Chapter 7-2

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits
Chapter 7 P212
RL circuit: A circuit consisting of resistors and inductors only
RC circuit: A circuit consisting of resistors and capacitors only.
Response: Generally, the response of a circuit consists of the
time evolution of its output in response to a specific
input or stimulus. Specifically in this course, it
refers to how the voltage and current change in a
circuit in response to a sudden change in the circuit
status, such as a sudden application or disconnection
of a power source.
First-Order: A circuit that can be described by a first-order
differential equation.
Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7-1 Network Analysis I
Review
Most basic inductor and capacitor equations:

diL dvC
Inductor: vL L Capacitor: iC C
dt dt
Both inductor and capacitor can store energy
1 2 1
Inductor: w LiL Capacitor: w CvC2
2 2
A fully-charged capacitor functions as an open circuit to dc current.
A fully-charged inductor functions as a short circuit to dc current.
The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously.
The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
Switch
An electrical component that can break an electrical circuit.
A simple switch has two states:
Open Switch: R = , I = 0,
V depends on external circuit
Closed Switch: R = 0, V = 0,
I depends on external circuit
Natural response of RC circuit
Consider the circuit below Chapter 7.2 P220
where VS is a dc voltage source with constant voltage.

Assume that
1. the switch has been at position A for a sufficiently long time
and the capacitor has been fully charged = Open-circuit
2. at time t = 0, the switch is abruptly changed from position A
to position B
Circuit status just before t = 0: t = 0
The equivalent circuit: Capacitor functions as an open circuit
Once C is replaced with an open-circuit, the circuit becomes

purely resistive vC(0) can be found with any method.
iR1(0) = 0 (Capacitor = open circuit)
vR1(0) = 0 (Ohms law)
vC(0) = Vs (KVL)
Circuit status just after t = 0: t = 0+
Chapter 7.2 P221
The voltage source is disconnected from the circuit.
The capacitor begins to release energy via the resistor R
The capacitor functions as a voltage source. dv
iC C C
Following passive sign convention: dt
Equivalent circuit: R and C are in series but also in parallel.
vC cannot change instantaneously:

vC(0+) = vC(0) = Vs
First-order RC circuit
Natural response: After the switch is changed to position B, there
is no more active power source. The current and voltage in the
circuit are a direct result of the release of the energy stored in the
capacitor. Such type of response is called natural response.
R and C in series and also in parallel:
iR (t ) iC (t ) v R (t ) vC (t )
dvC (t ) vC (t ) dvC (t ) vC (t )
Or iC (t ) iR (t ) C 0 0
dt R dt RC
This RC circuit consists of one capacitor and one resistor
The circuit is described by a first-order differential equation,
Such an RC circuit is called a first-order RC circuit.
The result
Chapter 7.1 P215
dvC (t ) 1
Solving for the equation vC (t ) 0 gives
dt RC
(See slide 52)
t t

vC (t ) vC (0 )e
Vo e
where
vC(0) is the value of the capacitor voltage right before
the power source was disconnected, that is, when t = 0,
called initial condition and denoted as Vo
= is called the time constant of the RC circuit with
the unit: F = Second.
The time constant
Chapter 7.1 P216-217
plays a very important role in all the above formulas
When t = 5,
t

e
= 0.0067379 < 1%
can effectively be ignored
The capacitor voltage vC(t)

effectively becomes zero
after 5.
Sufficiently long 5

3 ways to determine
1. RC if both R and C are known
2. Estimate from the response curve:

Find the time moment at which vC(t) is reduced to about 0.368Vo
on the curve, then the corresponding value of t is .
Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 10 Network Analysis I

