Station Battery Testing

Best Practices 2011

Dinesh Chhajer, PE
Megger Technical Support Group
Dallas, Tx

1
Agenda
Definitions
Types of Batteries
Failure Modes
Tests and Inspection
Data Analysis

2
Definitions

3
 What Terms
Cell vs Battery
Jar
Capacity
Electrolyte
End Voltage
Float Voltage
Ripple Current
SOC, SOH, OCV

4
 Cell versus Battery
A battery is a device that converts the
chemical energy contained in its active
materials into electrical energy by means of an
electrochemical reaction.
While the term "battery" is often used, the
basic electrochemical element being referred
to is the cell.
A battery consists of two or more cells
electrically connected in series to form a unit.
In common usage, the terms "battery" and Single cell
"cell" are used interchangeably.
A single lead-acid cell can develop a maximum
potential difference of about 2 V under load.
A 6 V jar is made up of 3 cells connected in
series.
A 12 V jar is made up of 6 cells connected in
series.
A 120 V battery combines 60 cells connected in
series. Multi-cell Jar

5
Jar

Term used for container

of the cells.

Earliest cells contained in

glass jars

6
Capacity
The most common term used to describe a battery's ability to
deliver current is its rated capacity.
Manufacturers frequently specify the rated capacity of their
batteries in ampere-hours at a specific discharge rate.
Example 25 amps for 8 hours = 200Ah capacity
Battery capacity varies with the discharge rate.
The higher the discharge rate, the lower the cell capacity.
Lower discharge rates result in higher capacity.
The rated capacity for lead-acid batteries is usually specified
at the 8-, 10-, or 20-hour rates (C/8, C/10, C/20).
UPS batteries are rated at 8-hour capacities
Telecommunications batteries are rated at 10-hour capacities.

7
Electrolyte

An electrolyte is any substance containing free

ions that behaves as an electrically conductive
medium.
Flooded Leadacid
Water and sulphuric acid
Gel Cell
Gelified electrolyte; the sulfuric acid is mixed with a silica
fume, which makes the resulting mass gel-like and
immobile.
AGM
The electrolyte is absorbed into a mat of fine glass fibers.

8
End Voltage

In batteries, the end voltage is the prescribed lower-limit

voltage at which battery discharge is considered complete.
The end voltage is usually chosen so that the maximum useful
capacity of the battery is achieved.
The end voltage is different from one battery to the other and
it's highly dependent on the type of battery and the kind of
service in which the battery is used.
A completely discharged lead-acid cell has a potential
difference of about 1.75 V, depending on the rate of
discharge.
Also called final voltage or cutoff voltage.

9
Flame Arrestor

Prevents external flame from

entering battery

Location to add water

Location to test specific

gravity & temperature

10
Float Voltage
Float voltage refers to the voltage that is applied continuously
to a cell to maintain the cell in a fully charged condition.
The proper Float voltage depends on battery chemistry,
construction and ambient temperature.
Low float voltage = not fully charging
Cant supply full capacity
Can lead to Plate Sulfation
High float voltage = Over charging
cooks the battery
higher temperature
Grid corrosion
Thermal runaway
Dry-out

11
Float Current

Current through each cell

Interaction between float voltage and internal resistance
Supplied by charger
Electrochemical process reversed
Lead sulfate on plates converted to sulfuric acid and
active material
High float current precursor to thermal runaway
Short circuits
Ground faults
High float voltages

12
OCV

Acronym for open-circuit voltage

Measured during storage, installation, and

commissioning.

Sum of all cell voltages must equal the total string

voltage.

13
SOC

Acronym for state-of-charge of battery

Charged means nothing about supplying load as

designed
Car battery charged but will not start car

Fully charged is important but says nothing about

capacity

14
SOH

Acronym for state-of-health of battery

Gives indication of batteries ability to support load

Indication of capacity

15
Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a

solution to the weight of an equal volume of water
at a specified temperature.
Specific gravity is used as an indicator of the state
of charge (SOC) of a cell or battery.
Specific gravity measurements cannot determine a
battery's capacity.
The specific gravity decreases during the
discharging of a battery to a value near that of pure
water and it increases during a recharge.
The battery is considered fully charged when
specific gravity reaches it's highest possible value.

