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Lejaren Hillers 1970 chapter, Music Composed new techniques. Further, each was likely a historical
with Computers: An Historical Survey (Hiller first. The work of Caplin and Prinz in 1955 may
1970) contains numerous descriptions of projects be the first use of a computer to generate not just
in the computer generation of musical structures. sound (as was done as early as 1950 or 1951; see
By then, just over ten years after the publication Doornbusch 2004), but new musical structures.
of Hillers and Leonard Isaacsons seminal book The work of Padberg in the early 1960s may be the
Experimental Music (Hiller and Isaacson 1959), a first academic dissertation in CAAC, as well as the
startling number of experiments in generative music first research and software in CAAC published by a
with early computers had been completed. Hillers woman.
early research, compositions, and publications This article not only details the historical con-
established him as a leader in the then-emerging text and implementation of these projects for the
field of computer-aided algorithmic composition first time, but offers original recordings and new
(CAAC). Some researchers, likely inspired by Hiller realizations of these early computer-aided composi-
and Isaacsons 1956 Illiac Suite string quartet, even tions. These audio materials are available on-line at
duplicated their instrumentation: in an amusing www.flexatone.net/docs/cmj35-3.zip, and will also
footnote, Hiller writes that it is curious to note be included on the Computer Music Journal Sound
how many computer pieces have been written for and Video Anthology DVD accompanying the next
string quartet . . . particularly since string-quartet issue (35:4, Winter 2011).
performers seem to be among the least receptive to This research would not have been possible
newer compositional ideas such as computer music without the continuing contributions of the original
(Hiller 1970, p. 70). authors; numerous personal correspondences with
Hillers prominence in a young and decentralized both Caplin and Padberg have provided critical
field led many independent researchers to contact details on their projects. It is a great fortune that,
him directly. He became, it seems, a repository of through Hillers desire to document the work
information (often obtained only through direct completed in the field, and through the willingness
correspondence). Although Hillers chapter reports of Caplin and Padberg to revisit and discuss work
on numerous projects that are now well known and they completed a half-century ago, we can today
independently documented, buried in the historical listen to some of the earliest attempts at composing
survey are a few remarkable endeavors of significant music with a computer.
historical importance that have not hitherto been
fully documented, corroborated, or heard. This
article brings forth two of these projects, the work
of David Caplin and Dietrich Prinz, and the work of The First Ten Years of Computer-Aided Algorithmic
Sister (then Mother) Harriet Padberg. In his chapter, Composition
Hiller describes both of these projects primarily
through letters he received from the authors. The work of Hiller and Isaacson, leading to the
Both projects were pioneering: they began with completion of the Illiac Suite string quartet, is often
little or no knowledge of other applications of credited as the first extensive use of a computer
computers to music generation, and they explored to create music with algorithms (Dodge and Jerse
1997, p. 373). As Hiller frequently notes, however,
Computer Music Journal, 35:3, pp. 4056, Fall 2011 there were earlier experiments. The most well-
c2011 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. documented of these experiments is the song Push
Ariza 41
routines on the KSLAs new computer, a Ferranti a computer group and began development of the
Mark I (the star is an indication of a model with Ferranti Mark I (Tweedale 1993). The Mark I, gen-
revised hardware). Yet, when time permitted, he erally considered the first digital, stored-program
explored applications of the computer to music. computer made commercially available (Moreau
This work involved not only the generation of mu- 1984; Cambell-Kelly and Aspray 1996), was based on
sical structures, but direct synthesis of elementary a computer developed at Manchester University in
sounds (Lunbeck 2005a; Caplin 2008). While Hiller the late 1940s called the Manchester Mark 1 or the
and Isaacson, describing these experiments, state Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM; Napper
that the coding of this problem was carried out by 2005). Ferranti sold a total of nine Mark I computers.