3rd way to determine
dvC (t )

d Vo e t /
dt t 0 dt t 0
1
t
Vo e
t 0
Vo

3. Draw the tangent line of the curve through the point t = 0 and
vC(t) = Vo. Then the value of t at the intersect point of the tangent
line with the time-axis is the value of .
Procedures for solving RC circuit
Draw the equivalent circuit at t = 0 with the capacitor being
an open circuit and determine Vo = vC(0).
Draw the equivalent circuit at t = 0+ and determine
RC
Substitute into the formula:
t

vC (t ) Vo e
Note: The equivalent circuit, no matter for t = 0 or t = 0+,

MUST include the capacitor in it.
The other results
Find vC(t ) first. Then derive the others from vC(t ).
t

t
vR (t ) vC (t ) Vo e Vo
The current: iC (t ) iR (t ) e
R R R R
2t
Vo2
The power: p(t ) vC (t )iC (t ) e
R
The energy:
2x
Vo2 2t

t t
1
w(t ) p( x)dx e dx CVo2 1 e

0 R 2
0

1
Total energy initially stored in C: WT CVo
2
2
Notes
Attention: This formula was derived from the

circuits with one resistor and one capacitor.
The formula can be used if and only if the
circuit under consideration is the same as this
circuit structure one capacitor and one
resistor in series and also in parallel.
If your circuit is different, you need to simplify
or transform it to the same structure.
Example Chapter 7.2 P222
Example: Refer to the following figure. The switch has been on

position x for a sufficiently long time before it is
suddenly changed to position y at t = 0. Determine
1. vC (t ) for t 0
2. vo (t ) for t 0
3. io (t ) for t 0
4. the energy dissipated by the 60k resistor

Solution (1)
Equivalent circuit when t = 0: Vo = vC(0) = 100V

Solution (2)
Equivalent circuit when t = 0+:
240 60
Req R2 R3 // R4 32 32(k) 48(k) 80 (k)
240 60
Req C 80k 0.5F 0.04s
t t

vC (t ) V o e 100 e 0.04
100 e 25 t (V)
Solution
R3 // R4 48k
2. vo (t ) vC (t ) 100e 25t 60e 25t (V)
R2 R3 // R4 32k 48k
vo (t ) 60e 25t
3. io (t ) e 25t (mA)
R4 60k
pR4 (t ) i (t ) R4 e mA 60k
2 25t 2
4. o
60e 50t (mW )

WR4 pR4 (t )dt 60e 50t dt
0 0

60 50t
e 1.20 1 1.3mJ
50 0 Homework 13
Natural response of RL circuit
Chapter 7.1 P214
Consider the following circuit
where IS is a dc current source with constant current.

Assume that
1. the switch has been closed for a sufficiently long time and
the inductor has been fully charged = Short-circuit;
2. at time t = 0, the switch is suddenly open.
Question: How will the current change in the inductor?
Status right before switch is open: t = 0
The equivalent circuit: Inductor functions as short-circuit.
v(0) = vR(0) = vRs(0) = vL(0) = 0 (Parallel circuit)

i(0) = iR(0) = iRs(0) = 0 (Ohms law with v = 0)
iL(0) = IS (KCL)

Circuit status right after t = 0: t = 0+
The current source is disconnected from the circuit.
The inductor begins to release energy via resistor R.
The inductor functions as a voltage source. diL
vL L
Following passive sign convention: dt
Equivalent circuit: R and L are in series and also in parallel.
iL cannot change instantaneously: iL(0+) = iL(0) = IS

i(0+) = iR(0+) = iL(0+) = IS (Series circuit)
v(0+) = vR(0+) = iR(0+)R = ISR (Ohms law)
First-order RL circuit
Natural response: After the active power sources are
disconnected, the current and voltage in the circuit is a direct
result of release of the energy stored in the inductor, also called
natural response.
Let inductor current be iL(t). R and L in parallel and also in series:
v(t ) vR (t ) v L (t ) iR (t ) iL (t )
di L (t ) di L (t ) R
v L (t ) v R (t ) L Ri L (t ) 0 i L (t ) 0
dt dt L
This RL circuit consists of one inductor and one resistor
The circuit is described by a first-order differential equation
Such a circuit is named as first-order RL circuit.
The result Chapter 7.1 P215
Compare the differential equation with RC circuit:

diL (t ) R dvC (t ) 1
iL (t ) 0 vC (t ) 0
dt L dt RC
They are actually the same equation and so the solution:
R t
t
iL (t ) iL (0 )e L
I oe
where iL(0) is the initial condition of the inductor current

when t = 0 and denoted as Io
L
is the time constant of the RL circuit
R
1 2
Total energy initially stored in inductor: wT LI o
2
Other Results
Find iL(t ) first. Then derive the others from iL(t ).
t

The voltage: vL (t ) vR (t ) RiL (t ) RI o e
t
d I o e t
vL (t ) L
diL (t )
L L I e
1
or o
dt dt
t t
R
L I o e RI o e
L
2t

The power: p(t ) vL (t )iL (t ) RiL2 (t ) RI o2e
1 2
2x 2t
t t
The energy: w(t ) p( x)dx RI o2 e
dx LI o 1 e
2
0 0
This is the energy released by inductor or dissipated by resistor.

