Telegina MA 2015

eeh power systems
laboratory
Ekaterina Telegina
Impact of Rotational Inertia Changes on

Power System Stability
Master Thesis
PSL1510
EEH Power Systems Laboratory

ETH Zurich
Examiner: Prof. Dr. Goran Andersson

Supervisor: Theodor S. Borsche
Zurich, November 11, 2015

ii
Abstract
High shares of converter-connected renewable generation and consumer de-

vices lead to reduction of rotational inertia in modern power systems. Low
level of inertia in a power system affects the system operation and its sta-
bility margin. Inertial response, inherent to rotating machines, degradates
with the rise of inverter-connected RES. Since inertia level defines the rate
of frequency deviation in the first seconds after a disturbance, reduced in-
ertia results in faster frequency dynamics. Operation of primary frequency
control and protection systems becomes more challenging due to the larger
and faster transient frequency deviations. One of the measures to mitigate
the effects of reduced inertia is implementation of faster primary frequency
control. Another possible solution is provision of artificial rotational inertia
in the system. The latter option also allows to provide additional damping
for inter-area oscillations.
This work investigates the impact of inertia changes on damping of sys-
tem modes and frequency response of a power system. It expands an opti-
mization algorithm proposed in [1]. The algorithm serves for optimization
of rotational inertia and damping levels in a system to enable the assess-
ment of optimal artificial inertia and damping procurement volumes. The
algorithm is focused on improvement of damping of the system modes un-
der a transient frequency overshoot constraint. For the analysis of system
modes, the system state matrix is computed based on a detailed model of
synchronous machine, including voltage dynamics and operation of primary
frequency control. Sensitivities of damping ratio and frequency overshoot
to inertia and damping are derived and incorporated in the algorithm. The
algorithm is implemented for two test systems, optimal solutions are found
for cases with various optimization parameters. Transient simulations are
accomplished to illustrate the results of small-signal stability analysis.
iii
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Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Theodor Borsche for
his continuous support and guidance during my work on this master thesis.
Thank you for offering such an interesting research topic. It has been a
pleasure working with you.
I would also like to thank Professor Dr. Goran Andersson for giving me
the opportunity to write a master thesis at the Power System Laboratory.
The Power System Analysis and Power System Dynamics and Control
courses that he taught further improved my knowledge on the subject of
power system operation and stability which was pivotal for the successful
completion of the present work.
My sincere appreciation goes to my friends for their patience and love.
Special thanks to Elena for her invaluable support during the hard times
and to Anton for his encouragement and understanding.
Finally, I am deeply grateful to my family for their constant love and
support. You always motivated me to work hard and do my best.
v
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Contents
List of Figures viii
List of Tables x
List of Acronyms xiii
List of Symbols xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background and Literature Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Research Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Power System Stability Fundamentals 5

2.1 Definitions and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 State-Space Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Small-Signal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Transient Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Modelling of Power System 13

3.1 Synchronous Machine Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1 Swing Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.2 Representation of Synchronous Machine Rotor Cir-
cuits Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.3 Effects of Excitation System and Automatic Voltage
Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1.4 Power System Stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.5 Primary Frequency Conrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1.6 Full Set of Differential and Algebraic Equations . . . . 20
3.2 Transmission Network Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Load Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.1 Static Load Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.2 Load Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 Overall System Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
vii
3.4.1 Small-Signal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4.2 Transient Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4 Impact of Inertia and Damping 39

4.1 Sensitivity of Damping Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1.1 State Matrix Sensitivity to Rotational Inertia . . . . . 40
4.1.2 State Matrix Sensitivity to Damping . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2 Sensitivity of Transient Overshoot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3 Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.4 Implementation in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5 Simulation Results 55
5.1 IEEE Two-Area Test System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.1 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.2 Small-Signal Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.1.3 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1.4 Transient Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.2 IEEE South East Australian Test System . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.1 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.2 Small-Signal Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.2.3 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.4 Transient Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3 Discussion of Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6 Conclusions and outlook 89
A Runge-Kutta Methods 91
B Calculation of Initial Steady State 93
C Transmission Network Modelling 95
D Structure of MATLAB input arrays 99
E IEEE South East Australian System 101
Bibliography 107
viii
List of Figures
3.1 Thyristor excitation system with AVR [2] . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.2 Thyristor excitation system with AVR and PSS [2] . . . . . . 17
3.3 Reference frame transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1 Structure of the developed optimization program . . . . . . . 51
5.1 Two-area test system [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

5.2 Frequency response to disturbances at buses 1 (blue) and 3
(green) of the two-area system in Base Case . . . . . . . . . . 62
(green) of the two-area system with the inertia of all machines
reduced by 50% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
(green) of the two-area system with damping of all the ma-
chines reduced by 50% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.5 Results of transient overshoot computation in the two-area
system for three different cases. Left: disturbance at bus 1.
Right: disturbance at bus 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.6 Transient frequency of G1 after a short cirtcuit at bus 9 and
disconnection of a circuit of the line 8-9 of the two-area test
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.7 Transient frequency of G1 after a short cirtcuit at bus 9 and
disconnection of a circuit of the line 8-9 of the two-area test
system (first 5 seconds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.8 Rotor angles of the generators G1-G4 of the two-area test
system after a short circuit at bus 9 in Base Case (left) and
Low-Inertia Case (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.9 Rotor angular velocity of the generators of the five-area test
system after a short circuit at bus 217 and disconnection of
a circuit of the line 217-215 in Base Case (left) and Case 1
(right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.10 Transient frequency response to a disturbance in the two-area
test system with different values of the time constant Tt . . . 86
ix
C.1 A shunt connected to bus k [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
C.2 Lumped-circuit model of a transmission line [3] . . . . . . . . 96
C.3 Unified branch model [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
E.1 IEEE South East Australian five-area test system [4] . . . . . 102
x
List of Tables
5.1 System modes with manual excitation control . . . . . . . . 57

5.2 Rotational inertia constant M and damping coefficients of
the two-area system generators in Base Case and Low-Inertia
Case, calculated on the rated MVA base (900 MVA) . . . . . 59
5.3 Eigenvalues of the two-area system in Base Case (left) and
Low-Inertia Case (right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
system in Base Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
system in Low-Inertia Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
system with the damping of all the machines reduced by 50% 64
system with the inertia and damping of all the machines re-
duced by 50% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.8 Parameters of the optimization program for two-area test sys-
tem (Case 1 - Case 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.9 Parameters of the optimization program for two-area test sys-
tem (Case 5 - Case 8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.10 Optimization results of the two-area test system (Case 1) . . 68
5.11 Values of the inertia constants M and damping coefficients
KD on 900 MVA base in the two-area test system (Case 1) . 68
5.12 Optimization results of the two-area tests system (Case 2) . . 69
xi
5.26 Steady-state operating condition of the five-area test system . 78
5.27 Rotational inertia constants M and damping coefficients of
the five-area test system generators in Base Case and Low-
Inertia Case, calculated on 100 MVA base . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.28 Results of transient overshoot computation in the five-area
test system in Base Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.29 Parameters of the optimization program for the five-area test
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.30 Optimization results of the five-area test system (Case 1) . . 81
KD on 100 MVA base in the five-area test system (Case 1) . . 81
5.32 Optimization results for the five-area test system (Case 2) . . 82
5.34 Optimization results for the five-area test system (Case 3) . . 83
D.1 Bus data structure (BUSES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

D.2 Branch data structure (LINES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
D.3 Generator data structure (GENS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
E.1 Power flow input data for IEEE South Australian test system
[4] calculated on 100 MVA base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
E.2 Parameters of the branches of IEEE South Australian test
system [4] calculated on 100 MVA base . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
E.3 Parameters of the aggregated synchornous machines of IEEE
South East Australian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
E.4 Eigenvalues of the South East Australian test system in Base
Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
E.5 Eigenvalues of the South East Australian system in Low-
Inertia case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
xii
List of Acronyms
AC Alternating Current
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator
BESS Battery Energy Storage System
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
PFC Primary Frequency Control
PSS Power System Stabilizer
RES Renewable Energy Sources
R-K Runge-Kutta
SMIB Single Machine Infinite Bus
SVC Static VAR Compensator
xiii
xiv
List of Symbols
A The state matrix

AS The system state matrix
B The control matrix
C The output matrix
D The feedforward matrix
u The vector of input variables

x The state variables vector
y The vector of output variables
Ig The vector of generator currents
V The vector of nodal voltages
i A state matrix eigenvalue

i A real part of an eigenvalue
i An imaginary part of an eigenvalue
i A system mode damping ratio
i A state matrix right eigenvector
i A state matrix left eigenvector
J The total moment of inertia of a synchronous machine

KD A damping coefficient
KA The AVR gain
KSTAB The PSS gain
M The mechanical starting time of a synchronous machine (rotational inertia constant)
Rfd The resistance of the field circuit of a synchronous machine
R1d The resistance of the d-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
R1q The resistance of the first q-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
R2q The resistance of the second q-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
xv
S The droop of PFC
TR The AVR time constant
Tt The turbine time constant
TW The PSS washout block time constant
T1 A PSS phase compensation block time constant
T2 A PSS phase compensation block time constant
Xfd The inductance of the field circuit of a synchronous machine
X1d The inductance of the d-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
X1q The inductance of the first q-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
X2q The inductance of the second q-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
Xadu The unsaturated mutual inductance between the stator and d-axis rotor circuits
of a synchronous machine
Xads The saturated mutual inductance between the stator and d-axis rotor circuits
Xaqs The saturated mutual inductance between the stator and q-axis rotor circuits
The rotor angle of a synchronous machine

Efd The field circuit voltage of a synchronous machine
ed The d-axis component of the terminal voltage of a synchronous machine
eq The q-axis component of the terminal voltage of a synchronous machine
id The d-axis component of the terminal current of a synchronous machine
iq The q-axis component of the terminal current of a synchronous machine
ifd The current of the field circuit of a synchronous machine
i1d The current of the d-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
i1q The current of the first q-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
i2q The current of the second q-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
ad The mutual flux linkage between the stator and d-axis rotor circuits
aq The mutual flux linkage between the stator and q-axis rotor circuits
fd The flux linkage of the field circuit of a synchronous machine
1d The flux linkage of the d-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
1q The flux linkage of the first q-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
2q The flux linkage of the second q-axis damping circuit of a synchronous machine
v1 The AVR output voltage
Vref The AVR reference voltage
v2 The PSS washout block output voltage
vs The PSS phase compensation block output voltage
Pm The adjustment of the mechanical power of a machine by means of PFC
r The relative angular velocity of the rotor of a synchronous machine
0 The synchronous electrical angular velocity
xvi
Vk The magnitude of the nodal voltage at bus k
k The angle of the nodal voltage at bus k
Y The admittance matrix of a transmission network
Ykm The magnitude of Y element in the k-th row and m-th column
km The angle of Y element in the k-th row and m-th column
G(s) A transfer function

k
Mpl The approximated magnitude of the transient overshoot at bus l
after a disturbance at bus k
Rlik A residue of the transfer function at pole s = i
tkpl The first peak time of the dominating oscillatory mode after a disturbance
at bus k observed at bus l
ylk (t) The time domain response to a disturbance at bus k observed at bus l
xvii
xviii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background and Literature Overview

High penetration of renewable energy sources (RES), such as wind and pho-
tovoltaic power plants, creates a number of challenges for the operation of
power systems. First of all, intermittent generators introduce uncertainty
into dispatch schedule of a power system, which makes balancing between
generation and load more complicated. Furthermore, they affect the dy-
namic behaviour of the system since they normally do not provide any ro-
tational inertia.
Inertia is an inherent property of synchronous generators, and frequency
dynamics of the system within the first seconds after a disturbance is gov-
erned by inertial response of the rotating machines. For reliable operation of
a power system, the operating frequency should be kept close to its nominal
value. To ensure this, generated power should match power demanded by
the load devices. Any disturbance in the grid leads to an imbalance between
produced and consumed electrical power. Before the activation of primary
frequency control, this imbalance is compensated by the kinetic energy re-
leased to the grid (or drawn from it) by rotating masses. In case of a severe
disturbance, if the power mismatch is not eliminated sufficiently fast by the
protection systems, generators of the system might lose synchronism with
the rest of the system. The loss of stability may lead to major consequences,
such as damage of equipment and widespread outages.
Inertia of the machines defines the rate of their acceleration or decelera-
tion and, thus, the rate of the frequency deviation. High level of rotational
inertia in the system prevents the system frequency from changing too fast
after a disturbance.
Power output of converter-connected RES is usually decoupled from the
system frequency, and they do not contribute to the inertial response. The
same is true for the operation of converter-connected motor loads. This leads
to reduction of inertia levels and thus results in faster frequency dynamics.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
The speed of primary frequency control might become insufficient to prevent

large frequency deviations. Furthermore, rotational inertia starts to vary in
time and space which complicates the dynamics of the system [5].
Reduced levels of inertia lead to low frequency in the Nordic power sys-
tem [6] in the last years. Lower level of the system frequency after the loss
of a large production unit is believed to be caused by a reduction of number
of on-line synchronous generators which affects the amount of inertia and,
thus, power regulation.
To mitigate arising difficulties, [5] proposes faster primary frequency con-
trol and the procurement of synthetic rotational inertia. Utilization of bat-
tery energy storage systems (BESS) for provision of fast primary frequency
control is investigated in [7] and [8]. [7] shows the advantages of faster
frequency control for a system with reduced inertia levels.
Synthetical inertial response, as a new ancillary service, is recommended
by Irish TSOs in [9] and by an Independent System Operator of Texas, U.S.,
ERCOT [10]. Provision of inertial response by wind turbines is proposed in
[11]. In case of a large generation unit loss, the power output of the wind
turbine can be increased by about 5-10% of rated power for several seconds.
Inertial response as a service provided by RES is also suggested by [12].
In [1], effects of inertia changes on damping of power system modes
and frequency transients are investigated. Lower inertia improves damping
of power system modes but may lead to higher frequency deviations. [1]
proposes an optimization algorithm that allows to find a trade-off between
improved damping of oscillatory modes and sufficiently limited transient
frequency deviations by adjusting inertia and damping levels at the system
nodes. The algorithm is based on the Classical Model [2] of a synchronous
machine.
1.2 Research Objectives