16
Specific Gravity

Specific gravity does vary with temperature and the

quantity of electrolyte in a cell.

The volume of electrolyte expands as temperature

rises and contracts as temperature
As the volume of electrolyte expands, specific gravity
readings are lowered and, conversely, specific gravity
increases with colder temperatures.

17
Ripple Current
By-product of charging system.
The chargers design, quality and age dictate the amount of ripple
current.
Excessive ripple current leads to internal heating of the battery and
overcharging.
IEEE states no more than 5A for every 100Ah.

21
Temperature
High temp = short life
Low temp = low capacity possible damage
10 C rise = life

Temperature Effects

120 30

110 25

Battery Life (yrs.)

100
Capacity (%)

20
90
15
80
10
70

60 5

50 0
47 62 77 92 107
Temperature (F)

% Capacity Life (yrs.)

22
Types of Batteries

23
Types of Batteries

Primary Batteries
Non-rechargeable
Throw away
Portable
Watches, cameras, radios etc.
Secondary Batteries
Rechargeable
Portable
Stationary

24
Secondary Stationary Batteries

Small UPS devices

for home and office equipment

Large UPS systems

Data centers
Critical process equipment
Health care systems
Back-up power for controls in the
utility system

Power Quality driven

25
Battery Requirements

Short duration
Seconds or a few minutes
Computer system shut down
Ride through until generator comes on line
Long Duration
Hours
Substation controls

Both dependent on construction

26
Flooded Lead-acid Battery

Flooded cells are those where

the electrodes/plates are
immersed in electrolyte. Since
gases created during charging
are vented to the atmosphere,
distilled water must be added
occasionally to bring the
electrolyte back to its required
level.

Flooded lead-acid

28
Sealed Lead-acid Battery
These types of batteries confine the electrolyte,
but have a vent or valve to allow gases to
escape if internal pressure exceeds a certain
threshold. During charging, a lead-acid battery
generates oxygen gas at the positive electrode.

Sealed lead-acid batteries are designed so that

the oxygen generated during charging is
captured and recombined in the battery. This is
called an oxygen recombination cycle and
works well as long as the charge rate is not too
high.

Too high of a rate of charge may result in case

rupture, thermal runaway, or internal
Sealed lead-acid
mechanical damage.

29
Gel Cell Battery

A gel cell is a VRLA battery with a gelified electrolyte;

the sulfuric acid is mixed with a silica fume, which
makes the resulting mass gel-like and immobile.
Unlike a traditional wet-cell lead-acid battery, these
batteries do not need to be kept upright. In addition,
gel batteries virtually eliminate the electrolyte
evaporation, spillage (and subsequent corrosion
issues) common to the wet-cell battery, and boast
greater resistance to extreme temperatures, shock,
and vibration. Chemically they are the same as wet
(non-sealed) batteries except that the antimony in the
lead plates is replaced by calcium. This preserves the
mechanical characteristics but renders the
construction far less prone to gassing. The battery
type is often referred to as a lead-calcium battery.

31
AGM Cell Battery

Absorbent glass mat (AGM) is a class of VRLA

battery in which the electrolyte is absorbed into a
mat of fine glass fibers. The AGMs unique (for lead
acid chemistries) construction allows for the lead in
their plates to be purer as they no longer need to
support their own weight as in traditional cells. Their
internal resistance is lower than traditional cells due
to plate proximity and the pure lead plates have
lower resistivity, they handle higher temperatures
better, and self discharge more slowly

32
Battery Construction

33
Simple Construction
- +

Basic Lead-acid
Positive Plate
Sulfuric Acid H2S04

and Water H20

Negative Plate
Acid
Sponge Lead Pb Lead Peroxide PbO2

Example
Zinc nail
Copper penny
Lemmon

34
Negative and Positive Plate Construction
The simplest method for the
construction of lead-acid battery
electrodes is the plant plate.
Named after the inventor of the lead-
acid battery.
A plant plate is merely a flat plate
composed of pure lead.
Capacity of a lead-acid battery is
proportional to the surface area of the
electrodes that is exposed to the
electrolyte.
Various schemes are employed to
increase the surface area of the
electrodes per unit volume or weight.