Notes
Attention: This formula was derived from the

circuits with one resistor and one inductor.
The formula can be used if and only if the
circuit under consideration is the same as this
circuit structure one inductor and one
resistor in series and also in parallel.
If your circuit is different, you need to simplify
or transform it to the same structure.
Summary for natural response
RL Circuit RC Circuit
Draw the equivalent circuit Draw the equivalent circuit
at t = 0 and find Io = iL(0), at t = 0 and find Vo = vC(0),
the short-circuit current the open-circuit voltage
through the inductor. across the capacitor.

at t = 0+ and find at t = 0+ and find
L
RC
R t

t
The result: i L (t ) I o e
The result: v C (t ) Vo e
Note: The equivalent circuit, no matter for t = 0 or t = 0+,

MUST contains capacitor or inductor.
Example: Refer to the circuit below. The switch has been

closed for a sufficiently long time before it is
suddenly opened at t = 0. Determine
1. iL (t ) for t 0
2. io (t ) for t 0
3. vo (t ) for t 0
4. the percentage of the energy dissipated by R2 in the total
energy stored in the inductor.

Solution (a)
Equivalent circuit when t = 0:
Io = iL(0) = 20A

Solution (a)
10 40
Req R1 R2 // R3 2 10
10 40
L 2H
0.2s
Req 10
t t

i L (t ) I o e
20e 0.2
20e 5t (A)
Solution
R2 10
2. io (t ) i L (t ) i L (t ) 0.2 20e 5t 4e 5t (A)
R2 R3 10 40
3. vo (t ) R3io (t ) 40 4e 5t 160e 5t (V)
1 2 1
4. WT LI o 2 202 400 (J)
2 2
p R2 (t )
2

v R 2 (t ) vo (t ) 160 e
2 5t 2

2560 e 10t (W)
R2 R2 10
0

WR2 pR 2 (t )dt 2560e 10t dt 2560
0
1
10

e 10t
0 256 (J)
WR2 256
100% 100% 64% Homework 14
WT 400
Step response of RL and RC circuits
Step function and signal:
0 if t 0 du (t )
Definition: u (t ) At t = 0:
VS if t 0 dt
In particular, if VS = 1, then u(t) is called unit-step function.

Step response of RL circuits
Chapter 7.2 P224
Consider the following RL circuit:

Assume: 1. the switch is initially open for a sufficiently long
time and iL(0) = 0
2. the switch is suddenly closed at t = 0
Circuit Analysis Chapter 7.2 P225
di (t )
KVL: vR (t ) vL (t ) Ri (t ) L VS
dt
L di (t ) 1 VS
Define , then i (t )
R dt L
di (t ) VS
Or i (t )
dt R
As t , the inductor will be fully charged and functions as a short
circuit. That is
VS
i ( ) i L ( )
R
iL() is called the final value of iL (t) denoted as If .
VS di(t )
I f i ( ) i(t ) I f
R dt
The solution (See Slide 5354)
Let iL (0+) = iL(0) = Io, then
i (t ) I f I o I f e
t

Final value + [Initial value Final value]

Forced response + Natural response
steady-state response + Transient response
As t , the second term will approach 0. It is just a short-
lived event and is called transient response.
In contrast, the first term is an equilibrium condition of the
circuit in response to sudden application of an input stimuli, a
step signal here and is called forced response or steady-state
response.
Other Variables
Once iL(t) is found, the other values can easily be determined
as what follows.
vR (t ) Ri(t )
t
vL (t ) VS vR (t ) VS RI f RI o I f e

t t
or VS RI f , vL (t ) R I o I f e VS RI o e
VS
With I f
R
t t
1
LI o I f e RI o I f e
di (t )
Or vL (t ) L
dt
Step response curve
Chapter 7.2 P226
i(t) = iL(t) with Io = 0

t

i (t ) I f 1 e

t
VS VS
e
R R
vL(t) with Io = 0
t

v L (t ) VS e

General procedure
Draw the equivalent circuit at t = 0 and find the initial current
through the inductor, Io = iL(0), using any technique you are
familiar with.
Draw the equivalent circuit at t = 0+ and find the time constant.