D. A. Caplin (Hiller and Isaacson 1959, p. 56), The first two were delivered to Manchester Uni-
the programs were a collaboration: Prinz authored versity and the University of Toronto in 1951 and
the sound-generating code and Caplin authored the 1952, respectively (Tweedale 1993). The remaining
musical models. seven were slightly modified (Williams 1997)
The first experiments of Caplin and Prinz predate models, their name designated with an asterisk: the
the published work of both Hiller and Isaacson Mark I (Napper 2005). In 1953 Shell Chemical or-
and Klein and Bolitho, and provide the earliest dered the fourth Mark I , paying a reported 95,000
documented experiments in CAAC. As Hiller (1970, (Tweedale 1993). This computer was installed at
p. 47) notes, this research dates back to 1955 and the KSLA in 1953, and officially commissioned in
ranks among the earliest attempts at computer 1955 (Koninklijke/Shell-Laboratorium 1989, p. 150;
composition. Based exclusively on the information Lunbeck 2005b). The KSLA Mark I was given the
in Hiller and Isaacson (1959) and Hiller (1970), name MIRACLE; although the letters were said to
many others have cited Caplins early experiments abbreviate Mokums Industrial Research Automatic
(Cohen 1962; Cope 1991; Assayag 1998; Rivest Calculator for Laboratory and Engineering (using
1999). Interestingly, although Caplin participated a nickname for Amsterdam), others offered that
in Jasia Reichardts 1968 Institute of Contemporary the name stood for May It Replace All Chaotic
Arts exhibit Cybernetic Serendipity (Reichardt Laboratory Experiments (R. 1954).
1968; MacGregor 2002), there have been no other Prinz had significant programming experience:
independent acknowledgments of his work in music. he is the author of a text titled Introduction
As a peripheral activity of their primary re- to Programming on the Manchester Electronic
search, these studies were not formally documented Digital Computer Made by Ferranti Ltd. (n.d.;
(Lunbeck 2005b): as noted previously, the only writ- likely published in 1951). During this time he
ten information is known through a letter sent to oversaw the installation of the MIRACLE at the
Hiller by Lunbeck prior to 1959 (Hiller and Isaacson KSLA (Caplin 2008), as well as the seventh Ferranti
1959), a letter sent to Hiller by Caplin in 1960 Mark I , installed at the Istituto Nazionale per le
(Hiller 1970, p. 47), and, in the process of researching Applicazioni del Calcolo in Rome (Tweedale 1993;
this article, correspondence with Lunbeck in 2005 De Marco et al. 1999).
and Caplin in 2008 and 2009. Caplin has recently The Mark I machines were built with some 4,000
recovered recordings, dating from 1955 and 1959, vacuum tubes, 12,000 resistors, and 2,500 capaci-
of original output from his early systems; these tors; the machines had electrostatic core memory
recordings are for the first time being made available providing 256 40-bit words, drum memory providing
as part of this article. 16,384 words, and instruction times of 1.2 msec for
addition and 2.15 msec for multiplication (Williams
1997; Napper 2000). Perhaps more important to
The Ferranti Mark I at the KSLA early endeavors in computer music, however, is that
these machines, like the Council for Scientific and
In 1949 Ferranti Ltd., a large and then well-known Industrial Research Automatic Computer (CSIRAC)
UK electronics manufacturing firm, established and other early computers (Doornbusch 2004, 2005),
Ariza 43
Figure 1. A photograph, 1955. At the left of the functions or feed data to (Caplin 2011). Photo
taken around 1953, of the desk is the input device, various storage or output courtesy of Onno Zweers
operators desk of the which read five-hole destinations. Above this and Lidy Zweers-De
MIRACLE, a Ferranti teleprinter tape. The panel panel, on either side, are Ronde.
Mark I computer used by of three rows of switches, two cathode ray tubes. At
David Caplin and Dietrich at the center of the desk, the right of the desk is the
Prinz to generate music in could be used to specify teleprinter tape output
Prinz describes how, through the use of the hoot generators, calendar programs, and prime number
command, a series of periodically repeated pulses analyzers (Lunbeck 2005a). Photographs of the MIR-
is obtained so that an audible hoot is emitted; ACLE, taken in the 1950s, are provided in Figures 1
further, the pitch of the hoot can be varied by the and 2.
programmer, and this facility may be used to give
an immediate indication as to which of various
possible events has occurred (Prinz n.d., p. 20). An Implementation of the Mozart Musikalisches
Prinz suggests using variations in hoot pitch as a Wurfelspiel
practical means of giving feedback to the user.