35
Plates
Regardless of the plate type
used, the capacity of any
battery is increased by adding
multiple plates in parallel.

Thickness & number determine

characteristics

Many thin plates

High cycle
Short duration
15 min UPS

Fewer thick plates

Lower cycle
Longer duration
Substation battery

40
Battery Discharge - Charge Cycle
Current Flow
Loa d

- + - +

Sulfuric Acid H2 S04 Sulfuric Acid Decreases

and W ater H2 0 W ater Increases

Sponge Lead Pb Lead Peroxide PbO 2 Lead Sulfate PbSO 4 forms on both Plates

Fully Charged Discharging

Pb + PbO2 + H2SO4 PbSO 4 + H2O

Current Flow
Cha rging Syste m

- + - +

Sulfuric Acid Increases Sulfuric Acid at Minimum

W ater Decreases W ater at Maximum

Hydrogen & Oxygen

Increase when Overcharged

Lead Sulfate PbSO 4 decreases both Plates Lead Sulfate PbSO 4 Max on both Plates

Charging Discharged
Pb + PbO2 + H2SO4 PbSO 4 + H2O

41
Battery Standards - Safety & Maintenance

OSHA 1926.403 Battery Rooms and Battery

Charging
OSHA 1910.178(g) Changing and Charging
Batteries
OSHA 1910.305(j)(7) Storage Batteries
OSHA 1910.151(c) Medical Services and First Aid
OSHA 1910 Subpart I Personal Protective
Equipment
OSHA 1910.331-.335 Electrical Safety Related
Work Practices

42
Battery Standards - Safety & Maintenance
NFPA 70 which includes the NEC (National Electrical Code)
IEEE 450-2002 Recommended Practice for Maintenance,
Testing, and Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for
Stationary Applications
IEEE 484-2002 Recommended Practice for Installation
Design and Implementation of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for
Stationary Applications
IEEE 1187-1996 Recommended Practice for Installation
Design and Installation of Valve Regulated Lead-Acid Storage
Batteries for Stationary Applications
IEEE 1188-1996 Recommended Practice for Maintenance,
Testing, and Replacement of Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid
(VRLA) Batteries for Stationary Applications

43
General Rules of Proper Maintenance

Flooded lead-acid batteries can function for 10

years or longer if properly maintained. The six
general rules of proper maintenance are:
Match the charger to the battery requirements.
Avoid over-discharging the battery.
Maintain the electrolyte at the appropriate level (add water
as required).
Keep the battery clean.
Avoid overheating the battery.
Provide an equalizing charge periodically to weak
batteries/cells.

44
Failure Modes

45
What can go wrong.

Top Post corrosion

Top lead connection deterioration inside the jar
Shedding
Dry outleading to thermal run away
Hard and Soft Shorts

Lets take a look at some these

46
Bad things can happen when Batteries do not
function properly

20MW Generator Damage after DC System

Failure Machine lost DC Oil Pumps and
Breaker Failed to trip. Unit motorized for 45
minutes. Shaft sheared in 3 places. Repairs
exceeded $3M and 6 months downtime.

47
Poorly Maintained &
Corroded Battery Terminal

48
Positive Grid Corrosion
Should be failure mode in
flooded lead-acid 20 years
Natural oxidation rust
Plates grow
Designed into batteries
Acceleration due to:
Overcharging
Excessive cycling
Excessive temperature
Increase in internal
impedance

49
Sediment (Shedding)
Small deposits at bottom of Jar
Small amount normal
Can cause plate shorts
Due to overcharging, undercharging, excessive cycling & temperature
Sulfation slough off - undercharging
Positive grid growth, active material & gassing overcharging

50
52
53
54
Sulfation
An important consideration during storage is a damaging process
called sulfation.
As cells sit in storage and self-discharge, the active materials of the
electrodes convert to lead sulfate just as they do in other discharges.
In self discharge the lead sulfate forms as larger crystals that have the
effect of insulating the particles of the active material, either from each
other or the grid.
Since lead sulfate occupies more space than sponge lead, the negative
plate expands in volume.
If the cell is allowed to over-discharge, the lead sulfate may expand to the
point where it separates from the sponge lead and falls to the bottom of
the jar as sediment.