The aim of the present thesis is to investigate the impact of inertia changes on
damping of oscillatory modes and frequency stability using a detailed model
of synchronous machine, including operation of automatic voltage regula-
tor (AVR), power system stabilizer (PSS), and primary frequency control
(PFC).
Within this work, a detailed model of synchronous machine is incorpo-
rated in the multi-machine stability analysis, along with the interconnecting
transmission network model and aggregated load model. System equations
are derived and linearized for the small-signal stability analysis; and the
system state matrix is computed. Sensitivities of damping ratios and tran-
sient frequency overshoot are derived based on [1]. Optimization algorithm
is formulated as in [1] and tested on two test systems using a number of
different cases. The objective of the optimization is maximization of the
1.3. STRUCTURE 3
minimal damping ratio of system modes under a transient frequency devia-

tion constraint. Procurement of both artificial inertia and damping incurs
costs. The optimization program defines optimal levels of inertia and damp-
ing which can be used as a planning tool for synthetical inertial response
and fast frequency response provision. It can also serve to define stability
margin of a power system under different RES-share conditions. Results of
transient simulations are provided to compare the time-domain response of
the test systems in different inertia cases.
1.3 Structure
This thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 2 briefly reviews the power sys-
tem stability fundamentals. Chapter 3 presents modelling of synchronous
machine, transmission network, and aggregated load for the rotor angle sta-
bility studies. System equations are formulated and system state matrix is
derived. Chapter 4 develops an optimization algorithm focused on improve-
ment of the damping of system modes under a transient frequency overshoot
constraint. Sensitivities of damping ratio and frequency overshoot to iner-
tia and damping changes are derived. Furthermore, implemenation of the
algorithm in MATLAB is described. Chapter 5 investigates the small-signal
stability of two test systems for various RES penetration cases and im-
plements the developed optimization algorithm. The impact of rotational
inertia changes on stability of the test systems is illustrated by providing
the results of transient simulations. Finally, a conclusion and an outlook of
the present work are given in Chapter 6.
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2
Power System Stability

Fundamentals
2.1 Definitions and Classification

Power systems are designed to provide a reliable access to electrical energy.
Power system stability, as an ability of a power system to withstand diverse
disturbances, is crucial to the reliability of power supply. The following
definition of power system stability was elaborated by IEEE/CIGRE Task
Force [13]:
Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for
a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium
after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables
bounded so that practically the entire system remains intact.
The three main categories of power system stability are rotor angle sta-
bility, voltage stability and frequency stability. The main focus of this work
is on rotor angle stability and frequency stability.
Frequency stability refers to [13] the ability of a power system to
maintain steady frequency following a severe system upset resulting in a
significant imbalance between generation and load. An example of short-
term frequency instability is the formation of an island with insufficient
generation followed by the blackout of this island within a few seconds due
to a rapid decrease of frequency [13]. For the reliable operation of the system,
the probability of large frequency excursions should be minimized.
Rotor angle stability is defined by [13] as the ability of synchronous
machine of an interconnected power system to remain in synchronism af-
ter being subjected to a disturbance. It depends on the ability to main-
tain/restore equilibrium between electromagnetic torque and mechanical
torque of each synchronous machine in the system. Instability that may
result occurs in the form of increasing angular swings of some generators
leading to their loss of synchronism with other generators.
5
6 CHAPTER 2. POWER SYSTEM STABILITY FUNDAMENTALS
Rotor angle stability analysis involves the analysis of the effect of small
disturbances on the system of interest (small-signal stability) and the dy-
namic behaviour of the system subjected to a large disturbance (transient
stability).
Small-signal stability is the ability of the power system to maintain
synchronism under small disturbances. A great number of small distur-
bances occur in a system during its normal operation. They are primarily
caused by the constant variation of demanded and generated power. The
disturbances are considered to be sufficiently small to enable linearization
of the system equations for the purposes of analysis.
Small-signal stability problems could be divided in two groups, local and
global. Local problems are associated with rotor angle oscillations of a small
part of the system. As an example, generators of a certain power plant may
be oscillating against the rest of the power system. This type of oscillations
is called local plant mode oscillations. Other local problems that might
occur in a power system include interplant mode oscillations, control modes
and torsional mode oscillations [2].
Global small-signal stability problems are caused by oscillations involv-
ing a large group of generators. The oscillations of generators in one area
swinging against generators in another area are reffered to as interarea
mode oscillations. In large power systems, usually there are two forms of
interarea oscillations [2]:
An oscillation mode with a very low frequency (0.1-0.3 Hz) that in-
volves all the generators in the system. Generators of the intercon-
nected system are split in two groups, with one of the groups swinging
against another.
Higher frequency oscillation modes (0.4-0.7 Hz) representing the swings

of subgroups of machines against each other.
Transient stability is the ability of the power system to maintain syn-

chronism when subjected to a severe transient disturbance, e.g. a short
circuit on a transmission line. Whether a system remains stable or not after
a large disturbance, depends on the initial state of this system and the sever-
ity of the disturbance. If a disturbance leads to the rotor angle separation
of a part of the machines, the system loses its stability.
Both small-signal stability of the system under possible operating condi-
tions and transient stability in various contigency scenarios should be thor-
oughly analyzed to ensure the secure operation of a power system. Such
analysis is based on the state-space representation of the power system and
its dynamic behaviour.
2.2. STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION 7
2.2 State-Space Representation

The state of a system represents the minimal amount of information about
the system at any instant in time t0 that is necessary so that its future
behaviour can be determined without reference to the input before t0 [2].
The variables chosen to describe the state of a system are referred to as the
state variables. The choice of the state variables is not unique, any chosen
set will give the same information about the system.
The system state may be represented in an n-dimensional Euclidean
space referred to as the state space.
For the purpose of stability analysis, a power system in a dynamic state
can be described by a set of first order differential and algebraic equations
x = f (x, u, t)
(2.1)
y = g(x, u, t)
where x is the state vector with the state variables as elements, u is the
vector of inputs to the system, y is the vector of output variables, f and g
are vectors of nonlinear functions relating x and y to x and u. With n as
the order of the system of differential equations, r as the number of inputs,
and m as the number of output variables, the vectors have the following
form
x1 u1 f1
x2 u2 f2
x= ... u = ... f = ...
(2.2)
xn ur fn

y1 g1
y2 g2
y=
... g = ...
(2.3)
ym gm
In the rotor angle stability analysis, Equations (2.1) should represent
the dynamics of the power system in the time-scale relevant to rotor swings
(0.01 s - 10 s). The dynamic behaviour of the power system components,
namely generators, transmission network, static and dynamic loads, static
VAR compensators (SVC), etc., should be reflected adequately to the analy-
sis scope. Among the mentioned components, modelling of the synchronous
generators plays certainly the most important role for the investigation of
the rotor angle stability. Quite often the dynamic behaviour of a system
is described only by the differential equations associated with synchronous
generators, whereas all the other components are represented by algebraic
equations. For instance, the transient processes occuring in transmission
lines after a contigency decay too fast to be included in the analysis of

electro-mechanical swings.
Since power systems are highly nonlinear, their stability after distur-
bances depends not only on their parameters but also on the characteristics
of the disturbance and on the initial operating state of the system. There-
fore, to find a unique solution of the system equations within the transient
stability analysis, one should specify the initial conditions and accurately
model the disturbance. Thus, to get a general view on the dynamic features
of the system by means of transient stability analysis, a great number of
disturbances in different locations should be investigated.
However, Henri Poincare showed that if the linearized form of the non-
linear system is stable, so is the non-linear system stable at the steady-state
operating condition at which the system is linearized [14]. Furthermore,
the dynamic features of the system at the given operating condition can be
assessed from linear control system theory, and the response of the system
to small disurbances can be approximated. Therefore, small-signal stability
analysis is used to investigate the dynamic characteristics of the system,
with the main focus on the system modes.
2.3 Small-Signal Stability

To investigate the effect of small disturbances on a power system, the system
equations (2.1) could be linearized around the initial operating point of the
system.
Linearization of (2.1) around an equilibrium point with x = x0 and
u = u0 and implementation of Taylors series expansion yield
x = Ax + Bu (2.4)
y = Cx + Du (2.5)
where

f1 f1 f1 f1
x1 ... xn u1 ... ur
A = ... ... ... B = ... ... ...

fn fn fn fn
x1 ... xn u1 ... ur

g1 g1 g1 g1
x1 ... xn u1 ... ur
C = ... ... ... D = ... ... ... (2.6)

gm gm gm gm
x1 ... xn u1 ... ur
A is the state matrix, n n

B is the control matrix, n r
2.3. SMALL-SIGNAL STABILITY 9
C is the output matrix, m n

D is the feedforward matrix, m r
The system (2.4) is a system of linear differential equations in terms of
perturbed variables. The perturbations of the variables from their initial
values must be sufficiently small to enable the approximation of the nonlinear
functions with the first term of Taylors series expansion.
Analysis of the state matrix A allows to draw the conclusions about
the stability of an underlying nonlinear system, as stated in the theorem
formulated by Alexander Lyapunov.
Lyapunovs first method [2]
The stability in the small of a nonlinear system is given by the roots of the
characteristic equation of the system of first approximations, i.e., by the
eigenvalues of A:
If all the eigenvalues have negative real parts, the original system is
asymptotically stable, i.e. it returns to the original state after being
subjected to a small perturbation.
If at least one of the eigenvalues has a positive real part, the original
system is unstable.
If the eigenvalues have real parts equal to zero, it is not possible on

the basis of the first approximation to say anything in general.
The characteristic equation of the state matrix A is given by
det(A I) = 0 (2.7)
where I is the identity matrix, and = 1 , 2 , ..., n are eigenvalues of the

state matrix
If the column vector i satisfies
Ai = i i (2.8)
it is referred to as the right eigenvector of the state matrix A associated

with i . The n-row vector i that satisfies
i A = i i (2.9)
is called the left eigenvector of A associated with i .

The product of the right and left eigenvectors associated with the same
eigenvalue is a non-zero constant. Often the eigenvectors are normalized as
follows
i i = 1 (2.10)
The natural response of the system (when u = 0) is given by the solution

of
x = Ax (2.11)
as
xi (t) = i1 c1 e1 t + i2 c2 e2 t + ... + in cn en t (2.12)
Thus, the natural response of the system can be represented as a linear

combination of n dynamic modes. In Equation (2.12), ci = i x(0) is the
magnitude of excitation of the i-th mode defined by the initial conditions.
Each eigenvalue is associated with a dynamic mode, and the characteristics
of the eigenvalues are related to the nature of the modes:
A real eigenvalue is associated with a non-oscillatory mode. Negative

real eigenvalues correspond to exponential decay modes. The smaller
the magnitude of a negative eigenvalue, the longer it takes for the
mode to decay. Positive eigenvalues represent aperiodic instability.
A conjugate pair of complex eigenvalues is associated with an oscil-

latory mode. The imaginary part of a complex eigenvalue represents
the frequency of the oscillations, and the real part is associated with
the damping of the oscillations. A negative real part gives an expo-
nentially decaying magnitude of the mode. Complex eigenvalues with
a positive real part represent oscillations with a growing magnitude,
i.e. an unstable oscillatory mode .
A conjugate pair of complex eigenvalues can be presented as
= j (2.13)
The damping of the oscillations is evaluated by means of the damping ratio

= (2.14)
2 + 2
The damping ratio of a decaying oscillatory mode should stay within the
limits
0<<1 (2.15)
Ensuring that the damping of oscillatory modes in the system is sufficient

for a stable operation of the system within a range of possible operating
conditions is one of the concerns of the system operators. Another primary
concern with regards to stability is the stability of the system after major
disturbances.
2.4. TRANSIENT STABILITY 11
2.4 Transient Stability

In transient stability analysis, nonlinear ordinary differential equations of
the form
dx
= f (x, t) (2.16)
dt
should be solved to investigate the effect of the large disturbances of interest
on stability of the system. The solution of (2.16) is the change of the state
variables x in time t from their initial values x0 at t0 .
It would be a challenging task to find an analytical solution of (2.16) even
for a very simple system [3]. Therefore, a number of qualitative methods
was developed that serve to define whether a system can remain stable after
a given disturbance (e.g. Equal Area Criterion, see [3]). However, when
the main purpose of the research is to trace the behaviour of the state
variables after a contigency, these methods will not give sufficient results.
In this case, (2.16) should be solved by the methods of numerical integration.
The numerical integration methods used in this work are the second order
Runge-Kutta (R-K) method and the fourth order R-K method, presented in
Appendix A.
Dynamic phenomena in power systems have a complex electromagnetic
and mechanical nature. The simplest model of electro-mechanical swings in
a power system represents solely the motion mechanics of the synchronous
machine rotors and is based on the swing equation:
d2 m
J = Tm Te (2.17)
dt2
where
J is the total moment of inertia of the synchronous machine
m is the mechanical angle of the rotor
Tm is the mechanical torque on the rotor
Te is the electrical torque on the rotor
If a power system is in a normal operational state, the balance between

generated and consumed power is maintained, and all the synchronous gen-
erators are rotating with the same electrical angular velocity. However, a dis-
turbance, such as a transmission line failure, can lead to imbalance between
electromagentic and mechanical torques at the rotor of a machine. This im-
balance causes acceleration (if more power is generated than demanded) or
deceleration (when generated power is not enough to cover the demand) of
the rotor of a synchronous generator. In case of a severe disturbance, one or
more generators can lose synchronism with the rest of the system. This may
have major consequences for operation of the system, including damage of
the equipment, economical losses, and substantial outages.
A major contigency, as a rule, triggers the relay protection of the power

system. This is necessary, above all, for the following purposes:
to isolate the fault and thus ensure normal operational conditions for
as much equipment as possible,
to avoid the damage of the equipment by the high currents,
to prevent the loss of synchronism of the generators.
An example of a severe contigency is a short circuit on a transmission line

close to a generator. When it occurs, it should be cleared by opening the
circuit-breakers at both ends of the line. But this can not happen imme-
diately because of the time necessary for the operation of a circuit-breaker.
Meanwhile, the rotor of the generator would accelerate due to the imbalance
between mechanical and electrical power (Pm > Pe ). Depending on the level
of damping, the magnitude of the disturbance, and the fault clearing time,
the rotor will settle at a new equilibrium point or the generator will fall out
of step. The faster the fault is cleared, the less kinetic energy the rotor gets
for acceleration. The critical fault clearing time is the maximal dura-
tion of a disturbance during which the system does not lose its synchronism.
It is an important characteristic for design and operation of a power sys-
tem, which depends on many factors, including the rotational inertia of the
generators in the system.
Chapter 3
Modelling of Power System
3.1 Synchronous Machine Modelling