In addition to performing newly generated com- Sometime in 1955 Prinz obtained a copy of the
positions, the MIRACLE was used to perform fixed Mozart Musikalisches Wurfelspiel, or dice game.
compositions. Numerous sources confirm that Het While he had already created programs to synthesize
Wilhelmus, the Dutch national anthem, was en- sound on the Ferranti Mark I , he lacked the musical
coded and played back by the MIRACLE (Rooijendijk knowledge to implement the dice game, so he turned
2007, p. 96). This synthesis of the Dutch national to Caplin for assistance.
anthem with the Mark I in Amsterdam was parallel The Mozart Musikalisches Wurfelspiel is one
to, but perhaps uncoordinated with, the earlier syn- of at least twenty musical dice games common
thesis of the British national anthem with the Mark in the late 18th and early 19th centuries (Hedges
I in Manchester. In an interview, Lidy Zweers-De 1978). The version attributed to Mozart was first
Ronde, one of the early programmers of the MIRA- published in 1793 (two years after his death) by
CLE, describes how the machine was used to play Johan Julius Hummel (Mozart 1793), and it includes
short melodies, including Het Wilhelmus (Eskens two similar games: one for minuets and another
2002). These and related programs were known at for contredances. Although numerous additional
the KSLA as visitors programs: software demon- printings and translations followed (Gardner 1974,
strations for visitors to the KSLA computer room. p. 133), it appears that all subsequent editions
Other visitors programs included random number derived from the Hummel publication (Hedges
1978). One of the most widely distributed modern Hedges 1978), is found in the British Library with
editions is published by B. Schott (Mozart 1956); the shelf mark Hirsch IV.237, indicating its inclusion
date of that publication, however, precludes use by in the Hirsch Collection. It is likely that this item,
Caplin and Prinz. specifying the composition of English contredances
When composing with this tool, two eight-bar (Englische Contretanze), is the work implemented
homophonic phrases are created. The music is given by Caplin and Prinz. Although other editions of
as two-part keyboard music, with harmony in the the Musikalisches Wurfelspiel are also found in
left hand and the melody in the right hand. Dice are the British Library, including those specifying the
used to select from 176 pre-composed measures. For composition of minuets, Caplins recordings are
each bar, two dice are thrown, summing to 11 unique clearly in duple meter, confirming the use of the
values (integers 2 through 12). This number is used English contredance games.
to select one of 11 pre-composed measures assigned Caplins composition system, ignoring the left-
to each bar position; for 14 of the 16 bar positions, hand harmonies, employed only the melodic lines
there are 11 possible measures. The diversity of from the measure-length segments in the published
options is reduced, and proper cadences are assured, edition of the Musikalisches Wurfelspiel. As the
by having bars 8 and 16 offer only one pre-composed computer was not fast enough to generate high
option for each respective position (Gardner 1974). frequencies with the hoot command, the melodic
Caplin reports that Prinz obtained a copy of lines were transposed down an octave. Each note
the Musikalisches Wurfelspiel from the Hirsch was assigned two parameters: one for pitch and the
Collection, then part of the British Museum in other for duration. As the magnitude of the impulse
London. An item in the British Library, attributed to supplied to the loudspeaker could not be varied,
W. A. Mozart, titled Anleitung Englische Con- dynamics were not possible with the synthesis
tretanze mit zwei Wurfeln zu componiren so technique employed (Caplin 2008).
viele man will, ohne etwas von der Musik oder These one-measure segments of note data, after
der Composition zu verstehen, and published by being stored, were recombined into new composi-
Nikolaus Simrock in Bonn in 1798 (Mozart 1798; tions, employing the guidelines of the Musikalisches
Ariza 45
Wurfelspiel and the Ferranti Mark I s random num- chord progressions from this song were used to derive
ber generator. Output was provided by hoot-based a harmonic progression and harmonic rhythm. For
synthesis and, optionally, printing or displaying the beats 1 and 3 of each 4/4 bar, pitches were randomly
resulting compositions as symbolic alphanumeric selected from the appropriate chord. Pitches at
data (Caplin 2008). other metric positions were selected using weighted
It is fitting that one of the best known early exam- random selection of transitional probabilities,
ples of algorithmic composition, the Musikalisches where probabilities for a pitch at position n was
Wurfelspiel, was implemented as what may be the based on the pitches at positions n 1 and n + 1.
first CAAC system. The availability of both a basic Caplin manually entered the probabilities for these
synthesis technique and a random number generator transitions. Hiller describes how pitches were
in the computer, as well as the positive benefits of selected from tables using transitional probabilities
impressing guests with vistor programs, led to (Hiller 1970, p. 47). This approach is similar to a
this projects success. While Caplin and Prinz could first-order Markov chain, yet employs both past
have generated endless random melodies, the imple- and future events to select intervening states.
