Modelling of Micro-Turbine and Grid
interconnection Issues
AbstractDistributed Energy Resources and its allied fields
are gaining importance day by day. Distributed generation (DG)
has much potential to improve distribution system performance.
The use of DG strongly contributes to a clean, reliable and cost
effective energy for future. The range of DG technologies and the
variability in their size, performance, and suitable applications
suggest that DG could provide power supply solutions in many
different industrial, commercial, and residential settings. In this
way, DG is contributing to improving the security of electricity
supply. However, distribution system designs and operating
practices are normally based on radial power flow and this
creates a significant challenge for the successful integration of
DG system.
As the issues are new and are the key for sustainable future
power supply, a lot of research is required to study their impact
and exploit them to the full extent. Distributed generation based
on fuel cell technology is new and a fast growing business. Most
likely fuel cell will be the dominant and attractive DG because it
is modular, efficient and environmentally friendly. SOFC fuel cell
and split-shaft micro-turbine are potential candidates for DG
applications.
Keywords micro-turbine, DG, Distributed energy resources,
fuel cell, grid interconnection.
I. Introduction
Increased demands on the nation's electrical power systems
and incidences of electricity shortages, power quality
problems, rolling blackouts, and electricity price spikes have
caused many utility customers to seek other sources of high-
quality, reliable electricity. . Distributed Energy Resources
(DER) provide an alternative to or an enhancement of the
traditional electric power grid. DER constitute a relatively new
paradigm in the electric power industry. The concept is
gaining popularity because of the inherent modularity of
DERs. They can be regarded as more flexible power sources,
albeit with limited capacity, than centralized power units.
Distributed energy resources are small, modular, energy
generation and storage technologies that provide electric
capacity or energy. Typically producing less than 10
megawatts (MW) of power, DER systems can usually be sized
to meet particular needs and installed on site. DER systems
may be either connected to the local electric power grid or
isolated from the grid in stand-alone applications. DER
technologies include wind turbines, photovoltaic (PV), fuel
cells, micro turbines, reciprocating engines, combustion
turbines, cogeneration, and energy storage systems.
DER is a faster, less expensive option to the construction
of large, central power plants and high-voltage transmission
lines. They offer consumers the potential for lower cost,
higher service reliability, high power quality, increased energy
efficiency, and energy independence. The use of renewable
distributed energy generation technologies and "green power"
such as wind, photovoltaic, geothermal, biomass, or
hydroelectric power can also provide a significant
environmental benefit. DER also include micro-turbines, fuel
cells, combustion engine battery storage etc. These different
Distributed Energy Resources are used for the production of
large power when used as cascade units. These have many
more advantages than other types of generations.
II. Drivers that led to DG growth
A. Environmental drivers
Limiting Green House Gas (GHG) emissions: The use of
renewable energy and CHP to limit GHG emissions is one of
the main drivers for DG. In this regard, it is important to point
out that integration of renewable sources of electrical energy
into power systems is a somewhat different question from that
of the integration of DG into power systems.
Avoidance of the construction of new transmission
circuits and large generating plants: Technological
developments in generator technology are already delivering
cost effective small to medium size generation technologies
for domestic application such as micro-CHP. In times when a
premium is placed on land use these technologies are likely to
prove popular.
B. Commercial drivers
General uncertainty in electricity markets favours small
generation schemes: It is well known that the capital outlay
required to establish new power stations can be very high.
The uncertainties associated with a competitive market
environment may favour generation projects with a small
capacity whose financial risk is commensurately small.
DG is a cost effective route to improved power quality and
reliability: The presence of DG close to load centres can
have a beneficial impact on power quality and supply
reliability. One area of improvement is voltage profile
improvements, reduction in number of customer minutes
lost especially if DG is allowed and able to stay on when
there are network outages (islanding).
C. National/regulatory drivers:
Failure of one power station will have limited impact on
the whole system compared to failure of one large power
plant or bulk electricity transmission facility.
By diversifying the energy sources especially
utilising renewable sources there is sense of control over
 the nations future energy needs. There is increasing
concern that the bulk of fossil fuel based energy supplies
come from regions of the world where control of these
resources could be potentially unpredictable thus posing an
unacceptable risk.
III. Types of Distributed Energy
Resources (DERs)
There are different types of DGs from the constructional
and technological points of view. These types of DGs must be
compared to each other to help in taking the decision with
regard to which kind is more suitable to be chosen in different
situations. The different kinds of DERs include the following:
A. Traditional combustion generators
Micro-turbine (MT): They are small capacity combustion
turbines, which can operate using natural gas, propane, and
fuel oil. In a simple form, they consist of a compressor,
combustor, recuperator, small turbine, and generator.
B. Non-traditional generators
Electrochemical devices, Fuel Cell (FC): Fuel Cells
produce DC electricity by a thermo chemical process in
which hydrogen (H2) is passed over an anode and air over
a cathode in an electrolyte bath; the DC power is inverted
to AC for grid operation. By-products are heat, water, and
carbon dioxide, making fuel cells one of the cleanest
sources of energy.
C. Renewable Devices
Photovoltaic (PV): The basic unit of PV is a cell that may
be square or round in shape, made of doped silicon crystal.
Cells are connected to form a module or panel and
modules are connected to form an array to generate the
required power .Cells absorb solar energy from the
sunlight, where the light photons force cell electrons to
flow, and convert it to dc electricity.
Wind-turbines (WT): WT consists of a rotor, turbine
blades, generator, drive or coupling device, shaft, and the
nacelle (the turbine head) that contains the gearbox and the
generator drive. Modern wind turbines can provide clean
electricity as individuals or as wind farms. Wind turbine
blades usually are two or three blades each nearly 1030m
long. The wind rotates the windmill-like blades, which in
turn rotate their attached shaft. This shaft operates a pump
or a generator that produces electricity.
IV. MICRO TURBINE
Micro-turbines are small capacity combustion turbines, which
can operate using natural gas, propane and fuel oil. The output
ranges from 25 to 300 kW. Micro-turbine run at less
temperature and pressure and faster speed (about 100,000).
Nowadays, there is growing interest in deploying MTs in DG
