1

Dr. AMITAVA BISWAS

Department of Applied Physics
Electrical Engineering Section
University of Calcutta
92, APC Road, Kolkata 700 009

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ACTIVE FILTERS

An electric filter is a four-terminal frequency-selective network design generally with reactive

elements to transmit freely a specified band of frequency and block or attenuate signals of frequency outside
this band.

Pass-Band : The band of frequency transmitted through the filter is called the pass-band.
Stop-band : The band of frequency which is severely attenuated by the frequency is called the attenuated on
stop-band.

CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS
Filter circuit are made by the circuit elements. Depends on the circuit elements used in their construction,
filters are classified into two type.
1. Passive filters
2. Active filter

1. Passive filters
A passive filters care are built with passive components such as resistors, capacitors and
inductors, are called passive filters.

2. Active filter
Active filters consist of active components such as op-amp, transistors in addition to resistors and
capacitors.

ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE FILTERS OVER PASSIVE FILTERS

Advantage of active filters over the passive filters are as follows:
1. Active filters are less cost.
2. More gain and frequency adjustment flexibility
3. No Loading Problem A
4. Active filters are small in size and less weight.
5. Non-floating Input and Output

APPLICATION OF ACTIVE FILTERS

Application of active filters is given below. They are used :
(i) in the field of communication and signal processing
(ii) in almost all sophisticated electronic systems, such as radio, television, telephone, radar,
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space satellites, biomedical equipments, and so on.

CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE FILTERS

The filters are classified as
1. Low Pass Filters,
2. High Pass Filters,
3. Bans Pass Filters,
4. Band Stop Filters, and
5. All Pass Filters

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTIVE FILTERS

1. Low Pass Filters
It is a circuit that has a constant output (or gain) from zero to a cut-off frequency, fc and
attenuation of all frequencies above fc.

(a) Ideal characteristic (b) Actual characteristic

Fig.1 : Low-pass active filter characteristics

2. High-Pass Filter
It is a circuit that attenuates all signals of frequency below the cut-off frequency and has a
constant output (or gain) above this frequency.

(a) Ideal characteristic (b) Actual characteristic

Fig.2 : High-pass active filter characteristics

3. Band-Pass Filter
It is a circuit that passes a band of frequencies and attenuates all frequencies outside the band.
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(a) Ideal characteristic (b) Actual characteristic

Fig.3 : Bandpass active filter characteristics

4. Band-Rejection/Elimination Filter or Band Stop Filter or Notch Filter

It rejects a specified band of frequencies while passing all other frequencies outside the band.

(a) Ideal characteristic (b) Actual characteristic

Fig.4 : Band reject active filter characteristics

5. All-Pass Filter
It passes all frequencies equally well, i.e., output and input voltages are equal in magnitude for all
frequency; with the phase-shift between the two a function of frequency.

Fig.5 : All pass filters characteristics

1. LOW-PASS ACTIVE FILTER (FIRST ORDER)

The circuit diagram of low-pass active filter is shown in Fig.6. The filtering is done by the RC
network, and the op-amp is used as a unity-gain amplifier.

The input impedance of the op-amp is

infinite, no current will flow into the input terminals.
At node-y, the node voltage is
R1
Vy = Vo
R1 + R f
At node-x, the node voltage is
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Xc 1/ jwC
Vx = Vi = Vi
R + Xc R + 1/ jwC
Vi Vi
Vx = = Fig.6(a) : First order low-pass active filter circuit.
i + jwRC i + j2 p f RC
Since the op-amp gain is infinite,
R1 Vin
= Vy = Vx V0
R1 + R f 1 + j2pfRC
R
V0 1 + R1 AF
= f
= = A CL
Vin 1 + j2pfRC 1 + j f
fc
R
A F = 1 + 1 = pass-band gain of the filter
Rf
f = frequency of the input signal
1
fc = = cut-off frequency of the filter Fig.6(b) : Characteristic of low-pass active filter.
2pRC
A CL = Closed- loop, gain of the filter as a function of frequency

V0 AF AF
The gain magnitude, A CL = = =
Vin 1 + (wRC) 2 1 + (f / f c ) 2

Phase angle, ( )
f = - tan -1 ( wRC ) = - tan -1 f
fc
1. At very low frequency, i.e. f = 0 , A CL = A F and f = 00
AF
2. At f = f c , A CL = = 0.707A F = -3A F dB and f = -450
2
3. At high frequency f >> f c , A CL < AF and - 450 < f < -900
4. At f = , A CL = 0 and f = -900
Figure 6(b) shows the characteristic of low-pass active filter.

