect the magnitude of Ag} during pile loading and that Ag; is inversely proportional to pile ra- dius, Increases in G and 8h due to aging may increase capacity significantly, particularly for small-di les. Itis feasible that 8h could double and that global G could increase by 50% ‘over 5 yr, Calculations for the CLAROM piles suggest that these changes could account for one-third of the 85% increase jn capacity observed between 1989 and 1994, The fact that the database shown in Figs. 9 and 10 does not indicate a bias toward more pronounced setup for small-diameter piles rein- forces the view that changes in soil properties due to aging are unlikely to be the major factor controlling setup in sand. ‘As discussed next, this conclusion is further supported by the apparent absence of setup with bored piles in sand. Changes in Stress Regimes Surrounding Piles ‘The arguments given before indicate that the increases in shaft capacity measured at Dunkirk cannot be fully explained by local changes in interface shearing resistance, dilatancy, or global sand shear stiffness. Eq. (1) implies that the only re- ‘maining explanation must be an increase in oj. At first this seems improbable, as the radial stresses on the pile shaft are greater than those in the free-field (ofn) (effective stress inter- pretation of test CS/T'89a indicates an average ratio of h/olo ~ 1.7, with larger values existing toward the pile base) and the sand creep would be expected to reduce @, with time, ‘The measured increases in capacity could only have occurred if stresses greater than g}. were acting nearby in the sand mass. Laboratory model pile tests by Robinsky and Morrison (1964), Allersma (1988), and Chong (1988) have shown that 1260 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / MARCH 1998