application, because of their quick start capability and easy
controllability useful for efficient peak shaving. The electric
power cost varies according to the load demand curves and the
corresponding available generation at the same time. Hence,
DGs can be used to supply some loads at peak periods, which
reduce the electricity cost for large industrial customers who
used to pay time-of-use rates (TOU) is referred to as peak load
shaving.
Most MTs use a permanent-magnet synchronous generator
(PMSG) or asynchronous generator for power generation. The
main advantage of using single-shaft configuration with a
PMSG or asynchronous generator is that it is simpler in
design. The disadvantage of the method is that the power
electronics system causes some conversion loss.
Split-shaft design is more suitable for machine drive
applications because it does not require an inverter to convert
the frequency of the ac power. The main advantage of
coupling a Synchronous Generator with a split-shaft MT is
that it eliminates the use of the rectifier and power converter.
In this case, the generator is connected to the turbine via a
gearbox to generate standard 50/60 Hz power. These
generators are robust and less costly as compared to PMSG,
and all other problems with high-speed PMSG are eliminated.
A. Advantages of Micro-turbines
-site especially if there are space
limitations. Also they are compact in size and light in weight
with respect to traditional combustion engines.
emissions (less than 10 ppm NOx) with respect to large scale
ones.
-known technology and they can start-up
easily, have good load tracking characteristics and require less
maintenance due their simple design.
than any other DG technology costs.
inertia not like a large gas turbine with large inertia.
the load or grid increases its flexibility to be controlled
efficiently.
B. Types of Micro-turbines
Simple-cycle gas turbines: Simple gas turbines can be
either a single-shaft machine (with air compressor and power
turbine (PT) on the same shaft) or a split-shaft machine. Also,
they have a burner or combustor, and an electric generator
rotated by power turbine.
Fig.Typical Micro-turbine operation
 Recuperated gas turbines: They are similar to simple-
cycle gas turbines, but with a special heat exchanger (a
recuperator). This recuperator uses the output exhaust thermal
energy to preheat compressed air in its pass to the burner to
increase the turbine electrical efficiency.
Combined cycle gas turbine: They use the exhaust
energy in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) based on
the concept of heat recovery, which may include a burner to
increase the steam output. Steam from the HRSG drives a
steam turbine, which generates power in addition to the main
power turbine as shown in figure to increase the total electric
efficiency.
Fig Combined Cycle gas turbine
C. Performance Analysis of a Micro-turbine as a
Distributed Energy Resource
The MTgenerator (MTG) system consists of the MT coupled
to a synchronous generator. The current generation MTs have
the following specifications:
Sizerelatively smaller in size as compared to other DERs
High efficiencyfuel-to-electricity conversion can reach
the range of 25%30%. However, if the waste heat recovery is
used for CHP applications, energy efficiency levels are greater
than 80%.
Environmental superiorityNOx emissions are lower than
7 ppm for natural gas machines in practical operating ranges.
Durabilitydesigned for 11 000 h of operation between
major overhauls with a service life of at least 45 000 h.
Economy of operationsystem costs lower than
Rs25000/kW. Cost of electricity is competitive with
alternatives including grid power for market applications.
Fuel flexibilitycapable of using alternative fuels like
natural gas, diesel, ethanol, landfill gas, and/or other biomass-
derived liquids and gases.
Noise levelreduced noise and vibrations.
Installationsimpler installation.
Micro-turbine Modelling
A proper dynamic modelling of the DG units, for dynamic
behaviour studies, is a key issue to get an adequate idea of the
impact in the network resulting from the presence of these
generation units following some disturbances. In such
dynamic analysis one must remember that only low
frequencies phenomena are of interest.
Synchronous machines should be modelled through the
conventional state equations that describe the electrical
machine, automatic voltage regulator, swing equation, speed
regulator and primary machine. This modelling depends
however on the type of plant. Usually mini hydro plants do not
have speed regulation. This is also often the case with
cogeneration plants, where the speed regulator is not activated
when operating in grid connected mode. In some industrial
plants that have cogeneration facilities the speed regulator
becomes active only in isolated operation mode.
Synchronous generator can be modelled in a proper way, for
grid dynamic behaviour analysis, through a third order model
with one mechanical equation and two electrical equations.
Generators with power electronic converters can be modelled
as current controlled sources or active and reactive power
sources since the fast transients in these converters, related
with electronic switches operation and control, are of no
interest in such analysis. The aggregation of synchronous and
asynchronous machines can be made adopting the usual
procedures used for the aggregation of conventional units in
per unit, neglecting the distribution grid connections situated
downstream. Generators with power electronic interfaces can
be modelled as mentioned in the previous paragraph, assuming
an equivalent power output equal to the sum of the individual
outputs of each one of these units.
There are essentially two types of micro-turbine designs. One
is a high-speed single-shaft design with the compressor and
turbine mounted on the same shaft as the alternator. Another is
a split-shaft design that uses a power turbine rotating at 3600
rpm and a conventional generator (usually induction
generator) connected via a gearbox. The designs are composed
of the following four or five parts:
Turbine - There are two kinds of turbines, high-speed single-
shaft turbines and split-shaft turbines. All are small gas
turbines.
Alternator or conventional machine - In the single-shaft
design, an alternator is directly coupled to the single shaft
turbine. The rotor is either a two- or four-pole permanent
magnet design, and the stator is a conventional copper wound
design. In the split-shaft design, a conventional induction or
synchronous machine is mounted on the power turbine via a
gearbox.
Power electronics - In the single-shaft design, the alternator
generates a very high frequency three phase signal ranging
from 1500 to 4000 Hz. The high frequency voltage is first
rectified and then inverted to a normal 50 or 60 Hz voltage. In
the split-shaft turbine design, power inverters are not needed.
Recuperator - The recuperator is a heat exchanger, which
transfers heat from the exhaust gas to the discharge air before
it enters the combustor. This reduces the amount of fuel
required to raise the discharge air temperature to that required
by the turbine.
 Control and communication systems - Control and
communication systems include full control of the turbine, Pin - Active power control variable applied to the
power inverter and start-up electronics as well as input of MT;
instrumentation, signal conditioning, data logging, diagnostics, Pdem - Actual load demand;
and user control communication. Pref - Preset power reference;
Kp - Proportional gain of PI controller;
Details Ki - Integral gain of PI controller.