2. HIGH-PASS ACTIVE FILTERS (FIRST ORDER)

The circuit diagram of a high-pass active filter is shown in Fig.7(a). The filtering is denote by the
CR network and the op-amp is connected as a unity-gain follower.
R1
At node-y, Vy = V0
R1 + R f
R
At node- x, Vx = Vin
R + Xc
R jwRC
Vx = Vin = Vin
R+ 1 1 + jwRC
jwC
Since, op-amp gain is infinite,
R1 jwRC
Vy = Vx = V0 Vin
R1 + R f 1 + jwRC
Fig.7(a) : First order low-pass active filter circuit
f = frequency of the input signal
1
fc = = cut-off frequency of the filter
2pRC
R
A F = 1 + 1 = pass-band gain of the filter
Rf
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A CL = Closed- loop, gain of the filter

The gain magnitude,
V wRC (f / f c )
A CL = 0 = A F = AF
Vin 1 + (wRC) 2 1 + (f / f c ) 2
Phase angle, f = 900 - tan -1 ( wRC ) = 900 - tan -1 ( f / f c ) Fig.7(b) : Characteristic of low-pass filter.
1. At f = 0 , A CL = 0 and f = 900
2. At very low frequency, i.e. f < f c , A CL @ A F and f > 900
AF
3. At f = f c , A CL = = 0.707A F = -3A F dB and f = 450
2
4. At high frequency f >> f c , A CL @ A F and 450 < f < 00
5. At f = , A CL = A F and f = 00
Figure 7(b) shows the characteristic of high-pass active filter.

3. BAND-PASS ACTIVE FILTER

Band-pass filter has a pass-band between two cut-off frequencies f cl (lower cut-off frequency)
and f ul (upper cut-off frequency) such that f cu > f cl . Any input frequency outside this pass-band is
attenuated. Band-pass filters are two types namely
(i) wind ban-pass active filter and
(ii) narrow band pass filter.

WIDE BAND PASS FILTER

A wide-band filter ( Q 0.5 ) is made by cascade a low-and a high-pass filter, provided the cut-
off frequency of the low-pass section is greater that for the high-pass section. The circuit diagram of the
wide band-pass active filter is shown in Fig.8(a).

Fig.8(a) : Circuit diagram of wide band-pass active filter.

For high-pass filter section, the voltage gain,

V1 (f / f CL )
= A FH
Vin 1 + (f / f ) 2
CL
where,
A FH = pass-band gain of high-pass filter
1
f CL = = cut-off frequency of the high-pass filter
2pR1C1
For low-pass filter section, the voltage gain,
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V0 1 Fig.8(b) : Characteristic of bandpass active filter

= A FL
V1 1 + (f / f CU ) 2
where, A FL = pass-band gain of low-pass filter
1
f CL = = cut-off frequency of the high-pass filter
2pR 2 C2
The voltage gain magnitude of the band-pass filter is equal to the product of the voltage gain
magnitudes of the high-pass and the low-pass filters.
V0 f / f CL f f CU
= A FL AFH = AFL AFH
Vin 1 + (f / f CL )2 1 + (f / f CU ) 2 f CL 2 + f 2 f CU 2 + f 2
1. At the center frequency, f = f CL f CU , The voltage gain
Vo A FL A FH f CU f CL fCU A A f f f f
= = FL FH CU CL CU = A FL A FH CU
Vin f CL 2 + f CU f CL f CU 2 + f CU f CL f CL f CU (f CL + f CU ) f CL + f CU

2. At f = f CL ,
Vo A FL A FH f CL f CU A A f f A A f CU
= = FL FH CL CU = FL FH
Vin f CL 2 + f CL 2 f CU 2 + fCL 2 2 f CL f CL 2 + fCU 2 2 f CL 2 + f CU 2
3. At f = f CU ,
Vo A FL A FH f CU f CU A A f f A A f CU
= = FL FH CU CU = FL FH
Vin 2 2 2
f CL + f CU f CU + f CU 2 2
2 f CU f CL + f CU 2 2 f CU 2 + f CL 2
4. At f = f CL = f CU ,
Vo A FL A FH f CU f CU A A f f A A A A
= = FL FH CL CU = FL FH = FL FH
Vin f CL 2 + f CL 2 f CU 2 + f CU 2 2 f CU 2 f CL 2 2 2

Figure 8(b) shows the characteristic of band-pass active filter.