Note: One inductor and one resistor:
L

R
Use the same equivalent circuit at t = 0+ and determine the final
value, If = iL(). Then substitute into the formula
iL (t ) I f I o I f e
t


Assume that the switch has stayed at position a for a long time
and the circuit has become stable. At time t = 0, the switch is
suddenly changed from position a to b. Find
1. i(t) for t 0
2. vL(0+)
3. t when vL(t) = 24V
4. Plot i(t) and vL(t) vs. t

Solution
The initial condition: I o i(0 ) iL (0 ) 8 A

Solution
L 200mH
0.1 s
R1 2
VS 24
I f i ( ) 12 (A)
R1 2

t t

Current: i (t ) iL (t ) I f I o I f e
12 8 12e 0.1
12 20e 10t (A)

Solution
2. vL (t ) VS VR (t ) 24 2 12 20e10 t

40e 10t ( V )
vL (0 ) 40e 100 40( V )
3. 24V 40e 10t V
ln( 24) ln( 40) 10t 4.
1 40
t ln 51.08 (ms)
10 24

Step response of RC circuits
Consider the following first-order RC circuit:Chapter 7.2 P229
Note that:
iC (t ) i R (t ) i(t )

Assume: 1. the switch is initially open and the energy stored
in the capacitor is zero, that is, vC(0) = 0.
2. the switch is suddenly closed at t = 0
System equation
dvC (t )
KVL: VS Ri (t ) vC (t ) RC vC (t )
dt
dvC (t ) 1 VS dvC (t )
Define = RC, then vC (t ) or vC (t ) VS
dt RC dt
Compare with the equation of RL circuit:
di (t ) VS
i (t ) i ()
dt R
With Vf = VC() = VS and Vo = VC(0) then the same solution:
t
vC (t ) V f Vo V f e

t

Final value + [Initial value Final value] e
Forced response + Natural response

steady-state response + Transient response
General procedure
Draw equivalent circuit when t = 0 and determine the initial
voltage across the capacitor, Vo = vC(0), using any technique
you are familiar with.
Draw equivalent circuit when t = 0+ and determine the time

constant. Note: One capacitor and one resistor:
RC
Using the same equivalent circuit when t = 0+, determine the
final value, Vf = vC(), and substitute into the formula
t


Example
Chapter 7.2 P230
Assume that the switch has stayed at position 1 for a long time
and the capacitor has been fully charged. At time t = 0, the
switch is suddenly changed from position 1 to 2. Determine
1. vo(t) = vC(t) for t 0
2. io(t) = iC(t) for t 0

Solution
The initial capacitor voltage:

R2 60k
Vo vC (0 ) VR2 V1 40V 30V
R1 R2 20k 60k
Solution
Equivalent circuit when

t = 0+:
By comparison, this circuit is not the same as the circuit we just

discussed. In order to use the same formulas, it must be
transformed to the same circuit through source transformation.
Source transform
RTH R3 R4 // R5 8k 40k // 160k 40k

R5 160k
VTH V2 75V 60V
R4 R5 160k 40k

Thenvenens equivalent
The equivalent circuit:
Time constant: RTH C 40k 0.25F 10ms

Final capacitor voltage: V f vC () 60V Homework 15
t

vo (t ) vC (t ) 60 30 (60)e 0.01
60 90 e 100t (V)
0.25 106 90 100 e 100t 2.25e 100t (mA)

dvC (t )
2. io (t ) C
dt
Summary for natural response
at t = 0+ and find at t = 0+ and find
L RC