MT modeling is based on the following assumptions. As MTs work on the similar principle as gas turbines, their
1) System operation under normal conditions: Here normal dynamic models are evolved from the concept of gas turbine
operating conditions of the system is considered. Hence, start- dynamics. Here widely accepted GAST turbine model is
up and shut down of MT along with fast dynamics (faults, loss adopted as shown in Fig. 3, for representing the dynamic
of power, etc.) are omitted from the model as they do not behaviour of a gas turbine. The advantages of GAST model
affect the operating conditions under normal load. are that it is simple and follows typical modeling guidelines.
2) Omission of the recuperator model: The electromechanical
behaviour of MT is of main interest, and hence, the
recuperator model is not included as it is only a heat
exchanger to raise engine efficiency. Also, due to the
recuperators very slow response time, it has little influence in
the time scale of dynamic simulations.
3) Omission of temperature and acceleration control models:
The temperature and acceleration controls have no impact on
the normal operating conditions. Temperature control acts as
an upper output power limit. At normal operating conditions,
the turbine temperature remains steady, and hence, it is
omitted from the model.
Acceleration control is used primarily during turbine start-up
to limit the rate of the rotor acceleration prior to reaching
operating speed. If the operating speed of the system is closer
to its rated speed, the acceleration control is of no significance
in the modeling. Fig. Turbine model
4) Omission of governor model: The governor model is
omitted as the MT does not use any governor. Instead, a speed For convenient presentation of the entire grid connected
controller is incorporated in the model to keep the speed micro-turbine model, it has been represented as a combination
constant. The simplified MT model is shown in figure. of two sub-systems. They are
Micro-turbine: It consists of the turbine and
controller. It is shown in Fig.8.5.
Generator and grid : It includes a synchronous
generator and the grid. It is shown in Fig.8.6.