In the present thesis, modelling of synchronous machines and their excitation
systems is based on [2]. The adopted synchronous machine model involves
the effects of AVR and PSS on the field voltage. Furthermore, the model is
augmented by implementation of PFC.
The structure of this section repeats the development of a model from
the Classical Model to the tenth order model, which incroporates voltage
and speed control. In the end of the section, a complete set of differential
and algebraic equations for synchronous machine representation in stability
studies is presented. For the sake of brevity, derivation of these equations is
not included in the present work and could be reviewed in [2].
3.1.1 Swing Equation

Changes in electrical state of a system affect the rotation of electrical ma-
chines and thus cause electro-mechanical oscillations.
The mechanical power Pm = Tm m , with m denoting the mechanical
angular velocity of the rotor, is provided to a synchronous machine by a
turbine and can be adjusted by changing the gate opening of the turbine.
To maintain a constant angular velocity of the rotor, the applied mechani-
cal power should be balanced with the electrical power extracted from the
machine.
The electrical power Pe = Te m is a function of both rotor angle and
its time derivative . The latter contribution is associated with the damping
of electromechanical oscillations due to the currents induced in the rotor
circuits during transients.
Equation (2.17) could be rewritten in terms of power as
d2 m
m J = Pm Pe (3.1)
dt2
13
14 CHAPTER 3. MODELLING OF POWER SYSTEM
To express the moment of inertia in electrical p.u. quantities, the inertia

constant H should be introduced as
2J
1 m stored energy at rated speed in MW s
H= = (3.2)
2 S MVA rating
where S is the MVA rating of the machine. The inertia constant shows how
much time it would take for a machine to decelerate from synchronous speed
to standstill if rated power is extracted from it and no mechanical power is
fed into it [3].
Another quantity that is broadly used in the literature is called the
mechanical starting time M , defined as
M = 2H (3.3)
Rewriting Equation (3.1) in p.u. of the synchronous machine rating and

taking account of damping by introducing the term KD yield
2H d2
= Pm Pe KD (3.4)
0 dt2
where
KD - damping coefficient in p.u. torque/p.u. speed deviation
0 - synchronous electrical angular velocity of the rotor
Equation (3.4) is commonly reffered to as swing equation, as it repre-
sents swings in rotor angle during disturbances.
Using the following notation for the relative angular velocity in p.u.
1 d
r = (3.5)
0 dt
the swing equation can be rewritten in the form of a system of first order
differential equations:
1
pr = (Pm Pe KD r ) (3.6)
M
p = 0 r (3.7)
where p stands for the differential operator d/dt.

The quantities and r are in this case state variables and
x = [ r ]T (3.8)
is the state vector.

Differential equations (3.6) are fundamental for power system dynam-
ics analysis and, by supplementing them with a set of algebraic equations,
3.1. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELLING 15
one can analyze the stability of a system. This modelling approach was
widely used in the early stability studies. Therefore, it is often referred to
as Classical Model. However, such a model does not take into account
the electromagnetic dynamics of the machine, such as dynamics of the rotor
circuits and effects of the voltage control devices on the field voltage. To in-
corporate the specified dynamic effects in the model, additional differential
equations are formulated further in this section.
3.1.2 Representation of Synchronous Machine Rotor Cir-

cuits Dynamics
A disturbance in a power system leads to the rise of transient processes

associated with a change in electrical quantities. Transients in the stator
windings decay rapidly and thus can be neglected in most of the cases,
whereas transients in the rotor circuits could not be neglected when the
system is subjected to a disturbance [2]. Dynamics of the rotor circuits
could be presented in form of the flux variation differential equations (3.9-
3.12). The flux variations in the rotor circuits originate in the armature
reaction, i.e. in the effect of the stator field on the rotor currents.
0 Rfd
pfd = Efd 0 Rfd ifd (3.9)
Xadu
p1d = 0 R1d i1d (3.10)
p1q = 0 R1q i1q (3.11)
p2q = 0 R2q i2q (3.12)
where the subscripts fd, 1d, 1q, 2q stand for the quantities of the field
circuit, d-axis damping circuit, and q-axis damping circuits respectively.
denotes the flux linkage of a circuit, i designates the circuit current, R is the
resistance of a circuit, Efd is the exciter output voltage, 0 is the synchronous
angular velocity, and Xadu stands for the unsaturated mutual impedance.
Thus, the state vector should be augmented by the flux linkages of the
rotor circuits
x = [ r fd 1d 1q 2q ]T (3.13)
In a simplified stability analysis, the field voltage Efd might be assumed

constant (manually adjusted), but in modern power systems this assumption
does not conform with the reality due to the operation of AVR. If the field
voltage is controlled by AVR, the field flux variations are also caused by the
field voltage variations, in addition to the armature reaction. Modelling of
the excitation system and AVR for the system stability analysis is covered
by the next section.
3.1.3 Effects of Excitation System and Automatic Voltage

Regulation
The excitation system of a synchronous machine provides its field wind-
ing with direct current and performs control and protective functions by
changing the field voltage. AVR controls the generator stator terminal
voltage by adjusting the exciter output voltage and thus the field current.
Modern producers offer various types of excitation systems and AVRs. In
the present thesis, the excitation system called potential-source controlled-
rectifier (thyristor) excitation system is considered. This system is supplied
with power through a transformer from the generator terminals or the sta-
tion auxiliary bus, and is regulated by a controlled rectifier.
A block diagram providing a simplified illustration of the operational
principle of this system is shown in Figure 3.1.
Vref
Terminal voltage
EFMAX

transducer Exciter
1 v1
Et KA E fd
1 sTR
EFMIN
Figure 3.1: Thyristor excitation system with AVR [2]
The first block of the diagram represents the terminal voltage transducer.
It measures terminal voltage of the machine (Et ), rectifies and filters it with
an output
1
v1 = Et (3.14)
1 + pTR
Equation (3.14) could be rearranged to get the time derivative of v1 at the
left side:
1
pv1 = (Et v1 ) (3.15)
TR
This differential equation supplements the swing equation and Equations
(3.9-3.12) in modelling of the dynamic behaviour of a synchronous machine.
The voltage v1 should be therefore added to the state vector (3.13)
x = [ r fd 1d 1q 2q v1 ]T (3.16)
The output quantity of the terminal voltage transducer v1 is compared

to the reference voltage Vref , that could be adjusted manually or by means
of Secondary Voltage Regulation of the grid.
The residual signal (Vref v1 ) is amplified by an exciter with a high gain

KA (block 2) yielding the output voltage
Efd = KA (Vref v1 ) (3.17)
The value of the exciter output voltage is subject to a limitation
EFMIN Efd EFMAX (3.18)
Since Efd is not assumed manually adjusted anymore, Equation (3.9)

should be changed to take account of (3.17):
0 Rfd
pfd = KA (Vref v1 ) 0 Rfd ifd (3.19)
Xadu
The operation of AVR may significantly affect stability of the system.
In many cases, a high gain exciter introduces negative damping, thus en-
dangering system stability. At the same time, a high response AVR has a
positive effect on the synchronizing torque. An effective way to benefit from
this advantage, while keeping damping torque at acceptable level, is to use
a PSS.
3.1.4 Power System Stabilizer

In Figure 3.2, the block diagram of the thyristor excitation system is ex-
tended to include the three blocks (a gain block, a washout block, and a
phase compensation block) that represent PSS.
Vref
Terminal voltage
EFMAX

transducer Exciter
1 v1
Et KA E fd
1 sTR

EFMIN
Phase
Gain Washout compensation
sTW v2 1 sT1 vs
r KSTAB
1 sTW 1 sT2
Figure 3.2: Thyristor excitation system with AVR and PSS [2]
A gain block senses the value of the angular velocity deviation from
the synchronous speed (r ,) and with the gain KSTAB , it sets the level
of damping introduced by the PSS. The output signal of the gain block is
processed by the washout block with a time constant TW that serves as a
high-pass filter.
The main purpose of a washout block is to eliminate the influence of

steady-state or slow changes in the system frequency on the operation of
PSS. According to Figure 3.2, the output voltage of the washout block v2 is
defined as
pTW
v2 = (KSTAB r ) (3.20)
1 + pTW
Hence
1
pv2 = KSTAB pr (3.21)
TW v2
Substition for pr , given by (3.6), yields
KSTAB 1
pv2 = (Pm Pe KD r ) v2 (3.22)
M TW
A phase compensation block serves to compensate for the phase lag be-
tween the exciter input and the air-gap torque of the generator. The phase
characteristic of the system depends on its state, and the settings of PSS
should be acceptable for a wide range of possible system conditions.
From Figure 3.2,
1 + pT1
vs = v2 (3.23)
1 + pT2
Hence
T1 1 1
pvs = pv2 + v2 vs (3.24)
T2 T2 T2
With pv2 given by (3.22), (3.24) can be rewritten as
T1 KST AB 1 T1 1 1
pvs = (Pm Pe KD r ) + ( )v2 vs (3.25)
T2 M T2 T2 TW T2
The value of vs is subject to a constraint
vs min vs vs max (3.26)
A new expression for the exciter output voltage according to Figure 3.2 is
Efd = KA (Vref + vs v1 ) (3.27)
Thus, the differential equation for the flux linkage of the field winding should
be adjusted once more:
0 Rfd
pfd = KA (Vref + vs v1 ) 0 Rfd ifd (3.28)
Xadu
The system of the synchronous machine differential equations is now
expanded with (3.22) and (3.25), and v2 and vs should be added to the state
vector
x = [ r fd 1d 1q 2q v1 v2 vs ]T (3.29)
3.1.5 Primary Frequency Conrol

A disturbance such as the loss of a generator leads to negative values of the
residual Pm Pe and, consequently, to a decrease of the system frequency.
According to the swing equation (3.6), the angular velocity deviation will
rise untill the disbalance between the mechanical and electrical torque is
eliminated.
Positive values of Pm Pe can be provoked by the loss of a bulk
load, e.g. in case of the islanding of an area with a lot of generation units.
Furthermore, unpredictable variations of load within the normal operation
of the system may affect the system frequency too. Nevertheless, the system
frequency should be kept at an acceptable level. First of all, low values of
the system frequency may threaten a normal operation of the system. If
system frequency is below 47 - 48 Hz (with 50 Hz as the nominal system
frequency), steam turbines can be damaged, and, therefore, they should be
disconnected by the protection system. This would lead to a further decrease
of the frequency and may result in a collapse of the system. In addition,
the maintanence of the nominal frequency is required to ensure satisfactory
operation of many consumer devices.
To compensate the power disbalance and control the frequency, it is
necessary to provide a power system with frequency control. The control re-
serves are divided among primary, secondary and tertiatry frequency control.
The first two operate automatically, while the tertiary control is activated
manually to release control reserves used by the primary and secondary con-
trol in response to a disturbance. Primary frequency control serves to adjust
the turbine power of the machine in order to achieve a balance between the
mechanical and electrical power. The resulting frequency may significantly
differ from 50 Hz. To bring the frequency back to its nominal value, sec-
ondary frequency control adjusts the power setpoints of the generators. Since
the main research objective of the present thesis is to investigate short-term
stability, only the primary frequency conrol, as the fastest control structure,
is included into the power system modelling.
The dynamic characteristic of the primary control loop describes the
adjustment of the turbine power Pm in response to the speed deviation
from its nominal value r :
1 1
pPm = Pm r (3.30)
Tt STt
where S denotes the droop, a decrease in frequency associated with the
power demand increase, and Tt is the turbine time constant. The latter
value might significantly affect the short-term stability of the system. The
faster the reaction of the frequency control, the less threatening is a power
mismatch for the system.
In the interconnected European power system, primary control reserves
should be deployed within the first 30 s after the activation signal. Thus, the
turbine time constants should not exceed 10-15 s. Typical values of Tt of the
high-pressure steam turbine are 0.1-0.4s, a re-heater has a larger time delay
(4-11s). The time constant of the delay between the intermediate and low
pressure turbines is in the order of 0.3-0.6s [3]. It should be noted, that (3.30)
describes only one turbine stage and therefore represents a simplified model
of a turbine control. A faster primary frequency control can be provided by
Battery Energy Storage Systems, as shown in [7].
The mechanical power output change Pm completes the state vector
that now consists of 10 state variables:
x = [ r fd 1d 1q 2q v1 v2 vs Pm ]T (3.31)
Differential equations (3.6,3.22,3.25) should be adjusted to account for the

change in Pm .
3.1.6 Full Set of Differential and Algebraic Equations

The full set of the first order differential equations modelling the dynamic
behaviour of a synchronous machine for the purpose of the stability analysis
is presented by (3.32).
Differential Equations
1
pr = (Pm + Pm Pe KD r )
M
p = 0 r
0 Rfd
pfd = KA (Vref + vs v1 ) 0 Rfd ifd
Xadu
p1d = 0 R1d i1d
p1q = 0 R1q i1q
p2q = 0 R2q i2q
1
pv1 = (Et v1 )
TR
KSTAB 1
pv2 = (Pm + Pm Pe KD r ) v2
M TW
T1 KSTAB 1 T1 1 1
pvs = (Pm + Pm Pe KD r ) + ( )v2 vs
T2 M T2 T2 TW T2
1 1
pPm = Pm r
Tt STt
(3.32)
To find a unique solution of this system of differential equations, bound-