mentation of Mozarts Musikalisches Wurfelspiel Rhythms were algorithmically generated according
offered a connection to historical practice and a to some fairly simple rules (Hiller 1970, p. 47):
suggestion of musical legitimacy. This convincing random selection from a fixed collection of bar-
demonstration of new sounds and techniques with length rhythms. Caplin notes that their first set of
old music bears some similarity to Wendy Carloss experiments bore some resemblance (Hiller 1970,
1968 recording Switched-On Bach, in which the p. 47) to Hillers earliest work on the Illiac Suite.
music of J. S. Bach was, for the first time, widely Caplin was familiar with Markov chains: he
heard on a Moog synthesizer. had employed them in his statistical models and
Recognizing further opportunities for using a was aware of creative applications such as the use
computer and constrained randomness to generate of Markov chains to generate text, as presented
musical structures, Caplin and Prinz went on to ex- in A Mathematical Theory of Communication
plore more sophisticated and creative compositional (Shannon and Weaver 1949). Caplin describes how
routines. his probabilistic approach came more from a
statistical approach to time series analysis (Caplin
Melodic Lines from Transitional Probabilities 2008). These motivations were similar to those of
Hiller, who as early as 1956 states that he had been
Hiller, based on his correspondence with Caplin, investigating the application of certain techniques
reports that additional experiments were conducted of probability theory for selecting successive melodic
by Caplin and Prinz until at least 1960, using the intervals (Hiller 1956, p. 248). In 1958 Hiller and
Ferranti Mark I in early 1956, and then the much Isaacson further describe their approach to Markoff
more powerful Ferranti Mercury computer in 1959. chain music as used in the Illiac Suite: transition
The Mercury was a significant improvement over the probabilities can be made to apply simply to
Mark I : a Ferranti brochure states that the machine successive melodic intervals, or more complexly
offered instruction times of 180 microseconds for in relation to a tonal center (Hiller and Isaacson
addition and 300 microseconds for multiplication, 1958, p. 156). By selecting notes between chord
as well as an expanded core memory of 1,024 words tones derived from a fixed harmonic background,
(Ferranti Ltd. 1956). Caplin states that the Mozart Caplin arrived at a similar approach.
Musikalisches Wurfelspiel program, after being Output from this later system was again provided
rewritten for the Ferranti Mercury, was 20 times in both symbolic alphanumeric form and in direct
faster than the same program on the Ferranti Mark I sound synthesis. Hiller and Caplin report of only
(Hiller 1970). one performance by humans of the symbolic music
The source material for this new composition output. While describing the results as rather dull
system was the song The Foggy, Foggy Dew. The tunes of the sort which one used to hear in Victorian
Ariza 47
Max Mathews converted these compositions Padberg programmed two systems, both in For-
into sound (Hiller 1970); Padberg adds that this tran, and both printed in whole in her dissertation.
took place in the summer of 1968 (Padberg 2008), The first, for the IBM 1620, permitted the creation
and Mathews suspects that Music V was used to of canons in two or four voices based on a single row.
synthesize the output (Mathews 2009). Padberg gave Due to the limitations of the IBM 1620, only one row
these recordings of Mathewss realization to the per canon was employed (Padberg 1964, p. 24). The
archive of the United States Province of the Society second system, for the IBM 7072, expands upon the
of the Sacred Heart. As the complete score tables first system and permits canons in two or four voices
are included in the dissertation, new transcriptions using from one to three rows, and adds the ability or
and realizations of her compositions have been create a free-fugue in two voices using from one
completed by the present author for this article. to three rows. All tone rows were limited in length
to between 5 and 24 pitches (Padberg 1964). Padberg
did not use random number generation in either
Musical Context and Composition Methods system; instead, she used a natural-language source
text as a variable source of parameter mappings for
Padberg was familiar with Experimental Music pitch and rhythm generation.
(Hiller and Isaacson 1959), as well as the procedural The differences between the two computers
models and analytical methods of Pinkerton (1956), Padberg used are significant. The computer she
Brooks et al. (1957), Moles (1960), Fucks (1962a, used first, the IBM 1620, was introduced in 1959.