56
Hard Shorts

Flooded and VRLA cells

Short circuit between plates

Paste lumps during manufacturing

Initially decrease in internal impedance

Eventually lower float voltage

57
Dry-Out (Loss of Compression)

VRLA batteries only

One of the typical failure modes
If gasses released, no way to add back
AGM losses contact with plates
Gel Cell electrolyte drys & cracks loosing contact
Increase in internal impedance
Due to overcharging and elevated temperature
Overcharge due to bad cell in string

58
Post Leakage
Electrolyte seeping around
posts

Leads to post corrosion

Which leads to cracked jar

Spill or leak?

Clean spills

59
Soft Shorts

Occur in VRLA AGM batteries

Between adjacent plates
Deep discharge = Water = lead dissolves
On recharge lead comes out of solution
Forms small sliver like pieces in matte (dendrites)
Severe cases = thousands of shorts
Initially decrease in internal impedance
Eventually lower float voltage

60
Thermal Run-away
A condition that occurs in a battery
(especially valve-regulated types)
when charging energy results in
heat generation within the battery
greater than the heat dissipated,
causing an uncontrolled rise in
battery temperature.
This can cause failure through cell
dry-out, shortened life, and/or
melting of the battery.
Once started self-sustaining
Can end in complete and
catastrophic failure

61
Loose Connections
Frequent Problem all battery types

Easily found with resistance measurement

High resistance = elevated temperature = higher resistance

When serving load high temperatures can melt lead posts

Watts Lost = (Current)2 (Resistance)

63
Tests & Inspection

64
Intro

No single test tells the whole story

Determine condition
Where condition is headed
How fast
Dont find out during an outage that your battery
failed
Gather as much test data as possible

65
Overall appearance and condition

Check entire system

Batteries, floor, room clean
Ventilation system
Battery support system
Check batteries for cracks, leaks and deformation
Strap corrosion
Record information

66
Charger Output Voltage and Current

Charger display % accuracy

Very important

Verify with DC volt meter

and DC amp meter

67
Float Voltage
Measure across each cell

Measure at posts

During float conditions

Not during discharge or

recharge

Compare value to
manufacturers
recommendation

68
Float Current
Kirchhoff current law
Measure anywhere in the
string
Usually low value
Measure during float
conditions
Not during discharge or
recharge
Increase in float current
precursor to Thermal Run-
away VRLA

69
Ripple Current

Measured with AC amp meter

Measure through each string

Less than 5 amps per 100Ah of capacity

Generated by charging system rectification

70
Inter-Cell Resistance

Important test

Torque not sufficient

Measure across strap

Not on Strap
On Post

71
Inter-Cell Resistance
Must include all resistance
between posts

Multiple straps Multiple

measurements

Low resistance ohm meter or

device designed for batteries

72
OHMIC TESTING

73
74
 Ohmic Testing of Stationary Batteries
Ohmic testing can be accomplished using one of three techniques:
DC Resistance
AC Conductance
AC Impedance (Megger)
Ohmic testing fills the gap between discharge tests and can provide
State-of-Health of installed batteries.

75
Battery Impedance Testing
Battery Impedance Test is a method of
measuring the condition of a battery.
Unlike other internal ohmic measurement
methods, this method measures the vector
sum of the internal cell resistance and the
capacitive reactance of the cell plate.

The measurement theory is based on

Ohms Law. The BITE product injects an
AC test current (I) into a battery. This
current is measured. Then AC potential
(E) is measured using potential probes.
Impedance (Z) is derived from: E/I = Z.