R t t

The current: i L (t ) I o e The voltage: v C (t ) Vo e
t t
Vo
The voltage: v L (t ) RI o e The current: iC (t ) e
R
Summary for step response
at t = 0+. Find If = iL() and at t = 0+. Find Vf = vC() and
L
RC
R
The inductor current: The capacitor voltage:

t

i L (t ) I f I o I f e

Solution for natural response
The equation: dvC (t ) 1 vC (t ) 0 dvC (t ) 1
dt
dt RC vC (t ) RC
Change variable and integrate:

vC ( t ) t t
dx 1 1
dy ln x vC (0 )
vC ( t )
y
vC ( 0 ) x RC 0 RC 0
ln vC (t ) ln vC (0 )
1
t 0 1 t
RC RC
vC (t ) 1 t
Let RC . Then ln

t
vC (0 ) RC
v (t )
ln C
t

t
v (0 ) vC (t )
Finally, e C
e
v (t ) v ( 0 ) e
vC (0 )
C C

Solution for step-response
di (t )
i (t ) I f
di (t )
i (t ) I f
dt dt
di (t ) di (t ) dt
dt
i (t ) I f i (t ) I f
1

dx

i (t ) t
Integration: dy
i (0 ) x I

f 0
Change variable: Let z x I f , then dz dx

When x i ( 0 ) Io , z Io I f
When x i (t ) , z i (t ) I f
Solution for step-response
Then
i (t ) I f dz 1

t
dy
Io I f z 0
1
t
i (t ) I f
ln z i (t ) I f
y ln t
Io I f
0
Io I f
i (t ) I f
ln
I I

t
i (t ) I f
t
e o f
e
e
Io I f
t

t


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Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits

Most basic inductor and capacitor equations:

A simple switch has two states:

where VS is a dc voltage source with constant voltage.

Once C is replaced with an open-circuit, the circuit becomes

vC cannot change instantaneously:

The capacitor voltage vC(t)

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7-9 Network Analysis I

2. Estimate from the response curve:

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 10 Network Analysis I

Draw the equivalent circuit at t = 0+ and determine

Note: The equivalent circuit, no matter for t = 0 or t = 0+,

Attention: This formula was derived from the

Example: Refer to the following figure. The switch has been on

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 15 Network Analysis I

Equivalent circuit when t = 0: Vo = vC(0) = 100V

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 16 Network Analysis I

60e 50t (mW )

where IS is a dc current source with constant current.

The equivalent circuit: Inductor functions as short-circuit.

v(0) = vR(0) = vRs(0) = vL(0) = 0 (Parallel circuit)

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 20 Network Analysis I

iL cannot change instantaneously: iL(0+) = iL(0) = IS

Compare the differential equation with RC circuit:

where iL(0) is the initial condition of the inductor current

This is the energy released by inductor or dissipated by resistor.

Attention: This formula was derived from the

Draw the equivalent circuit Draw the equivalent circuit

Note: The equivalent circuit, no matter for t = 0 or t = 0+,

Example: Refer to the circuit below. The switch has been

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 27 Network Analysis I

Equivalent circuit when t = 0:

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 28 Network Analysis I

In particular, if VS = 1, then u(t) is called unit-step function.

where VS is a dc voltage source with constant voltage.

Final value + [Initial value Final value]

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 36 Network Analysis I

Draw the equivalent circuit at t = 0+ and find the time constant.

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 37 Network Analysis I

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 38 Network Analysis I

Equivalent circuit when t = 0:

The initial condition: I o i(0 ) iL (0 ) 8 A

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 39 Network Analysis I

12 20e 10t (A)

3. 24V 40e 10t V

ln( 24) ln( 40) 10t 4.

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 41 Network Analysis I

where VS is a dc voltage source with constant voltage.

Forced response + Natural response

Draw equivalent circuit when t = 0+ and determine the time

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 44 Network Analysis I

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 45 Network Analysis I

Equivalent circuit when t = 0:

The initial capacitor voltage:

Equivalent circuit when

By comparison, this circuit is not the same as the circuit we just

RTH R3 R4 // R5 8k 40k // 160k 40k

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 48 Network Analysis I

Time constant: RTH C 40k 0.25F 10ms

0.25 106 90 100 e 100t 2.25e 100t (mA)

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 51 Network Analysis I

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 52 Network Analysis I

Change variable: Let z x I f , then dz dx

Chapter 7 Response of First-Order RL & RC Circuits 7 - 54 Network Analysis I