4. BAND- REJECT (NOTCH) ACTIVE FILTER

Band-reject active filter may be obtained by the parallel connection of a high-pass section with a
low-pass section. The cut-off frequency of the high-pass section must be greater than that of the low-
pass section. The outputs of HP and LP sections are fed to an adder whose output voltage V0 will have
the notch filter characteristics. The block diagram and the circuit diagram are shown in Fig.9

Fig.9(a) : Block diagram of BR filter Fig.9(b) : Circuit diagram of band-reject active filter

The gain of the adder is set at unity and thus

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V V
Vo = o + o R 4 R 2 = R3 = R4
R 2 R 3
and R OM = R 2 R 3 R 4
j(f / fCH ) 1
So, Vo = A FH + A FL
1 + j(f / f CH )
1 + j(f / f CL )

If A FL = A FH = A, then at the center frequency, f r = f CL fCH
The gain is
2f CL
K = A
f CL + fCH

5. ALL-PASS ACTIVE FILTER

This filter passes all frequency component of the input signal without attenuation and provides
some phase shifts between the input and output signals. The circuit diagram of a all-pass active filter
with lagging output is shown in Fig.10(a).

Fig.10(a) : Circuit diagram of all-pass active filter.

Vx - Vi Vx - Vo Vi + Vo
At node-x, + =0 Vx =
R1 R1 2
Vy - Vi Vy Vi
At node- y, + =0 Vy =
R 1/ jwC 1 + jwRC
Since, op-amp gain is infinite,
Vy = Vx

Vi + Vo Vi
=
2 1 + jwRC
(1 + jwRC)(Vi + Vo ) = 2Vi
(1 - jwRC)Vi = (1 + jwRC)Vo
Vo 1 - jwRC
=
Vi 1 + jwRC
The amplitude of the gain, Fig.10(b) : Characteristic of all-pass active filter.
V0 1 + (wRC) 2
= =1
Vi 1 + (wRC) 2
\ V0 = Vi
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The phase angle between the input and output voltage is

- tan -1 ( wRC )
f= = -2 tan -1 ( wRC )
tan -1
( wRC )
The output voltage is lagging by the input voltage is f for the all-pass active filter. By
interchanging the position of R and C in the circuit, the output can be made leading by the input. The
output and input characteristic of the all-pass active filter is shown in Fig. 10(b).

This filter is also known as a phase-shift filter, time-delay filter, or simply the delay equalizer.
One major application of an all-pass filter is the simulation of a lossless transmission line. The
magnitude of the output voltage is the same as the input voltage but the output voltage is shifted in the phase
with respect to the input voltage.

The highest frequency up to which the input and output amplitudes remain equal is dependent on
the unity-gain bandwidth of the op-amp. At this frequency, however, the phase-shift between the t input
and output is maximum.

BUTTERWORTH FILTERS
The first and probably best-known filter approximation is the Butterworth or maximally-flat
response. It exhibits a nearly flat pass-band with no ripple. The roll-off is smooth and monotonic, with a
pass or high-pass roll-off rate of 20 dB/decade (6 dB/octave) for every pole. Thus, a 5 th-order
Butterworth low-pass filter would have an attenuation rate of 100 dB for every factor of ten increase in
frequency beyond the cutoff frequency. The general equation for a Butterworth filters amplitude
response is
1
H(w) =
1 + (w / wo ) 2n
where n is the order of the filter, and can be any positive whole number (1, 2, 3, . . . ), and wo is the
-3dB frequency of the filter.

1. SECOND ORDER LOW-PASS ACTIVE FILTER

The circuit diagram of a second order low-pass active filter is shown in Fig.20.
R1
At node-y, Vy = V0 = Vx
R1 + R f
V - V1 V
At node- x, x + x =0
R 1/ sC
Vx - V1 + sRCVx = 0
R1
\ V1 = (1 + sRC)Vo
R1 + R f
At node- 1, Fig.20 : Circuit diagram of a 2nd order low-pass active filter
V1 - Vi V1 - V0 V1 - Vx
+ + =0 V1 - Vi + sRC(V1 - V0 ) + V1 - Vx = 0
R 1/ sC R
V1 (2 + sRC) - Vi - sRCV0 - Vx = 0
Put, V1 and Vx in above equation, we get
R1 R1
V0 (1 + sRC) (2 + sRC) - Vi - sRCV0 - V0 = 0
R1 + R f R1 + R f
R + Rf R + Rf
(1 + sRC) (2 + sRC) - 1
V0 sRC - 1= 1 Vi
R1 R1
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V0 K
=
Vi 2 + 3sRC + (sRC) 2 - K sRC - 1
V (s) K
H(s) = 0 =
Vi (s) 1 + s RC(3 - K) + s 2 R 2C2
Put, s = j
K
H( jw) = 2
1 - (wRC) + jw RC(3 - K)
The magnitude of the transfer function is
K K
H( jw) = =
{ } { 1 - (w / w ) }
2 2
1 - (wRC) + { w RC(3 - K)} + { (3 - K)(w / wc )}
2 2 2 2
c

1 1
where, wc = or f c = = cut off frequency of the filter .
RC 2p RC
1. At w = 0 , H( jw) = K i.e. the low frequency gain of the filter is K.
2. At w = , H( jw) = 0 i.e. the high frequency gain of the filter is zero.