76
Ohmic Testing of Stationary Batteries

Impedance has correlation to capacity.

Values can be trended.
PowerDB LITE Software offers asset management program.
AC does not change characteristics of the cell under test.
AC testing considers both reactive and resistive elements.
BITE series measures AC ripple current, dc voltage, cell
impedance and strap resistance values.
All values used in calculation are MEASURED.
Fast single pass through battery string.
Developed by a major electric power utility.
Ergonomically designed to application environment.

77
DC Ohmic Test Graph can look like this

78
AC Ohmic Test can look like this

79
AC Ohmic Testing using Megger BITE 2

80
AC Ohmic Testing using Megger BITE 3

81
82
Recommended Limits for Impedance Test

83
Ohmic Test Recommended Limits

84
Specific Gravity
Flooded Cells
Temperature dependent
Low electrolyte level
Water lost
Higher Reading
Correct electrolyte level
Battery fully charged
Migration
State of Charge

85
Temperature

Batteries are designed to operate at 25 C (77 F)

Accuracy of device being used

Location of device

Ambient temperature

Cell temperature
Flooded Electrolyte thermometer
VRLA negative terminal/surface of battery

86
Electrolyte Level

Flooded Cells

Should be approx the same

for all cells

Leaks, overcharge, incorrect

filling

87
CAPACITY or LOAD TEST

88
Load Testing

Single absolute test for determining capacity.

Complexity & cost
Acceptance Test
Beginning of life based on design capacity
Performance Test
After two or three years when new then every five years
Based on design capacity also
Service Test
As needed to determine if battery will support existing
load

89
Define Test Parameters

Most of the time you will perform a straight

Discharge Test. This test puts a constant current
draw on the bank until it reaches a final terminal
voltage.
Constant Time
Constant Power
However, you could also perform a Modified
Performance Test plan (MPT) which sets up a test
based on the variable duty cycle of the batteries
and is considered a load profile test method.

90
 Determining Final Terminal Voltage

IEEE 450 - IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing,

and Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary
Applications states that:

Maintain the discharge rate until the battery terminal voltage

decreases to a value equal to the minimum average voltage per cell
as specified by the design of the installation times the number of
cells. For acceptance and performance tests as an example, a 60 cell
battery with a minimum design voltage of 1.75 volts per cell, then the
minimum battery voltage for the test is 60 1.75 or 105 volts.

91
Determine Test Current and Duration

Refer to Battery Manufacturer Data showing

Cell Output
Length of time cell will deliver that current

92
Manufacturers Data Specs

Example: Terminal Voltage = 60 X 1.75 = 105V

For 3CC-3M Batteries: 3 hr test = 12.9 A Discharge

So, for a 3 hr test 12.9A X 3 hr appox = 50 AH

93
Calculate Bank Capacity

Bank Capacity is calculated based on the time it

takes to reach Terminal Voltage with Temperature
Correction Factor.
%C = (Ta / (Tm X K)) X 100
Where
Ta = Actual Test Time
Tm = Manufacturers Rated Time to Reach Terminal Voltage
K = IEEE Specified Temperature Correction Factor

So, if you conduct your test at 74F (K=0.98), and it takes 2.2 hours to
reach your AH Goal, then your bank has 75% Capacity left. And if
your test runs for 2.6 hours to reach AH, your bank is at 88% of
Capacity.

94
IEEE Temperature Correction Factors
Temperature
Correction Factors
are adjusted for Test
Temperature and
based on 1.215 S.G.
These values are
valid for test between
1 8 hours.

Temp Corr
Factor = 1 at
77F

95
So, for an EU-9 Battery, for an 8-hr test,
the Discharge Current should be set at 48A.

96
Sample Manufacturers Discharge Ratings

97
 TORKEL

TORKEL 820 Telecom

12 - 48 V batteries, up to 270 A, 15 kW.

TORKEL 840 Utility

12 - 250 V batteries, up to 110 A, 15 kW.

TORKEL 860 Multi

12 - 480 V batteries, up to 110 A, 15 kW.