Fig. Micro-turbine model

As the main emphasis is on active power control, therefore the
entire control system is simplified as an active power
proportionalintegral (PI) control function. The controlled
active power is applied to the turbine. Active power control is
represented as a conventional PI controller, as illustrated in
figure.

Fig.Controller model
faFig Simulink Model of Micro-Turbine

Fig. Simulink Model of Micro-Turbine Grid

Interconnected System.

Results
Islanded Mode
f
Load Input Mechanical Output

Fig. Load Input to Micro-Turbine Fig Mechanical Outpur of Micro-Turbine in islanded mode
 Grid connected output voltage waveform Harmonic Analysis of Grid Connected Current

Frequency HD Phase
0 Hz (DC): 25.23% 90.0

60 Hz (Fnd): 100.00% -48.2

120 Hz (h2): 17.19% -10.9

180 Hz (h3): 11.30% -1.3

240 Hz (h4): 8.59% 2.4

300 Hz (h5): 6.96% 4.6

Fig. Three Phase output voltage of grid connected micro-
turbine 360 Hz (h6): 5.84% 6.2
420 Hz (h7): 5.04% 7.6

Harmonic Analyisis Of Grid Connected Voltage 480 Hz (h8): 4.42% 9.0

540 Hz (h9): 3.95% 10.3

Frequency HD Phase 600 Hz (h10): 3.56% 11.4

0 Hz (DC): 0.23% 90.0 660 Hz (h11): 3.25% 12.7

60 Hz (Fnd): 100.00% 0.6 720 Hz (h12): 2.99% 13.8

120 Hz (h2): 18.36% 2.0 780 Hz (h13): 2.76% 15.0

180 Hz (h3): 10.96% 3.3 840 Hz (h14): 2.58% 16.3

240 Hz (h4): 7.93% 4.6 900 Hz (h15): 2.41% 17.4

300 Hz (h5): 6.25% 5.7 960 Hz (h16): 2.26% 18.6

360 Hz (h6): 5.17% 6.8

Table: Harmonc Distribution in micro-turbine grid current
420 Hz (h7): 4.41% 8.0

480 Hz (h8): 3.85% 9.2

Conclusion
540 Hz (h9): 3.42% 10.4
Harmonics are created by non-linear devices
600 Hz (h10): 3.07% 11.6 connected to the power system. Power system harmonics are
multiples of the fundamental power system frequency and
660 Hz (h11): 2.79% 12.7 these harmonic frequencies can create distorted voltages and
720 Hz (h12): 2.56% 13.9 currents. Distortion of voltages and currents can affect the
power system adversely causing power quality problems.
780 Hz (h13): 2.37% 15.1 Therefore, estimation of harmonics is of high importance for
efficiency of the power system network. The problem of
840 Hz (h14): 2.21% 16.2 harmonic loss evaluation is of growing importance for
renewable power system industry by impacting the operating
900 Hz (h15): 2.06% 17.4
costs and the useful life of the system components.
960 Hz (h16): 1.93% 18.6 By analysing the results obtained from Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) analysis, the prominent interconnection issue
Table. Harmonic Distrbution in micro-trubines grid voltage can be found to be the harmonic distortion in the grid voltage
and current. Also other issues such as voltage profile variation,
frequency instability, and so only forms some of the problems
associated with grid interconnection of Distributed Energy
Resources.
This paper has thus thrown light to the need for
finding ways to eliminate or atleast reduce the technical
barriers which have limited the growth of DERs. To achieve
an acceptable distortion, increase in power quality and to
reduce the harmonics, several three phase filter banks can be
used and connected in parallel. High order harmonics can be
suppressed by employing variants of Butterworth, Chebyshev
and Cauer filters.
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