ary conditions of the problem should be specified. The mode of operation of
a synchronous machine depends on the power demanded from it and, there-
fore, on the operational state and parameters of other system elements. The
boundary conditions should relate the internal variables of the machine with
the demanded power output and, thus, with the rest of the power system.
This is achieved if boundary conditions are represented by the stator voltage
equations (3.33).
Stator Voltage Components
ed = Ra id + Xl iq aq
(3.33)
eq = Ra iq Xl id + ad
The demanded power output and the terminal voltage magnitude set-
point determine the generator currents id and iq , and internal variables of
the machine.
Equations (3.32) and (3.33) should be expressed in terms of the state
variables, currents, and terminal voltage magnitudes. Thus, the internal
variables of the machine (rotor currents, flux linkages ad and aq , and
electrical power demand Pe ) should be eliminated from (3.32) and (3.33) by
means of Equations (3.34),(3.35) and (3.37).
Rotor Currents
1
ifd = (fd ad )
Xfd
1
i1d = (1d ad )
X1d
1 (3.34)
i1q = (1q aq )
X1q
1
i2q = (2q aq )
X2q
Flux Linkages
00 fd 1d
ad = Xads (id + + )
Xfd X1d
(3.35)
00 1q 2q
aq = Xaqs (iq + + )
X1q X2q
where
00 1
Xads = 1 1 1
Xads + Xfd + X1d
(3.36)
00 1
Xaqs = 1 1 1
Xaqs + X1q + X2q
Electrical Torque
Since, as already mentioned, in p.u Pe = Te ,
Te = Pe = ad iq aq id (3.37)
System of Differential and Algebraic Equations for Representa-

tion of a Synchronous Machine in Power System Stability Studies
1 00 fd 1d 00 1q 2q
pr = (Pm + Pm Xads (id + + )iq + Xaqs (iq + + )id
M Xfd X1d X1q X2q
KD r )
p = 0 r
0 Rfd 1 00 fd 1d
pfd = KA (Vref + vs v1 ) 0 Rfd (fd Xads (id + + ))
Xadu Xfd Xfd X1d
1 00 fd 1d
p1d = 0 R1d (1d Xads (id + + ))
X1d Xfd X1d
1 00 1q 2q
p1q = 0 R1q (1q Xaqs (iq + + ))
X1q X1q X2q
1 00 1q 2q
p2q = 0 R2q (2q Xaqs (iq + + ))
X2q X1q X2q
1
pv1 = (Et v1 )
TR
KSTAB 00 fd 1d
pv2 = (Pm + Pm Xads (id + + )iq +
M Xfd X1d
00 1q 2q 1
+ Xaqs (iq + + )id KD r ) v2
X1q X2q TW
T1 KSTAB 00 fd 1d
pvs = (Pm + Pm Xads (id + + )iq +
T2 M Xfd X1d
00 1q 2q 1 T1 1 1
+ Xaqs (iq + + )id KD r ) + ( )v2 vs
X1q X2q T2 T2 TW T2
1 1
pPm = Pm r
Tt STt
00 1q 2q
ed = Ra id + Xl iq Xaqs (iq + + )
X1q X2q
00 fd 1d
eq = Ra iq Xl id + Xads (id + + )
Xfd X1d
(3.38)
The system (3.38) models the dynamic behaviour of a synchronous gen-
erator but it should be supplemented by the initial values of the machine
state variables, since stability of a system significantly depends on its initial
operational state. The expressions for the calculation of the synchronous
machine initial setpoint are presented in Appendix B.
3.2. TRANSMISSION NETWORK MODELLING 23
As the synchonous machine state variables depend on the state of the

interconneting transmission network, the next step in developing a dynamic
power system model is to formulate equations representing the operation of
a transmission grid.
3.2 Transmission Network Modelling

A transmission network connects power plants to the substations supplying
demand centers with electrical energy. If a power system is assumed to
operate in a balanced steady state, each AC power system component can
be represented by its single-phase equivalent. The corresponding models
of AC transmission lines, transformers and shunt devices are presented in
Appendix C. Modelling of the transmission network in the present work is
based on [3] , [2], and [15].
To couple the network model with the generator and load models, the
equations representing power or current injections in the grid nodes should
be formulated. It is a common practice to use the current injection equa-
tions, as, for instance, it is done in [2]. However, in this work the power
injection equations were adapted from [15], as they seem to be more intuiv-
ite. These equations will be further referred to as Network Equations. A
transmission network can be represented by its admittance matrix (for its
elements see Appendix C)
Y = G + jB (3.39)
From Kirchhoffs Current Law, the expression for nodal current injec-
tions can be derived as
I =YE (3.40)
where
I is the current injection vector with elements Ik , k = 1, 2, ..., N
E is the nodal voltage vector with elements Uk ejk
The complex value of the current injection at bus k is given by
X
Ik = Vm Ykm ej(m +km ) (3.41)
mK
where
Ykm and km are the magnitude and angle of the complex element of ad-
mittance matrix in k-th row and m-th column.
The admittance matrix Y is usally very sparse but its size can be re-
duced by means of network reduction. There are several network reduction
techniques, one of the most common is application of Krons reduction for-
mula.
If the current injection at node k, Ik = 0, node k can be eliminated

from the matrix by replacing the elements of the remaining n 1 rows and
columns with
0 yik ykj
yij = yij (3.42)
ykk
for i = 1, 2, ..., k 1, k + 1, ...n and j = 1, 2, ..., k 1, k + 1, ..., n [2].
The complex power injection at bus k is given by
Sk = Pk + jQk = Ek Ik (3.43)
applying (3.41), it yields
X
Sk = Vk Vm Ykm ej(k m km ) (3.44)
mK
Decomposing it into real and imaginary part results in separate equations

for active and reactive power injections, as follows
X
Pk = Vk Vm Ykm cos(k m km ) (3.45)
mK
X
Qk = Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km ) (3.46)
mK
These equations will be used to represent the coupling of the generator

and load buses with the transmission network.
3.3 Load Modelling

Since any changes in the load demand in a power system should be followed
up by adjusting the power output of the generators, adequate load represen-
tation becomes an important step in the power system modelling for stability
studies. Thus, unrealistic models of the load dynamic behaviour could lead
to incorrect evaluation of the power system stability. However, the exact
modelling of loads seems to be impossible since each load bus represents a
changing in time composition of thousands of consumer devices. Therefore,
the load models used in system studies should be a compromise between
simplicity and accuracy. A common practice is to use static load models
such as the polynomial model.
3.3.1 Static Load Models

A static load model expresses the characteristics of the load at any instant
of time as algebraic functions of the bus voltage magnitude and frequency
at that instant [2]. One of the static models which is widely used is the
polynomial model:
P = P0 [p1 V 2 + p2 V + p3 ] (3.47)
2
Q = Q0 [q1 V + q2 V + q3 ] (3.48)
3.3. LOAD MODELLING 25
where
V = VV0 is the relative voltage magnitude at the load bus, P and Q are active
and reactive components of the load when the bus voltage magnitude is V ,
and the subscript 0 stands for their values at the initial operating point.
This model is composed of the following components:
constant impedance (proportional to the square of the voltage magni-

tude)
constant current (proportional to the voltage magnitude)
constant power (does not vary with changes in the voltage magnitude)
The coefficients p1 to p3 and q1 to q3 define the proportion of each compo-

nent.
This model relates the demanded power to the bus voltage magnitude
but not to its frequency. The frequency dependence of the load can be
represented by multiplying the right parts of Equations (3.47) and (3.48) by
special factors as follows:
P = P0 [p1 V 2 + p2 V + p3 ](1 + Kpf f ) (3.49)

2
Q = Q0 [q1 V + q2 V + q3 ](1 + Kqf f ) (3.50)
Utilization of these equations is quite complicated because load bus fre-

quency is not a state variable in stability analysis. Its approximation as an
average frequency of generator buses yields incorrect results and therefore
should be avoided [16]. However, it can be computed by taking the numeri-
cal derivative of the bus voltage angle. This approach is not applicable to the
small-signal stability analysis, since this type of analysis does not implicate
calculation of the state variables at more than one time instant.
Another way to model the frequency dependence of the load, based on
[1], is presented further.
3.3.2 Load Damping

The load damping could be represented by a damping coefficient
P P
KD = = (3.51)
f r
where
P is the change of active power demand due to the change of the bus
frequency f or relative angular velocity r , which are equal in p.u. Since
the voltage frequency is a derivative of the voltage angle,
0
p = 0 r = P (3.52)
KD
and actual power injection can be represented by Equation (3.46)
X
P = PL PL0 = Vk Vm Ykm cos(k m km ) PL0 , (3.53)
mK
the differential equation for the load bus voltage angle can be rewritten as
0 X
pk = (Vk Vm Ykm cos(k m km ) PL0 ) (3.54)
KDk
mK
Hence, the load bus voltage angle becomes a state variable and its changes
are described by the differential equation (3.54).
3.4 Overall System Equations
In power system stability analysis, the equations (3.38,3.45-3.48) should be

solved simultaneously. In this work, the modelling of the power electronic
equipment, such as HVDC converters, static var compensators, is not cov-
ered. If these components are in focus of the analysis, the corresponding
equations should be added to the system model. The transient occuring
in both transmission network and stators of synchronous machines were
neglected, which is a common practice [2], resulting in algebraic, and not
differential, network and stator voltage equations. The synchronous ma-
chine motion mechanics, dynamics of rotor circuits, excitation system and
control devices are represented by a set of differential equations. The syn-
chronous machines connected to the same bus are modelled by an equivalent
aggregated synchronous machine, since the dynamic behaviour of individual
machines is out of the focus of the current thesis. This simplification still
provides a sufficient level of accuracy [2].
Each set of synchronous machine equations has its own d q reference
frame that rotates with the rotor of machine. To enable the simultaneous
solution of these equations for an interconnected multimachine system, volt-
ages and currents should be expressed in a common reference frame. Such
a common reference frame R I can be chosen to be rotating with the
synchronous speed.
3.4. OVERALL SYSTEM EQUATIONS 27
I
q
Et
EI
eq r
d
ed
0
ER R
Figure 3.3: Reference frame transformation
A new reference frame requires a transformation of the algebraic equa-

tions (3.33,3.45,3.46), which serve as an interface for the interconnected
generators. From Figure 3.3,
ed = Et sin( ) (3.55)
eq = Et cos( ) (3.56)
Hence, (3.33) can be expressed in the common reference frame as
00 1q 2q
Et sin( ) = Ra id + Xl iq Xaqs (iq + + ) (3.57)
X1q X2q
00 fd 1d
Et cos( ) = Ra iq Xl id + Xads (id + + ) (3.58)
Xfd X1d
Network equations (3.45 and 3.46) for the generator buses should be
rewritten considering
Sg = Eg Ig = Vg e(j) (id jiq )ej(/2) (3.59)
and thus
Pg = Vg [id sin( ) + iq cos( )] (3.60)

Qg = Vg [id cos( ) iq sin( )] (3.61)
that results in
Vk [idk sin(k k ) + iqk cos(k k )] = (3.62)

X
Vk Vm Ykm cos(k m km )
mK
Vk [idk cos(k k ) iqk sin(k k )] = (3.63)
X
Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km )
mK
The network equations for the load buses should be adjusted to include the
static load characteristrics (3.47, 3.48). If the active power component of
the load demand is modelled by a constant current characteristic, and the
reactive power component is represented by a constant impedance, (3.47,
3.48) become
X
Pk0 ( VVk0 ) = Vk Vm Ykm cos(k m km )
k
mK
(3.64)
X
Q0k ( VVk0 )2 = Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km )
k
mK
Thus, for the purpose of stability analysis, a power system can be mod-
elled by 10 ng differential equations and 4 ng + 2 nL algebraic equations,
where ng is the number of the generator buses, and nL is the number of the
load buses. If the load damping modelling approach described in Section
3.3.2 is adopted, the number of differential equations becomes 10 ng + nL ,
whereas the number of the algebraic equations is reduced to 4 ng + nL .
The system equations are expressed in terms of the state variables, the
generator currents id and iq , the complex bus voltages with the magnitude
Vk and angle k , and the parameters of the system components.
For the small-signal stability analysis, the system equations should be
linearized to take the form of Equations (2.4). The results of the linearization
are presented in Section 3.4.1. The transient stability analysis by means of
the formulated system equations is shortly discussed in 3.4.2.
3.4.1 Small-Signal Stability

Since application of the load damping model changes the structure of the
system equations by adding new differential equations, this section will cover
two cases: with and without load damping, starting with the latter.
No Load Damping
Linearization of the system equations results in the following set of equations
expressed in terms of the perturbed variables:
x = Ax + F1 Ig + F2 Vg + Bu (3.65)
0 = C1 x + G1 Ig + G2 Vg (3.66)
0 = C2 x + G3 Ig + G4 Vg + G5 VL (3.67)
0 = G6 Vg + G7 VL + Du (3.68)
Apart from the differential equations (3.65), this system includes stator volt-
age equations (3.66), generator bus network equations (3.67), and load bus
network equations (3.68). The state vector is composed by the state vectors
of ng synchronous machines:

x1
x2
x = . (3.69)

..
xng
where an individual state vector xi is defined by (3.31), and i = 1, 2, ..., ng .
The matrix A is a block diagonal matrix composed of the submatrices

Agi associated with individual generators

Ag1 0 0
..
0 Ag2 0 .
A= .