2. SECOND ORDER HIGH-PASS ACTIVE FILTER

The circuit diagram of a second order high-pass active filter is shown in Fig.21.

Fig.21 : Circuit diagram of a second order high-pass active filter

R1
At node-y, Vy = V0 = Vx
R1 + R f
Vx - V1 Vx
At node- x, + =0 sRCVx - sRCV1 + Vx = 0 Vx (1 + sRC) - sRCV1 = 0
1/ sC R
1 + sRC R1 1 + sRC
V1 = Vx = Vo
sRC R1 + R f sRC
V1 - Vi V1 - V0 V1 - Vx
At node- 1, + + =0 sRC(V1 - Vi ) + (V1 - V0 ) + sRC(V1 - Vx ) = 0
1/ sC R 1/ sC
V1 (1 + 2sRC) - sRC Vi - V0 - sRCVx = 0
Put, V1 and Vx in above equation, we get
R1 1 + sRC R
(1 + 2sRC) Vo - sRCVi - V0 - sRC 1 V0 = 0
R1 + R f sRC R1 + R f
R + Rf R + Rf
(1 + sRC) (1 + 2sRC) - sRC 1
V0 - (sRC) 2 = (sRC) 2 1 Vi
R1 R1
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V0 (s) K (sRC) 2 K (sRC) 2

H(s) = = =
Vi (s) 1 + 3sRC + 2(sRC) 2 - K sRC - (sRC) 2 1 + sRC(3 - K) + (sRC) 2
Put, s = j
K (wRC) 2
H( jw) = -
1 - (wRC) 2 + jw RC(3 - K)
The magnitude of the transfer function is
K ( w / wc )
2
K (wRC) 2
H( jw) = =
{ 1 - (wRC) } {1- ( w/ w ) }
2 2 2
+ { w RC(3 - K)} + { (3 - K) ( w / wc ) }
2 2 2
c

1 1
where, wc = or f c = = cut off frequency of the filter
RC 2p RC
1. At w = 0 , H( jw) = 0 i.e. the low frequency gain of the filter is zero.

2. At w = , H( jw) = K i.e. the high frequency gain of the filter is high.

3. SECOND ORDER BAND-PASS ACTIVE FILTER

The second order band-pass filter can be built by the cascade connection of a second order high-
pass and a second order low-pass filter. A second order band-pass active filter is shown in Fig.22.

Fig. 22 : Circuit diagram of a second-order band-pass active filter.

Lower cut-off frequency, w1 = 1/ R H CH and Upper cut-off frequency, w2 = 1/ R L CL

Voltage gains, K H = [ (R
+ R ] and
f ) / R K L = [ (R
+ R
f ]
) / R

R f = R
f= 0.586
For maximally flat response (or, Butterworth) filter, K H = K L = 1.586 \
R R
The overall transfer function is the product of the transfer function of the high-pass and low-pass filters.
V0 (s) K H (s / w1 ) 2 KL
H(s) = =
Vi (s) 1 + (s / w1 )(3 - K H ) + (s / w1 ) 1 + (s / w2 )(3 - K L ) + (s / w2 ) 2
2

Put, the values of K H and K L ,

magnitude of the gain is

4. SECOND ORDER BAND-

REJECT ACTIVE FILTER
It can be built by the
summation of second-order high-
pass and a second-order low-pass
filter. A second order band-reject
active filter is shown in Fig.23.
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The cut-off frequency of LPF, w1 = 1/ R L C L and the cut-off frequency of HPF, w2 = 1/ R H CH

Voltage gains,
R
1+ f
KH =
R
R

and 1+ f
KL =
R
Fig. 23 : Circuit diagram of a 2n-order band-reject active filter.
The magnitude of the overall transfer function is the sum of the transfer function of the high-pass
and low-pass filters.
V0 ( jw) 1 R 2 K H (w / w2 ) 2 KL
H( jw) = = 1+ +
Vi ( jw) 2 R1 1 + (w / w )4 4
1 + (w / w1 )
2

R R
1 + f and
where, K H = 1 + f and for Butterworth filters, K H = K L = 1.586 .
KL =
R R