1962b), and others. Padbergs research preceded This machine was intended as a small, scien-
the publication of both Xenakiss Stochastic Music tific computer for industrial process control and
Program (Xenakis 1965) and Koenigs research with related applications (Bashe et al. 1986). As a cost-
Project 1 and Project 2 (Koenig 1970). and power-saving design, the system had no arith-
Padberg frames her musical aesthetic within the metic unit and no general data registers, instead
context of 20th-century European and American se- using stored arithmetic tables for all math (Bashe
rialism, citing the procedures of Arnold Schoenberg, et al. 1986). The system had an extremely lim-
Anton Webern, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and Milton ited instruction set that nevertheless could be
Babbit (Padberg 1964). She specifically cites the use programmed to do a lot of useful work (Ceruzzi
of transformed or mapped text as a source of melodic 2003, p. 218). In terms of performance, this ma-
content, noting the well-known musical signature chine offered instruction times of 56 microseconds
motives of J. S. Bach, Anton Webern, and Robert for addition and 496 microseconds for multipli-
Schumann (Padberg 1964, pp. 1920). This approach cation (Moreau 1984), making it faster than the
to mapping natural language to musical parameters Ferranti Mercury in some aspects and slower in
is critical to her programs. Padberg is, however, others.
careful to note that it is evident that no exclusive The computer Padberg used second, the IBM 7072,
use of mechanical devices, no matter how logical was introduced in 1962 as an improved version of the
these may be, is sufficient to produce a masterpiece IBM 7070. The 7070, introduced in 1960, was the first
in any medium (Padberg 1964, p. 20). transistorized computer from IBM and was designed
Padberg does not, however, mention Guido of to be a large business computer (Ceruzzi 2003).
Arezzos vowel-to-pitch mapping system defined Offering significantly more flexibility and power
in Micrologus (Guido of Arezzo 1974 [ca. 1026]). with an expanded instruction set, performance
That approach, instead of mapping each character, was in some aspects comparable to the IBM 1620,
maps each vowel of each syllable to a pitch; this offering instruction times of 72 microseconds for
technique, described many centuries before the addition and 924 microseconds for multiplication
Musikalisches Wurfelspiel, is frequently cited (Moreau 1984). In this case, however, the machine
as the first documented method of algorithmic did arithmetic with logic circuits rather than stored
composition (Roads 1985). tables.
Ariza 49
structures. The number of vowels, the number of either two or three numbers. Whereas she explicitly
consonants, the number of total characters, the num- uses relatively prime numbers, Schillinger makes
ber of pitches in the center register, and the number no reference to prime numbers, demonstrating
of pitches in outer registers are all employed (Padberg generators with values of four, six, eight, and nine
1964). The least common multiple (LCM) of these (Schillinger 1941). Padbergs procedure (Padberg
numbers is found, and then up to five relatively 1964) takes two or three numbers and calculates all
prime factors of this LCM are found. Two integers multiples of these numbers up to the LCM of all
are relatively prime if they share no common posi- of the numbers. She then forms the union of these
tive divisors except 1. Two or three relatively prime sets of multiples, and sorts the values. To obtain
numbers are then extracted from this collection. durations, the difference of successive values is
These numbers are employed with subroutines that then calculated. As shown with the earlier example,
implement a form of Joseph Schillingers method of this procedure produces symmetrical duration
rhythmic resultants (Padberg 1964). sequences.
The Schillinger System of Musical Composi- After analysis of the source text, preparation
tion (Schillinger 1941) describes the generation of the tone row, and preparation of the rhythmic
of resultant rhythmic groups as produced by the materials, the primary voice of the canon is created.
interference of two synchronized monomial pe- This voice combines the tone row with the defined
riodicities (p. 4), where monomial periodicities rhythm pattern; both are repeated until their endings
are whole-number multiples of a fixed duration. coincide. The secondary voice is temporally shifted a
Schillinger offers as an example the interference of number of beats based on the number of consonants
a monomial periodicity of four and a monomial pe- in the source text, and then restates the pitches and
riodicity of three. Although he encouraged visually rhythms of the primary voice. The primary voice
drawing such generators on graph paper (Schillinger sustains its last pitch until the second voice arrives
1941), here, numerical sequences of duration values at the same pitch (Padberg 1964). If four voices are
can be used. The monomial periodicity of four will employed, they begin and end in a similar manner
produce the following time points (assuming 1 as (Padberg 1964).