.
(3.70)
.
. 0 . . 0

0 0 Agng
The non-zero entries of each Agi matrix are expressed in terms of the
machine parameters and initial values of the currents id and iq as

1
A(1,2) = 0 Ag(2,2) = KD
g M
00 00
1 Xads 1 Xads
A(2,3)
g = iq Ag(2,4) = iq
M Xfd M X1d
00 00
1 Xaqs 1 Xaqs
A(2,5)
g = id Ag(2,6) = id
M X1q M X2q
1 Rfd X 00
A(2,10)
g = A[ g (3,3) = 0 (1 ads )
M Xfd Xfd
00
Rfd Xads Rfd
A(3,4)
g = 0 Ag(3,7) = KA 0
Xfd X1d Xadu
Rfd 00
A(3,9) R1d Xads
g = KA 0
Xadu Ag(4,3) = 0
X1d Xfd
R1d X 00 R1q 00
Xaqs
A(4,4)
g = 0 (1 ads ) Ag(5,5) = 0 (1 )
X1d X1d X1q X1q
00
R1q Xaqs R2q Xaqs 00
A(5,6)
g = 0 Ag(6,5) = 0
X1q X2q X2q X1q
00
Xaqs
R2q 1 (3.71)
A(6,6)
g = 0 (1 ) Ag(7,7) =
X2q X2q TR
A(8,2)
g = KSTAB A(2,2)
g Ag(8,3) = KSTAB A(2,3)g
A(8,4)
g = KSTAB A(2,4)
g A(8,5)
g = KSTAB A(2,5)
g
A(8,6) = KSTAB A(2,6) 1
g g A(8,8)
g =
TW
A(8,10)
g = KSTAB A(2,10)
g T1
T Ag(9,2) = A(8,2)
A(9,3)
g =
1 (8,3)
A T2 g
T2 g T1 (8,4)
T1 (8,5) Ag(9,4) = A
A(9,5)
g = A T2 g
T2 g T1 (8,6)
T1 1 Ag(9,6) = A
A(9,8)
g = TW + T2 g
T2 T2 1
T1 (8,10) Ag(9,9) =
A(9,10)
g = A T2
T2 g 1
1 A(10,2)
g =
A(10,10)
g = STt
Tt
C1 and C2 are block diagonal matrices with the block elements C1g and
C2g respectively, where
" X 00 X 00 #
V cos( ) 0 0 0 Xaqs Xaqs 0 0 0 0
C1g = X 00 00
Xads
1q 2q
V sin( ) 0 Xadsfd X1d 0 0 0 0 0 0

(3.72)

id V cos( ) iq V sin( ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C2g =
id V sin( ) iq V cos( ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(3.73)
In (3.72) and (3.73), V and denote the terminal voltage magnitude and
angle of the generator in question.
The generator current vector Ig is given by 1

id1
iq1

id2

Ig = iq2 (3.74)

..
.

idn
g
iqng
The matrices F1 , G1 , and G3 , that all also have a block diagonal structure,
are comprised by individual generator matrices of the form

0 0
1 (X 00 iq aq ) 1 (ad + Xaqs 00 i )
d
M ads M
Rfd 00

0 X
Xfd ads 0

R1d 00
0 X X 0

1d ads
R1q 00
0 0 X1q Xaqs
F1g = (3.75)

R 00
0 0 X2q X

2q aqs

0 0

(2,1) T1 (2,2)

KSTAB F1g1 F
T2 1g1

T (8,1) T (8,2)
T2 F1g1 T2 F1g1
1 1
0 0
00

Ra Xl + Xaqs V sin( ) V cos( )
G1g = 00 G3g = g
Xl Xads Ra Vg cos( ) V sin( )
(3.76)
The elements of the generator voltage vector Vg are the voltage angles
1
The notation for the generator current vector and the voltage vectors was adapted
from [15], whereas in other sources (e.g.[2]) the preference is given to the real and imaginary
components of current and voltage.
and magnitudes of the generator buses:

1
V1

2

Vg = V2 (3.77)

..
.

ng
Vng
Each block of the block diagonal matrix F2 has only one non-zero element:
(7,2) 1
F2g = (3.78)
TR
The coefficients of the voltage variables in the stator voltage equations are
defined by another block diagonal matrix G2 , comprised of

V cos( ) sin( )
G2g = (3.79)
V sin( ) cos( )
The vector of the voltage magnitudes and angles of the load buses is defined
as
ng +1
Vng +1

ng +2

VL = Vng +2 (3.80)

.
.

.

ng +n
L
Vng +nL
The matrices G4 -G7 represent the coefficients of the voltage variables
in the network equations. The odd- and even-numbered rows of the matri-
ces correspond to the active power equations (3.62) and the reactive power
equations (3.63) respectively, whereas the odd- and even-numbered columns
refer to the voltage angle and the voltage magnitude coefficients.
The matrix G4 contains the elements that show the sensitivity of the
generator nodal equations to the voltage components of all the generators.
The off-diagonal elements of G4 , with k = 1, 2, ..., ng and m = 1, 2, ..., ng
are given as
(2k1,2m1)
G4 = Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km )
(2k1,2m)
G4 = Vk Ykm cos(k m km )
(3.81)
(2k,2m1)
G4 = Vk Vm Ykm cos(k m km )
(2k1,2m)
G4 = Vk Ykm sin(k m km )
The diagonal entries of the matrix are defined by the following expressions:
(2k1,2k1)
G4 = idk Vk cos(k k ) + iqk Vk sin(k k )
X
Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km )
mK
(2k1,2k)
G4 = idk sin(k k ) + iqk cos(k k )
X
Vm Ykm cos(k m km )
mK
(3.82)
(2k,2k1)
G4 = idk Vk sin(k k ) + iqk Vk cos(k k )
X
Vk Vm Ykm cos(k m km )
mK
(2k,2k)
G4 = idk cos(k k ) iqk sin(k k )
X
Vm Ykm sin(k m km )
mK
The entries of G5 and G6 and the off-diagonal elements of G7 are similar

to the off-diagonal elements of G4 (3.81) with the only difference in the
indexation. For G5 , that represents the sensitivities of the generator network
equations to the load voltages, k = 1, 2, ..., ng whereas m = ng + 1, ng +
2, ...ng + nL . The indices in G6 and G7 , incorporating the sensitivities of
the load network equations, are k = ng + 1, ng + 2, ...ng + nL (G6 and G7 ),
m = 1, 2, ..., ng (G6 ) and m = ng + 1, ng + 2, ...ng + nL (G7 ).
The diagonal elements of G7 , i.e. sensitivities of the network equations
of the load buses to the voltages at the load buses are given by
(2k1,2k1)
X
G7 = Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km )
mK
(2k1,2k)
X
dPLk
G7 = dVk Vm Ykm cos(k m km )
mK
(3.83)
(2k,2k1)
X
G7 = Vk Vm Ykm cos k m km )
mK
(2k,2k) dQLk
X
G7 = dVk Vm Ykm sin(k m km )
mK
dQLk
where dP
dVk and dVk are the sensitivities of the static load characteristics to
Lk
the voltage at the corresponding load bus. With the constant current and
the constant impedance characteristics for the active and reactive power
components respectively, as in (3.64),they become
dPLk
= Pk0 /Vk0 (3.84)
dVk
dQLk
= 2Q0k Vk /(Vk0 )2 (3.85)
dVk
The input vector u may contain different quantities, e.g. the turbine
setpoint changes Pm set . Another example would be u as a vector of
the load changes PL set which explains the appearance of the D matrix in
(3.68). Since the load power demand is not explicitly given in (3.65), the last
term of (3.65) should disappear in this case. However, u can be defined
as
Pm set

u = (3.86)
PL set
which yields non-zero elements in the both matrices B and D.
To enable the small-signal analysis, the system state matrix AS should
be derived. The successive elimination of Vl and Ig while assuming
u = 0 will give
x = A0 x + F 0 Vg (3.87)
0 0
0 = C x + G Vg (3.88)
where
A0 = A F1 G1 1 C1 (3.89)
0 1
F = F2 F1 G1 G2 (3.90)
0 1
C = C2 G3 G1 C1 (3.91)
0 1 1
G = G4 G3 G1 G2 G5 G7 G6 (3.92)
Equation (3.88) can be rewritten as
1
Vg = G0 C 0 x (3.93)
Substitution of Vg in (3.87) gives
x = (A0 F 0 G01 C 0 )x (3.94)
Thus
AS = A0 F 0 G01 C 0 (3.95)
The analysis of the eigenvalues of the system state matrix AS could

show, whether the system is stable or unstable at the given operating point.
Load Damping Case

If the load damping modelling is to be adopted, the system equations and,
therefore, the previously defined matrices should be adjusted. The load bus
voltage angles become state variables, and they should be added to the state
vector:
x = [xTold ng +1 ng +2 ng +nL ]T (3.96)
The vector of the load bus voltage components, on the contrary, gets reduced:

Vng +1
Vn +2
g
VL = (3.97)

..
.
Vng +nL
Since the active power injections at the load buses are already defined by
the new differential equations, the corresponding algebraic equations should
be excluded from the load bus network equations.
Thus, (3.65-3.68) become
x = Ax + F1 Ig + F2 Vg + F3 VL + Bu (3.98)
0 = C1 x + G1 Ig + G2 Vg (3.99)
0 = C2 x + G3 Ig + G4 Vg + G5 VL (3.100)
0 = C3Q x + G6Q Vg + G7Q VL (3.101)
The matrices A and F2 should be extended to account for the new differ-
ential equations. The block AL contains nL nL elements of the following
form
(k,m) 0
AL = Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km ) (3.102)
KDk
where k = ng + 1, ng + 2, ..., ng + nL , m = ng + 1, ng + 2, ..., ng + nL and
m 6= k
and
(k,k) 0 X
AL = Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km ) (3.103)
KDk
mK
where m = 1, 2, ..., ng + nL
AL should be added at the diagonal of A (3.70),
The matrices F2 and F3 should be augmented with nL additional rows
each. The elements of these rows are as follows:
(k,2m1) 0
F2L = Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km ) (3.104)
KDk
(k,2m) 0
F2L = Vk Ykm cos(k m km ) (3.105)
KDk
where k = ng + 1, ng + 2, ..., ng + nL ,m = 1, 2, ..., ng The first 10ng nL
entries of the new matrix F3 are zeros, since the derivatives of the generator
state variables are not explicitely influenced by the voltage magnitude at

the load buses. The last nL rows of F3 have the elements defined as
(k,m) 0
KDk
with k = ng + 1, ng + 2, ..., ng + nL , m = ng + 1, ng + 2, ..., ng + nL
(k,k) 0 X
KDk
mK
with m = 1, 2, ..., ng + nL
Besides, nL rows with zero entries should be added to the matrix F1 .
Now the system state matrix can be computed by using a similar ap-
proach as in the no damping case:
C4 = C2 G5 G7Q 1 G3Q (3.108)

1
G8 = G4 G5 G7Q G6Q (3.109)
0 1
A = A F1 G3 C4 F3 G7Q C3Q (3.110)
0 1
F = F2 F1 G3 G8 F3 G7Q G6Q (3.111)
0 1
C = C1 G1 G3 C4 (3.112)
0 1
G = G2 G1 G3 G8 (3.113)
x = (A0 F 0 G01 C 0 )x (3.114)

Hence
AS = A0 F 0 G01 C 0 (3.115)
3.4.2 Transient Stability

For the transient stability analysis, the system equations expressed in the
form
x = f (x, Ig , V ) (3.116)
0 = g(x, Ig , V ) (3.117)
should be solved to model the response of the system to a given distur-

bance. In (3.116,3.117), f and g are nonlinear functions. The solution of a
nonlinear sysem of differential and algebraic equations can be obtained by
implementing the methods of numerical integration. In this work, a par-
titioned approach with explicit integration is used. The term partitioned
solution refers to the separate solution of differential and algebraic equa-
tions. In explicit integration methods, such as R-K methods, the value of x
at any t can be estimated from its value at the previous time step.
This approach includes the following steps [2]:
1. Calculate the initial state of the system (before a disturbance).
2. Change the admittance matrix to model the given disturbance, e.g.

add a shunt element with a large conductance at the faulty bus to
model a three-phase short circuit.
3. The state variables x cannot change instantaneously after the dis-

turbance. The algebraic equations (3.117) should be solved with the
known x to find the voltages and currents at the instant after the dis-
turbance. The Newton-Raphson algorithm, used in this thesis for the
solution of the algebraic equations, is broadly used in power system
analysis and extensively covered in the literature (e.g.[17]).
4. The time derivatives f (x, Ig , V ) can be estimated now by using the

known values of x, Ig , and V .
5. To find the values of the state variables x at the next time instant, R-
K numerical integration method can be applied (see Appendix A) by
using the time derivative values from the previous step in the formulae
(A.2).
6. The steps 3-5 should be repeated to obtain the time response of the
system to the given disturbance. If the fault is assumed to be cleared
at some time point, the admittance matrix will be changed again, and
the network variables will change stepwise, but not the state variables.
According to [2], the advantages of this approach are its flexibility, sim-
plicity, reliability, and robustness. However, it might become numerically
unstable if the time step is bigger than the time constant of the smallest
eigenvalue.
Chapter 4
Impact of Rotational Inertia

and Damping on Power
System Stability
In this chapter, sensitivities of the system state matrix to inertia and damp-
ing are derived. They are further implemented in computation of damping
ratio sensitivities and sensitivities of transient frequency overshoot based on
[1]. In the following sections, an algorithm for inertia and damping opti-
mization and its implementation in MATLAB are presented.
4.1 Sensitivity of Damping Ratio

The damping ratio of an oscillatory mode shows how fast the associated
oscillations will decay after a small disturbance. To ensure the secure opera-
tion of a power system, the oscillatory modes should be sufficiently damped
under any possible normal operating conditions of the system.
With the time dependent inertia level, it becomes very important to
understand how the changes in inertia affect the oscillatory modes. Fur-
thermore, when damping level in the system can be adjusted, it would be
valuable to know how the system reacts to the changes in damping.
The sensitivity of the damping ratio of the i-th dynamic mode to a
parameter (M or KD ) could be derived from the definition of damping
ratio (2.14) as
(i) (i)
(i) (i) ( (i) (i) )
= (p )= (4.1)
(i)2 + (i)2 ( (i)2 + (i)2 )3/2
where
(i) (i)
= Re( ) (4.2)

39
40 CHAPTER 4. IMPACT OF INERTIA AND DAMPING
(i) (i)
= Im( ) (4.3)

The sensitivity of the eigenvalue i to is determined by the values of the

right and left eigenvectors, (i) and (i) , calculated using the normalization
(2.10), and by the sensitivity of the state matrix to this parameter as [1]
(i) AS (i)
= (i)T (4.4)