For higher currents, extra load units can be added

98
APPLICATIONS

Capacity tests with constant current or constant power

Testing according to a load profile

99
 TEST METHODS

Constant Current
Constant Power
Constant Resistance

Current Profile
Power Profile

100
 DISPLAY

Current
Voltage
Time
Discharged capacity

101
 LIMIT VALUES

Six independent limit values:

Warning at voltage level, time or capacity

Automatic stop at voltage level, time or discharged capacity

102
 LIMIT VALUES

Can be entered manually

Can be automatically calculated based on your standard values,
for instance 1.8 V / cell
You just enter the number of cells

103
 CURRENT MEASUREMENT

TORKEL measures the current and bases the regulation on:

current through TORKEL

current in an external circuit measured with a DC clamp-on

ammeter

104
 EXTERNAL CURRENT MEASUREMENT

You can test with a defined constant current without

disconnecting the ordinary load

TORKEL can maintain the total current at a constant level even

when it is used together with non-regulating (fixed) loads.

105
Constant current, even with the ordinary load connected

To ordinary load

106
 VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT

At the input terminals on TORKEL

At the battery terminals

At each cell terminal using smart voltage clamps

107
PROFILE TESTING

Current or power profile

108
PROFILE TESTING

According to profile stored previously in TORKEL:

Specify time and current or power for each step
Up to 19 steps in a profile
9 current and 9 power profiles can be stored

109
TORKEL AND AN EXTRA LOAD TXL

110
CABLE SET FOR TORKEL 840 / 860

2 x 3 m 25 mm2 110A

111
SUMMARY OF FEATURES
TORKEL Battery Load Units

Constant current, power or resistance

Profile testing
Can be extended with extra load units
Portable. 20 kg, small size
Warning at low: voltage, time or capacity
Auto-stop at low: voltage, time or capacity

112
SUMMARY OF FEATURES (cont)
TORKEL Battery Load Units

External current measurement

Voltage can be measured at the cell terminals using smart clamps
Settings can be stored in 9 memories
Storage of voltage curve data
Control using Power DB
Start/stop from external Source

113
Data Analysis

114
Megger supplied Data Packages

ProActiv
Torkel Win
Power dB

115
Data

Data in past on data sheets

Data filed away
Not looked at again until possibly a failure
Tests repeated and filed away at next testing
interval
No trending
Computers now have data sheets
Just filed in different location

116
Data
Data is best investigated in
graphical form

117
Battery Data

Trend data from single test

of one or more parameters

Trend data from multiple

tests of same string and
parameter

118
Battery Data (Single Strap Resistance Test Trend)

Intercell Connection Resistance

700

600

Inter-tier Cables

Resistance (microOhms)
500

Inter-row Cable
400

Loose Intercell
300
Connections

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Cell #

119
Battery Data (Single Impedance Test)
Percent Deviation from Average

-15.0% -10.0% -5.0% 0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0%

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

120
 Impedance (ohm)
Trend)

0.125
0.135
0.145
0.155

0.12
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16

Jul-01

Sep-01

Nov-01

Jan-02

Mar-02

May-02

Jul-02

Sep-02

Nov-02

Jan-03
Cell #18

Mar-03

May-03

Jul-03

Sep-03

Nov-03

Jan-04

Mar-04

May-04

Jul-04

Sep-04
Battery Data (Single Cell Impedance Multiple Test

121
122
123
Infrared Thermography

Proactive test

Best performed during

load test

Possibly could be used to

Source www.flirthermography.com

detect high temp cells in

VRLA

124
Test & Inspection Schedule

Adaptation of IEEE standards and NETA Specs

shown in following tables

Schedule should be based on recommendations

from standards as well as critical nature of system
and impact of failure.

125
Schedule
Flooded
Lead-Acid

I = Initial Acceptance, M=monthly,

Q=quarterly, A=annually,
SP=special circumstances
b Ten percent of cells

126
Schedule
VRLA

127
 Thank You !!

QUESTIONS ??

128