a unit of duration): [0, 4, 8, 12]. The monomial
periodicity of three will produce the following time
points: [0, 3, 6, 9, 12]. The union, or interference, Program 2
of these two lists results in the time points [0, 3,
4, 6, 8, 9, 12]. A duration list can be produced by Program 2 extended Program 1, taking advantage of
taking the difference of adjacent values, producing the greater resources of the IBM 7072. Program 2
the interference group [3, 1, 2, 2, 1, 3]. included all of Program 1s functionality, permitting
Schillinger employed various combinations the creation of canons in two or four voices, but it
of rhythmic resultants, and speculated that all now also permitted the creation of free fugues in
rhythmic patterns in music are either complete two voices. Compositions could now include up to
or incomplete resultants (Schillinger 1941, p. three tone-rows (Padberg 1964).
10). Schillingers rhythmic resultants are closely The canon-generation procedures of Program 2
related to Xenakiss sieves (Xenakis 1990; Ariza follow those of Program 1. In addition to permitting
2005b), where monomial periodicities can be seen as the use of three tone rows, Program 2 additionally
residual classes and interference can be achieved derives rhythm patterns from each component block
by the combination of residual classes by union. of the source text.
This example, employing the Xenakis sieve notation The free fugue compositions, however, use nu-
presented in Ariza (2005b), is represented as the sieve merous new procedures. Here, retrograde, inversion,
4@0|3@0. and retrograde inversion statements of the tone row
Padberg provides two theorems, and the necessary are created and stored. It is notable that Padberg
subroutines, to produce rhythmic resultants with does not transpose the various presentations of the
Ariza 51
Figure 3. Excerpt of
Composition 4, a four-part
microtonal canon by
Harriet Padberg. Pitch and
quarter-tone spellings are
approximate.
and perhaps more musically compelling, in that it senior industrial economist in the Chemical Projects
is the only four-voice example provided by Padberg. Department. Caplin retired from the World Bank in
Figure 3 is a transcribed excerpt of Composition 1989, though until 1997 he continued to work on
4; the complete Csound realization is available World Bank projects in Romania, Hungary, China,
as Audio Example 3. Composition 5 is the only and elsewhere. Caplin is still an active composer,
example of a free fugue provided by Padberg. The writing vocal, choral, and chamber music for friends
source input text is university canon and twentieth and family.
century fugue. Figure 4 is a transcribed excerpt of Padberg, although not continuing her investiga-
Composition 5, and the complete Csound realization tions in computer music, kept music as an important
is Audio Example 4. part of her career. After completing her PhD, she
was appointed professor of mathematics and music
at Maryville University in 1964 (Padberg 2011).
Conclusion With Ruth Sheehan she established a music ther-
apy program at Maryville in the early 1970s. She
Caplin left Shell in 1964 and, after various other began work as a music therapist in 1980 (Padberg
projects in industrial operations planning, began 2008) and, since retirement in 1992, has dedicated
work for the United Nations (UN) Development two days a week to music therapy at the Emmaus
Programme. Through the UN, Caplin worked Homes (Anonymous 2006). Her work has been rec-
for the Ministry of Development of the Israeli ognized with recent honors, including the Epsilon
government, building mathematical models of Sigma Alphas statewide Distinguished Interna-
the Israeli chemical industry, and establishing Israel tional Academy of Noble Achievement Award and
Chemicals Ltd. He went on to do strategic and policy Maryvilles Deans Award in the School of Health
planning at the World Institute, Jerusalem; for the Professions (Anonymous 2006).
Ministries of Finance, Trade and Industry, Defense, Although these two early projects, separated by
and Transportation; and for the Water Planning ten years, offer considerably different approaches,
and Ports Authorities. In 1975 Caplin joined the both employ methods closely related to pre-
World Bank in Washington, DC, and worked as a computer approaches to algorithmic composition.
Ariza 53
Thanks to Onno Zweers and Cordula Rooijendijk Caplin, D. 2009c. Written correspondence with the author.
for sharing their research on the MIRACLE. Thanks 13 May 2009.
also to Paul Berg, Paul Doornbusch, Max Mathews, Caplin, D. 2009d. Written correspondence with the
Jasia Reichardt, and Steve Cork and Christopher author. 17 March 2009.
Caplin, D. 2011. Written correspondence with the author.
Scobie of the British Library for research assistance.
23 April 2011.
Ceruzzi, P. E. 2003. A History of Modern Computing.
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