Thus, to find the sensitivities of the damping ratios to the inertia and
damping coefficients, the expressions for the sensitivity of the system state
matrix should be derived.
4.1.1 State Matrix Sensitivity to Rotational Inertia
No Load Damping
The sensitivity of the system state matrix to the inertia of one of the
syncronous machines, M , is determined by
AS A0 F 0 0 01 0 A0 F 0 0 01 0
= F G C = F G C (4.5)
M M M M M
with
A0 A F1
= (A F1 G1 1 C1 ) = G1 1 C1 (4.6)
M M M M
F 0 F1
= (F2 F1 G1 1 G2 ) = G1 1 G2 (4.7)
M M M
C 0
= 0 (4.8)
M
G0
= 0 (4.9)
M
A
In (4.6), M and F
M are block diagonal matrices. However, their only
1
blocks that contain non-zero elements are the ones that correspond to the
generator in question, since the inertia level of a generator does not explicitly
influence the state variables of the other generators. The non-zero elements
4.1. SENSITIVITY OF DAMPING RATIO 41
Ag
of the submatrix M can be derived from (3.71) that yields
(2,2) (9,2) (8,2)

Ag 1 Ag
(8,2)
Ag
(2,2) Ag T1 Ag
= 2 KD = KSTAB =
M M M M M T2 M
(2,3)
Ag 1 X 00 (8,3)
Ag
(2,3)
Ag Ag
(9,3) (8,3)
T1 Ag
= 2 ads iq = KSTAB =
M M Xfd M M M T2 M
(2,4) 00 (8,4) (2,4) (9,4) (8,4)
Ag 1 Xads Ag Ag Ag T1 Ag
= iq = KSTAB =
M M 2 X1d M M M T2 M
(2,5) 00 (8,5) (2,5) (9,5) (8,5)
Ag 1 Xaqs Ag Ag Ag T1 Ag
= id = KSTAB =
M M 2 X1q M M M T2 M
(2,6) 00 (8,6) (2,6) (9,6) (8,6)
Ag 1 Xaqs Ag Ag Ag T1 Ag
= id = KSTAB =
M M 2 X2q M M M T2 M
(8,10) (2,10) (9,10) 8,10)
Ag
(2,10)
1 Ag Ag Ag T1 Ag
= 2 = KSTAB =
M M M M M T2 M
(4.10)
F1g
The non-zero elements of the block M are computed for each synchronous
machine in the system as
(2,1) (2,2)
F1g 1 00
F1g 1 00
= 2 (Xads iq aq ) = (ad + Xaqs id )
M M M M2
(8,1) (2,1) (8,2) (2,2)
F1g F1g F1g F1g
= KSTAB = KSTAB (4.11)
M M M M
(9,1) (8,1) (9,2) (8,2)
F1g T1 F1g F1g T1 F1g
= =
M T2 M M T2 M
Load Damping Case
In case damping is provided at the load buses, and it is to be modelled
as in Section 3.3, Equations (4.6) and (4.7) should be modified according to
the adjusted structure of the set of the system equations (3.98-3.101).
A0 A F1
= G3 1 C4 (4.12)
M M M
F 0 F1
= G3 1 G8 (4.13)
M M
The non-zero elements of M A
and F
M can be determined by means of
1
(4.10) and (4.11).

A
The size of M and FM should be similar to that of A and F1 respec-
1
tively. Therefore, if the load damping differential equations are introduced,

A F1
M should be augmented by nL zero rows and nL zero columns, while M
gets nL zero rows.
4.1.2 State Matrix Sensitivity to Damping

No Load Damping
It could be assumed that the damping at a generator bus could be
changed, e.g. by means of BESS.
AS A0 A
= = (4.14)
KD KD KD
A
The only non-zero elements of a block KDg , representing the sensitivity of
the state variables of the generator in question to the associated damping
coefficient, are
(2,2)
Ag 1
=
KD M
(8,2)
Ag 1 (4.15)
= KSTAB
KD M
(9,2)
Ag T1 1
= KSTAB
KD T2 M
Load Damping Case
AS A0 F 0 0 1 0
= G C (4.16)
KD KD KD
where
A0 A F3
= G7Q 1 C3Q (4.17)
KD KD KD
F 0 F2 F3
= G7Q 1 G6Q (4.18)
KD KD KD
The sensitivities of the matrix A to the load damping at the bus in question
A
are given by the matrix K D
of the same size as A. Generator state variables
are not explicitly affected by the change of load damping, thus the first 10ng
A
rows and the first 10ng columns of K D
will always have only zero elements.
Non-zero entries will appear in the row (10ng + k) for the k-th load bus:
A (9ng +k,9ng +m) 0

= Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km ) (4.19)
KDk KDk2
where k = ng + 1, ng + 2, ..., ng + nL , m = ng + 1, ng + 2, ..., ng + nL and
m 6= k
and
A (9ng +k,9ng +k) 0 X
= 2 Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km ) (4.20)
KDk KDk
mK
4.2. SENSITIVITY OF TRANSIENT OVERSHOOT 43
where m = 1, 2, ..., ng + nL
The derivative of F2 with respect to the damping at a given load bus

has the following non-zero elements:
F2 (9ng +k,2m1) 0
= 2 Vk Vm Ykm sin(k m km ) (4.21)
KDk KDk
F2 (9ng +k,2m) 0
= 2 Vk Ykm cos(k m km ) (4.22)
KDk KDk
where k = ng + 1, ng + 2, ..., ng + nL , m = 1, 2, ..., ng
F3
Finally, non-zero entries of KDk are defined by
F3 (9ng +k,m) 0
KDk KDk
where k = ng + 1, ng + 2, ..., ng + nL , m = ng + 1, ng + 2, ..., ng + nL
F3 (9ng +k,k) 0 X
KDk KDk
mK
where m = 1, 2, ..., ng + nL
4.2 Sensitivity of Transient Overshoot

The frequency response of a system to a disturbance depends on the level
of inertia and damping in this system. Inertial response of synchoronous
machines is an inherent reaction to an imbalance of mechanical and electrical
torques at their rotors. After a major disturbance, such as the loss of bulk
generation units, the rotational inertia of the remaining machines reduces
the rate of frequency drop. This provides more time for the control actions,
aimed at settling the frequency at an acceptable level and ensuring the
stability of the system. In case of high penetration of RES, the grid inertia
significantly decreases. This affects the frequency response, causing larger
frequency deviations, and requires faster operation of the frequency control.
In this section, the sensitivity of a transient overshoot after a disturbance
to the inertia of the generators will be derived based on [1] and on the system
equations formulated in Chapter 3.
The sensitivities of the right and the left eigenvectors to a parameter
are given by
(k) X (k) X
= ckj (j) , = dkj (j) (4.25)

jN jN
where N is the set of the system modes, and the off-diagonal elements ckj
and dkj can be expressed as
(j)T A

S (k)
ckj = k 6= j (4.26)
((k) (j) ) (j)T (j)
(k)T A

S (j)
dkj = k 6= j (4.27)
((k) (j) ) (j)T (j)
The derivative of the product (i) (i)T , which is given by
(i) (i)T (i) (i)T (i)T

= + (i) (4.28)

can be rewritten noting that ckj = dkj as [1]
(i) (i)T X (j) (i)T

= [ cij (i) cji (j)T ] (4.29)

j\i
The derivative (4.29) will be employed in the latter derivations.

The frequency response can be estimated by means of an open-loop trans-
fer function between the input (disturbance u = Pk ) and the output
(angular velocity deviation y = r ) variables. The open-loop transfer
function could be obtained from
x = AS x + bk u (4.30)
y = cl x (4.31)
where cl is a matrix mapping the frequency of node l on the output ylk and
bk shows the contribution of a disturbance at the k-th node to the deviation
of the state variables. Hence, the transfer function G(s) can be expressed
as
Y (s)
G(s) = = cl (sI A)(1) bk
U (s)
= cl (sI )(1) T bk (4.32)
X Rk
li
= (i)
iN
s
where Rlik is a residue of G(s) at pole s = (i)
Rlik = cl (i) (i)T bk (4.33)
The matrix bk is not as easily derived as in [1] because in this thesis, a more
complex model of a power system is employed. The derivation of bk will be
covered later in this section.
k
Rli
With the short-hand Klik = (i)
, the step response Y (s) is given by
1 X (i)
Ylk (s) = G(s) = Klik (4.34)
s s(s (i) )
iN
which in time domain yields
(i) t
X
ylk (t) = L1 [Ylk (s)] = Klik (1 e ) (4.35)
iN
After dividing the eigenvalues into real and complex conjugate, represented
by the sets 0 and Lambda+ , respectively, the time-domain response can be
rewritten as
(i) t (i)t
X X
ylk (t) = Klik (1 e )2 (KlikRe e ||Klik || sin( (i) t lik ))
i0 i+
(4.36)
with
lik = arctan(KlikRe , KlikIm ) (4.37)
The dominating mode i could be defined by finding the largest Kljk
i = argmaxKljk (4.38)
j
The first peak time and magnitude of the dominating mode i could be ap-
proximated by
1
tkpl = (0.5 lik ) (4.39)
(i)
k
Mpl = ylk (tkpl ) (4.40)
l to inertia and
The next step would be to estimate the sensitivity of Mpk
damping. The derivative of the transfer function residue Rlik to inertia or
damping of the j-th generator is given by
Rlik (i) (i)T k bk

= (cl (i) (i)T bk ) = cl b + cl (i) (i)T (4.41)
j j j j
The gain of the step-response Klik is affected by inertia or damping changes

as follows:
k
Rli (i)
Klik Rlik j
(i) Rlik
j
= = (4.42)
j j (i) ((i) )2
The change of the first peak time can be estimated by

y
arctan( xy ) x
y x
= (4.43)
y2 + x2
1 1 (i)
= (4.44)
(i) ( (i) )2
KiRe
tkpl (i)
1 1 arctan( KiIm )
= (i) 2 (0.5 ) (i) (4.45)
j ( ) j j
Finally, the derivative of the overshoot is given by

k
Mpl ylk (tkpl ) X K k (i) k
= = [ li
(1 e tpl )
j j j
iN
(4.46)
(i) (i) tkpl
tkpl (i) tkpl
Klik tkpl e Klik (i)
e ]
j j
As a next step, the matrix bk is derived.

No Load Damping
To enable the calculation of the open-loop transfer function as in (4.32),
the system frequency response should be described by
x = Ax + bk Pk (4.47)
r = cl x (4.48)
where Pk is the vector of disturbances. If we assume the disturbance to

happen at one of the load buses, the system equations should be adjusted
as follows:
x = Ax + F1 Ig + F2 Vg (4.49)
0 = C1 x + G1 Ig + G2 Vg (4.50)
0 = C2 x + G3 Ig + G4 Vg + G5 VL (4.51)
k
0 = G6 Vg + G7 VL + d Pk (4.52)
Rearrangement of (4.50) and (4.52) yields
VL = G7 1 (G6 Vg + dk Pk ) (4.53)
1
Ig = G1 (C1 x + G2 Vg ) (4.54)
Substitution of VL and Ig in (4.49) and (4.51) gives
x = A0 x + F 0 Vg (4.55)
0
0 = C x + G Vg 0
G5 G1 k
7 d Pk (4.56)
where A0 , C 0 , F 0 and G0 are the shortcuts adopted in (3.89-3.92). Now

(4.49) can be rewritten as
x = AS x + F 0 G01 G5 G1 k
7 d Pk (4.57)
Thus, the desired matrix bk could be computed as
bk = F 0 G01 G5 G1
7 d
k
(4.58)
where dk is a 2nL 2nL matrix with only one non-zero element
dk(2k1,2k1) = 1 (4.59)
If the distrubances at generator buses are to be considered, the term dk Pk

appears in (4.51), and (4.60) becomes
x = A0 x + F 0 Vg (4.60)
0 0 k
0 = C x + G Vg d Pk (4.61)
that yields
x = AS x + F 0 G01 dk Pk (4.62)
and
bk = F 0 G01 dk (4.63)
bk bk
Now Mj and KD should be calculated to be used in (4.41)
bk F 0 01
= G G5 G1
7 d
k
(4.64)
Mj Mj
bk F 0 01 k
= G d (4.65)
Mj Mj
bk
= 0 (4.66)
KD
where equation (4.64) corresponds to the disturbances at the load buses,

and equation (4.65) corresponds to the disturbances at the generator buses.
F 0
The derivative M j
is given by (4.7).
Load Damping Case

Since the active power injection at the load buses is in this case repre-
sented by the differential equations (3.54), disturbances at the load buses
could be modelled by directly adding the term bk Pk to Equation (3.98).
The equation becomes
x = AS x + bk Pk (4.67)
where bk has size (10ng + nL ) nL and the non-zero element of bk is given

by
0
bk(10ng +k,k) = (4.68)
KDk
A disturbance at a generator bus could be modelled in the same way as in
the no load damping case, with (4.62), while the matrices A0 , F 0 , C 0 and
G0 should be adopted from (3.110-3.113).
The derivatives of bk with respect to M and KD for the case of a distur-
bance at a load bus are given by
bk
= 0 (4.69)
Mj
(10ng +k,k)
bk 0
= 2 (4.70)
KD KDk
If a disturbance occurs at a generator bus, taking the derivatives of bk yields
bk F 0 01 k
= G d (4.71)
Mj Mj
bk F 0 01 k
= G d (4.72)
KD KD
F0 0
F
with M j
and K D
as defined by (4.18).
By comparing Equations (4.64) and (4.71), it could be concluded that
the load damping model, suggested in Section 3.3.2, does not adequately
reflect the sensitivity of the generator frequency response to the rotational
inertia for the load bus case.
The expressions for bk and its derivatives can be used to calculate the
transient overshoot Mpl k and its sensitivities.
Knowing how the changes of inertia and damping affect the eigenvalues
of the system state matrix and the magnitude of the transient overshoot,
it is now possible to formulate an optimization program focused on the
improvement of the system stability.
4.3 Optimization Algorithm

The optimization algorithm described in this section was proposed in [1].
Its objective is the maximization of the worst-case (minimal) damping ratio
of any mode in the system. The larger the damping ratios are, the faster
the oscillatory modes decay which is advantageous for the system stability.
At the same time, to avoid large deviations of the frequency due to reduced
inertia, the frequency overshoot after a disturbance should be constrained.
Damping and inertia are assumed to be adjustable within some bounds and
4.3. OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHM 49
associated with a cost. The sets K and M include the nodes with damping
and inertia, respectively. The total amount of inertia and damping that can
be added is assumed to be limited.
The sensitivities of the damping ratios and the overshoot are non-linear,
therefore, each step of the optimization will be associated with a solution
of a linearized problem. Superscript denotes the number of the iteration
with 0 being the first iteration. After each iteration, the system state matrix,
along with the sensitivities of damping ratios and transient overshoot should
be computed all over again.
The change of the damping from the current iteration to the next is given
by
+1 +1
KDj = KDj KDj (4.73)
A similar expression is applied to the value of inertia. To enable the calcula-
+1
tion of the absolute change in inertia and damping, KDj and Mj+1 should

be split in positive parts, KDj+
and Mj+ , and negative parts,KDj and Mj ,
as
(
+1 0 +1 0 >0
+ KDj KDj if KDj KDj
KDj = +1 0 0 (4.74)
0 if KDj KDj
(
+1 0 >0
0 if KDj KDj
KDj = +1 0 | if K +1 K 0 0 (4.75)
|KDj KDj Dj Dj
M +1 Mj0 Mj+1 Mj0 > 0

if
Mj+ = j
(4.76)
0 if Mj+1 Mj0 0
Mj+1 Mj0 > 0

0 if
Mj = +1 (4.77)
|Mj Mj0 | if Mj+1 Mj0 0
The absolute change could be now estimated as
+
|KDj | = KDj + KDj (4.78)
|Mj | = Mj+ + Mj (4.79)
The objective function penalizes the minimal damping ratio with cost
c 0. The purpose of the slack variable kpl is to ensure the feasibility of
the problem, and it is penalized by the cost c . Procurement of additional
inertia and damping implicates economic costs cMi and cKi . However, the
accurate calculation of cMj and cKj would be a complex task without a
well-developed inertia and damping procurement market.
XX X X
min [c min + (c kpl ) + cKj |KDj | + cMj |Mj |] i +
KDj ,Mj
k l iK iM
(4.80)
s.t.
X X
i+1 = i + i +1
KDj + i
Mj+1 (4.81)
KDj Mj
jK jM
min
i+1 (4.82)
X
tot
|KDj | KD (4.83)
jK
X
|Mj | M tot (4.84)
jM
min +1 max
KDj KDj KDj (4.85)
Mjmin Mj+1 Mjmax (4.86)
min +1 max
KDj KDj KDj (4.87)
Mjmin Mj+1 Mjmax (4.88)
+
0 KDj , 0 KDj (4.89)
+ +1 0
KDj KDj = KDj KDj (4.90)
0 Mj+ , 0 Mj (4.91)
Mj+ Mj = Mj+1 Mj0 (4.92)
k
X Mpl k
X Mpl
k
fp Mpl Pk Pk Mj+1 + +1
Pk KDj kpl (4.93)
Mj KDj
jM jK
With (4.81), the value of the damping ratios are computed at the step + 1
using the previous value i and the changes related to the adjustment of Mj
and KDj . The constraint (4.82) serves to set min to the lowest damping
ratio value. The inequality constraints (4.83) and (4.84) limit the total
change of inertia and damping to the values available for procurement. The
individual values of Mj and KDj at each bus are limited by (4.85) and
k computed at each iteration are valid only
(4.86). Sensitivities of and Mpl
for a small range of values around the initial Mj and KDj . Therefore, the
+1 +1
steps KDj and Mj should be limited by (4.87) and (4.88). Equalities
(4.89-4.92) split KDj and Mj as in (4.78 and 4.79).
The magnitude of the transient overshoot after a disturbance Pk is
given by Mpl k P . The change of inertia and damping by K +1 and
k Dj
+1
Mj results in additional terms of the overshoot as shown in (4.93).
The total magnitude of the overshoot should not exceed the limit fp .
At each iteration , the program finds the optimal levels of damping and
inertia. These values are used to calculate the system state matrix and its
eigenvalues, the new values of sensitivities, and the approximate magnitude
4.4. IMPLEMENTATION IN MATLAB 51
of transient overshoot. All these quantities are implemented in optimization

at iteration + 1. This optimization program can be used to facilitate the
provision of synthetic inertia and fast frequency response. It could also serve
as a reference tool for planning of power systems.
4.4 Implementation in MATLAB

To analyze the impact of inertia changes on the stability of test power sys-
tems, the proposed optimization algorithm was implemented in the engi-
neering environment MATLAB, along with a supplementary transient sim-
ulations tool .
Optimization Program
START
DATA.mat
BUSES Power Flow

Reindexation Kron Reduction
LINES Computation
GENS
0
Calculation of the
initial state of the
generators
1
NO
Estimation of Calculation of Computation of
Optimization of
the transient the eigenvalue the system state
min (dm;dk) <0,1 the inertia and
overshoot and and eigenvector matrix and
damping levels
sensitivities sensitivities eigenvalues
YES
END
Figure 4.1: Structure of the developed optimization program
The flow chart of the developed MATLAB program for inertia and damp-
ing optimization is presented in Figure 4.1. The input data for the optimiza-
tion program should be saved in the file DATA.mat and should include the
following arrays:
1. BUSES with information on the nodes of the investigated power sys-

tem, such as active and reactive power injections, voltage magnitudes
of PV-buses, susceptance of the shunt devices, etc.
2. LINES where topology of the grid and parameters of the transmission

lines are stored.
3. GENS where parameters of the on-line generators are listed.
The required structure of the arrays is described in Appendix D.

The MATLAB file run optimization.m is the master file of the optimiza-
tion program. At the start of the master file, the user could choose the model
order for the synchronous machines: 6,7,9 or 10. Each option represents the
number of the differential equations describing a machine. The option 6
corresponds to an unregulated machine, by entering 7 the model with AVR
would be chosen, with 9 PSS would be implemented, and 10 stands or the
full model employed in this work. The ability to choose the model could be
useful, if the effects of a particular regulation system on the system stability
are to be analyzed. Besides that, the user could choose, whether he or she
would like to include the load damping modelling by typing on or off in
response to a corresponding inquiry.
After the user has made his choice, the program starts to process the
data. First of all, the nodes and the lines of the system are re-indexed by
reindexation.m to ensure the sequential numbering of the elements start-
ing with 1. The next step is calculation of the initial steady state of the
system by means of power flow computation accomplished by the package
MATPOWER 5.1. This tool is called upon by pf.m where the necessary
power system data is first processed to get the MATPOWER format. Re-
sulting from MATPOWER computations are the voltage magnitudes and
angles, along with active and reactive power injections at the nodes of the
system.
Next, the nodes are sorted into three categories: generator nodes, load
buses and other buses (with no power injections). To exclude the other
buses from the analysis, Kron reduction is implemented via kron.m. The
MATPOWER output data is used as an input to evaluate the generator
variables id , iq , and which is done by gencurrents.m. These variables rep-
resent the interface between synchronous machines and transmission net-
work, and after getting their values, the algorithm proceeds with computa-
tion of coefficient matrices for the linearized network equations (G4 G7 ,
network equations.m).
In the following stage, the function sensitivities.m computes the system
state matrix AS , its eigenvalues and eigenvectors, and sensitivities of damp-
ing ratios to rotational inertia of generators and to damping. To derive
AS , the program has to build the matrices Ag ,FXg ,CXg and GXg for
each generator bus, along with the derivatives of Ag and FXg used in the
further analysis. This step is carried out by gen equations.m. Then, the
transient overshoot magnitudes and their sensitivities to inertia and damp-
ing are estimated by transient overshoot.m.
After the eigenvalues, overshoot magnitudes, and their sensitivities have
been computed, the parameters of the optimization should be defined. Among
these parameters are the costs introduced in the objective function, the total
4.4. IMPLEMENTATION IN MATLAB 53
avaliable inertia and damping, the parameters of the equality constraints,

and the number of iterations.
The optimization is carried out by means of the free of charge opti-
mization package YALMIP. YALMIP is a modelling language for advanced
modelling and solution of convex and nonconvex optimization problems [18].
In optimization.m, with optimization parameters as an input, the specified
objective function is maximized subject to the given constraints by IBM
ILOG CPLEX solver. Results of the optimization problem solution, the up-
dated values of inertia and damping at the nodes, are used to calculate the
new eigenvalues, overshoot, and sensitivities by means of sensitivities.m and
transient overshoot.m. Next, another optimization round is carried out, and
further, by repetitive optimization solution and calculation of eigenvalues,
transient overshoot, and their sensitivities, the local optimum of the objec-
tive function is found. The number of the iterations should be manually
adapted to ensure that the solution has converged. If from one iteration
to another, the minimal damping ratio does not get any improvement, the
maximal size of the steps K and M is decreased by 10% , as an attempt
to push the solution into another direction. The reduction of the steps is
accumulated in factors dm and dk . When one of them becomes smaller
than 0.1, the user receives the message that declares the termination of the
whole optimization process and displays the achieved improvement of mini-
mal damping ratio in percent.
Transient Simulations
The master file of the transient simulations is called run transient. It re-
quires the same input data as the optimization program and starts the com-
putations by calling reindexation.m, pf.m, and kron.m. The next step is
estimation of the initial values of the generator variables in initial x gen.m.
Following this, the bus and the branch where a disturbance occurs is speci-
fied, and the admittance matrix of the system is altered to involve a shunt
element at the faulty bus. The new values of the network variables (voltages
and currents) are calculated at the next step by means of Newton-Raphson
iteration algorithm implemented in newtraph.m. The latter has two sub-
functions, algebraic.m, where the right-side parts of the network equations
(3.117) are evaluated, and jacobian.m computing the Jacobian associated
with these equations.
After that, the time step and the number of the time intervals before
the fault is cleared are specified. For each time interval, the values of the
state variables are computed by means of numerical integration, while the
values of the network variables are estimated in newtraph.m. Numerical
integration is carried out by the second order R-K method (rungekutta2.m)
or the fourth order R-K method in Gills modification (rungekuttagill.m).

More than once at each time step, R-K methods require the calculation of
the state variable derivatives with respect to time which is implemented in
deriv gen.
After the fault is assumed to be cleared, the admittance matrix should
be adjusted according to the new network conditions. Following that, new-
traph.m is executed again to find the updated value of the network variables,
that abruptly altered after the admittance matrix changed. Finally, the new
time step and the number of the time intervals are specified, and R-K nu-
merical integration along with Newton-Raphson algorithm are implemented
to folllow the behaviour of the state and network variables after the fault
was cleared.
Chapter 5
Simulation Results
The proposed optimization algorithm and the developed transient simulation

program were implemented for two test systems, IEEE two-area test system
[2] and IEEE South East Australian test system [4]. Both systems are often
used for testing small-signal stability analysis programs. In the present
chapter, the results of optimization are presented and illustrated by the
transient simulation results.
5.1 IEEE Two-Area Test System

5.1.1 System Description
The two-area system shown in Figure 5.1 is often used for benchmarking of
small-signal stability analysis tools. This simplified power system consists
of two areas interconnected by a weak tie link. Each area includes 2 gener-
ators supplying an aggregated load bus. Eventhough this system is far less
complex than the real-life power systems, it is already a step ahead from the
single machine infinite bus (SMIB) representation, as it allows to investigate
interarea oscillations.
In the present work, the system operating state and parameters listed
in Example 12.6 of [2] were adopted. This allowed to assess the modelling
accuracy by comparing the obtained results with those in [2]. The investi-
gated operating state is described by the following data:
G1: P = 700 MW Q = 185 MVAr Et = 1.0320.2
G2: P = 700 MW Q = 235 MVAr Et = 1.0110.5
G3: P = 719 MW Q = 176 MVAr Et = 1.03 6.8
G4: P = 700 MW Q = 202 MVAr Et = 1.01 17.0
Bus 7: PL = 967 MW QL = 100 MVAr QC = 200 MVAr
Bus 9: PL = 1767 MW QL = 100 MVAr QC = 350 MVAr
Nominal frequency in the system is 60 Hz. Active load components are
modelled by constant current characteristics, and reactive load components
have constant impedance characteristics.
55
56 CHAPTER 5. SIMULATION RESULTS
400 MW
7 8 9
G1 1 5 6 10 11 3 G3
110 km 110 km
25 km 10 km 10 km 25 km
C7 C9
L7 L9
2 4
G2 G4
Area 1 Area 2
Figure 5.1: Two-area test system [2]
5.1.2 Small-Signal Stability Analysis

To validate the developed eigenvalue calculation routine, the system state
matrix eigenvalues obtained in the simulations were compared to the ones
listed in Example 12.6 of [2]. In accordance with the outline of Example 12.6,
it was assumed that all four generators are operated on manual excitation
control, and there are no PFC devices. Hence, each synchronous machine
was represented by 6 state variables. All the damping coefficients were set
to zero, thus, No Load Damping case was modelled.
The calculated eigenvalues are presented at the left side of Table 5.1,
and the corresponding values from [2] are given at the right side of the
table. As it could be seen in Table 5.1, the calculation results exhibit three
decimal place accuracy which could serve as a verification for the developed
eigenvalue computation program.
The first two eigenvalues in Table 5.1 represent the zero eigenvalues due
to the redundant state variables. The appearence of the zero eigenvalues
is explained in [2]. One of these zero eigenvalues is caused by the lack
of uniqueness of absolute rotor angle. The other zero eigenvalue results
from the assumption that the generator torques are independent of speed
deviation (speed governors are not modelled and KD = 0).
All the non-zero eigenvalues of the system have negative real parts that
means that the system is stable in the given operational condition.
Each mode of the system can be characterized by the state variables
that contribute the most to this mode. The level of contribution of a state
variable to a mode can be assessed by means of the participation matrix
analysis, described in [2]. The dominant states of the system modes in the
investegated case are given in Table 5.1. The rotor angle oscillatory modes
of the two-area system are represented by three conjugate pairs of complex
5.1. IEEE TWO-AREA TEST SYSTEM 57
eigenvalues. Conjugate pairs = 0.492 6.83 and = 0.506 7.02

are associated with the local intermachine oscillations between generators
G1 and G2, and generators G3 and G4 respectively. The third rotor angle
mode, described by the conjugate pair = 0.111 3.43, is the interarea
mode, with generators G1 and G2 swinging against G3 and G4. As it could
be seen in Table 5.1, this oscillatory mode has the lowest damping ratio.
Table 5.1: System modes with manual excitation control
Eigenvalues Damping Eigenvalues [2] Damping Dominant

Real Imaginary Ratio Real Imaginary Ratio States
1.33E-07 0 1 -7.60E-04 2.20E-03 0.327
-1.33E-07 0 1 -7.60E-04 -2.20E-03 0.327
-0.099 0 1 -0.096 0 1 and
-0.111 -3.43 0.032 -0.111 -3.43 0.032 of G1, G2, G3, G4
-0.111 3.43 0.032 -0.111 3.43 0.032
-0.116 0 1 -0.117 0 1
-0.265 0 1 -0.265 0 1 fd of G3 and G4
-0.276 0 1 -0.276 0 1 fd of G1 and G2
-0.492 -6.83 0.072 -0.492 -6.82 0.072 and
-0.492 6.83 0.072 -0.492 6.82 0.072 of G1 and G2
-0.506 -7.02 0.072 -0.506 -7.02 0.072 and
-0.506 7.02 0.072 -0.506 7.02 0.072 of G3 and G4
-3.428 0 1 -3.428 0 1
-4.139 0 1 -4.139 0 1
-5.288 0 1 -5.287 0 1
-5.303 0 1 -5.303 0 1
-31.03 0 1 -31.03 0 1 flux linkages of
-32.45 0 1 -32.45 0 1 d- and q-axis
-34.07 0 1 -34.07 0 1 damping circuits
-35.53 0 1 -35.53 0 1
-37.89 -0.142 1 -37.89 -0.142 1
-37.89 0.142 1 -37.89 0.142 1
-38.01 -0.037 1 -38.01 -0.038 1
-38.01 0.037 1 -38.01 0.038 1
The assumption of the manual excitation control simplifies the analysis,

however, it is extremely important to know how the control devices influence
on the small-signal stability. The eigenvalue computation in MATLAB,
as well as the results given in [2] show that if the excitation is controlled
by means of AVR with a high gain without PSS, the investigated system
becomes unstable, with an unstable interarea oscillation mode represented
by a conjugate pair = 0.0301 3.84.
The operation of PSS with given parameters eliminates the negative ef-
fect of AVR on the damping torque. The interarea oscillatory mode of the
two-area system with PSSs modelled as shown in Figure 3.2 is represented
by complex eigenvalues = 0.663 3.286. It should be noted, that these
values differ from the ones presented in [2]. This discrepancy could be ex-
plained by the difference between the implemented PSS model and a more
detailed model chosen by the author of [2].
Implementation of PFC introduces additional damping of the oscilla-
tions. Speed governors were not included into the model used for the small-
signal stability analysis of the two-area system in [2], therefore, the param-
eters of PFC were chosen at our own discretion as follows:
Droop S = 2%
Turbine time constant Tt = 10s
The value of the turbine time constant is set in accordance with the maximal
time of full primary control reserve deployment allowed in interconnected
European power system which is 30 s. Normally, the values of Tt of non-
reheat steam turbines are significantly lower than 10 s, but to investigate
the worst-case scenario, the chosen value of Tt represents steam turbines,
equipped with a re-heater.
The eigenvalues of the state matrix of the given two-area system with
AVR, PSS, and PFC are presented in Table 5.3. In the case that will be
further referred to as Base Case, the rotational inertia and damping coeffi-
cients of the machines are set to the values given in Table 5.2 in accordance
with Example 12.6 of [2]. This case represents a system with conventional
generation, and thus conventional level of rotational inertia.
It should be noted, that the small-signal stability analysis of the test
system in Load Damping case, i.e. with incorporation of the frequency
dependency of the load modelled as in Section 3.3.2, yielded positive eigen-
values. This result contradicts the expectations from the effect of the load
damping on the stability of the system. Modelling of an aggregated load is
a complex task since it requires an adequate reflection of both voltage and
frequency dependency of the consumed power and due to the diversity of
the consumer devices. The model proposed in Section 3.3.2 does not seem
to offer an appropriate description of the voltage dependence of the active
component of demanded power and, thus, it should be further elaborated. It
is not included in the optimization analysis conducted in the present work.
In case of the high penetration of RES, the level of inertia is significantly
lower. For example, according to [5], in 2012, the share of inverter-connected
RES infeed in the German power system has reached maximal value of 50%.
Consequently, the aggregated inertia of the system lost half of its value
during the times with such a high RES share, changing from H = 6s to
H = 3 4s (or from M = 12s to M = 6 8s). This highly reduced inertia
scenario is reflected in the present thesis by Low-Inertia Case with all the
inertia constants reduced by 50% compared to Base Case.
Table 5.2: Rotational inertia constant M and damping coefficients of the

two-area system generators in Base Case and Low-Inertia Case, calculated
on the rated MVA base (900 MVA)
Generator G1 G2 G3 G4
KD 1 1 1 1
M base case [s] 13 13 12.35 12.35
M low inertia [s] 6.5 6.5 6.175 6.175
Table 5.3: Eigenvalues of the two-area system in Base Case (left) and Low-
Inertia Case (right).
Eigenvalues Damping Eigenvalues Damping

Real Imaginary Ratio Real Imaginary Ratio
-3.56E-14 0 1 -1.24E-13 0 1
-0.100 0 1 -0.100 0 1
-0.100 0 1 -0.100 0 1
-0.100 0 1 -0.100 0 1
-0.071 -0.116 0.522 -0.077 -0.128 0.515
-0.071 0.116 0.522 -0.077 0.128 0.515
-0.778 0 1 -0.780 0 1
-0.795 0 1 -0.795 0 1
-0.804 0 1 -0.805 0 1
-1.681 0 1 -2.371 0 1
-0.696 -3.283 0.207 -1.273 -4.163 0.292
-0.696 3.283 0.207 -1.273 -4.163 0.292
-3.714 0 1 -3.402 0.000 1
-3.839 0 1 -3.509 0.000 1
-4.383 -0.043 1 -4.370 -0.017 1
-4.383 0.043 1 -4.370 0.017 1
-3.545 -5.140 0.568 -5.123 -5.270 0.697
-3.545 5.140 0.568 -5.123 5.270 0.697
-3.795 -5.117 0.596 -5.287 -5.133 0.717
-3.795 5.117 0.596 -5.287 5.133 0.717
-16.372 -14.082 0.758 -13.819 -22.603 0.522
-16.372 14.082 0.758 -13.819 22.603 0.522
-16.205 -14.683 0.741 -13.618 -23.873 0.495
-16.205 14.683 0.741 -13.618 23.873 0.495
-18.148 -19.579 0.680 -17.349 -23.609 0.592
-18.148 19.579 0.680 -17.349 23.609 0.592
-17.515 -24.341 0.584 -17.235 -27.021 0.538
-17.515 24.341 0.584 -17.235 27.021 0.538
-32.724 0 1 -32.714 0 1
-33.119 0 1 -32.944 0 1
-37.928 0 1 -37.831 0 1
-38.080 0 1 -37.992 0 1
-51.491 -0.058 1 -52.624 -0.135 1
-51.491 0.058 1 -52.624 0.135 1
-52.928 0 1 -54.558 0 1
-53.080 0 1 -54.754 0 1
-94.601 0 1 -94.663 0 1
-95.725 0 1 -95.778 0 1
-97.488 0 1 -97.541 0 1
-97.545 0 1 -97.599 0 1
The interarea oscillatory mode in Base Case is given by a conjugate

pair of eigenvalues = 0.696 3.28. As could be seen in Table 5.3, this
mode has the worst damping ratio among all the system modes (0.207).
The decay of interarea oscillations can be accelerated by the reduction of
inertia in the system, as lower inertia is associated with a faster damping of
oscillations. In accordance with the expectations, the damping ratio of the
mode of interest increases by roughly 41% in Low-Inertia Case compared to
Base Case. However, when inertia level in the system is too low, the inertial
response of the machines is reduced, and the system becomes less resilient
to large disturbances. To ensure the stable operation of the system, the
frequency nadir after possible large-scale disturbances should be limited to
acceptable values.
The reaction of the system to sudden load changes at the generator buses
was investigated to assess the level of the frequency deviations in the system.
The frequency response of the two-area system was estimated by applying
an open-loop transfer function G(s) defined by (4.32). As proposed in [1],
to facilitate the assessment of the system frequency response, the transient
overshoot after a disturbance was approximated by the first peak magnitude
of the dominating oscillatory mode Mpl k , given by (4.40). The results of the
transient overshoot calculations in Hz are presented in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Results of transient overshoot computation in the two-area system

in Base Case
Node Mpmin [Hz] min y(t) [Hz]

1 -0.348 -0.395
2 -0.347 -0.395
3 -0.281 -0.310
4 -0.275 -0.310

in Low-Inertia Case

1 -0.380 -0.414
2 -0.380 -0.414
3 -0.299 -0.330
4 -0.292 -0.324
As it could be seen in Table 5.4, the approximated values of the transient

frequency overshoot Mpmin deviate by roughly 12% from the actual values of
overshoot (min y(t)) after the disturbances at the generator nodes.
Figure 5.2 illustrates the transient frequency deviations at bus 1 after

the load change at bus 1 (blue curve) and bus 3 (green curve).
0.05
0.1
Transient Frequency [Hz]
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time [s]
Figure 5.2: Frequency response to disturbances at buses 1 (blue) and 3

(green) of the two-area system in Base Case
In this graph, it is easy to recognize the operation of PFC. After a fast

drop, the frequency starts to increase due to the PFC, and after some time it
will settle, however, it will not get back to 60 Hz. The first part of the curve
(before the frequency reaches its minimum) shows the reaction of the system
to the disturbance before the deployment of the primary control reserve. The
steepness of the curve, i.e. the rate of the frequency deviation, is determined
by the rotational inertia and damping levels in the system. If the frequency
in a real-life system decreases too fast, the system PFC may not have enough
time to restore the frequency at an acceptable level. In this case, when the
frequency becomes critically low, the generator protection will disconnect
the machines which will lead to further complications and possibly to the
loss of the system stability.
It is, therefore, valuable to know how the changes in inertia and damping
affect the frequency nadir. If the rotational inertia of the generators of the
investigated system is reduced by 50 %, the absolute values of the frequency
overshoot increase by 6-10 %, as it could be seen in Table 5.5.
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time [s]

(green) of the two-area system with the inertia of all machines reduced by
50%
Figure 5.3 shows the frequency response to the disturbances at buses 1

and 3 in Low-Inertia case. The reduction of the inertia is associated with a
high penetration level of RES. However, it seems necessary to note, that the
modelling of RES was not covered in the present work, and all the generation
units are represented by synchronous machines. Nevertheless, in this stage
of the research, a simple reduction of inertia constants of the machines is
assumed to be sufficiently accurate in representing the changes in inertia
due to the intermittant generation.
Another parameter that affects the value of the frequency nadir is the
damping coefficient KD . As already discussed in Chapter 3, KD represents
the relation of the electrical torque at the rotor of a generator to the fre-
quency deviation. From Equation (3.6), it is clear that the higher is KD ,
the smaller is the rate of the frequency deviation.The effect of the reduced
damping at the generator buses could be seen in Table 5.6 and Figure 5.4.

with the damping of all the machines reduced by 50%

1 -0.388 -0.438
2 -0.388 -0.438
3 -0.310 -0.348
4 -0.308 -0.342
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time [s]

(green) of the two-area system with damping of all the machines reduced by
50%
If both the rotational inertia and damping coefficients of the machines are
reduced by 50% compared to Base Case, the absolute value of the transient
frequency overshoot increases by 15-17%, as shown in Table 5.7.

with the inertia and damping of all the machines reduced by 50%
Node Mpmin min y(t)

1 -0.404 -0.460
2 -0.403 -0.460
3 -0.322 -0.368
4 -0.314 -0.348
0 0
0.05 0.05
0.1 0.1
0.15 0.15
0.2 0.2
0.25 0.25
0.3 0.3
0.35 0.35
0.4 0.4
base case base case
0.45 0.45
lowinertia case lowinertia case
low inertia and damping low inertia and damping
0.5 0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 5.5: Results of transient overshoot computation in the two-area sys-

tem for three different cases. Left: disturbance at bus 1. Right: disturbance
at bus 3.
The results of the frequency response computation for three discussed

cases are compared in Figure 5.5. The red lines, representing the case of
low inertia and low damping, as well as the blue lines of Low-Inertia Case
are noticeably steeper than the green curves of Base Case. This difference
in the frequency rate reflects that the inertial response, which is a natural
limitation of the frequency change rate, decreases due to the inertia level
reduction in the system. Reduced damping causes amplification of the tran-
sient frequency oscillations which is illustrated by the higher magnitude of
the red line oscillations peaks in Figure 5.5.
Thus, in the given operational state, the reduction of rotational inertia
of the generators of the IEEE two-area system by 50% leads to
improvement of the minimal damping ratio by 40%
increase in the transient frequency overshoot maginutede by 10%
Low damping at the generator buses aggravates the situation in Low-Inertia

Case, further increasing the amplitude of the transient frequency deviations,
whereas increased damping levels help to eliminate the effects of reduced
inertia on the transient frequency. For instance, a 40% increase in damping

coefficients in Low-Inertia case allows to fully mitigate the effect of the 50%
inertia reduction on the frequency nadir.
The proposed optimization program has been used to further investigate
the impact of inertia and damping changes on the parameters of interest
and to find the optimal levels of inertia and damping.
5.1.3 Optimization
The optimization of inertia and damping in the two-area system has been
accomplished in several stages on a simple-to-complex basis. The parame-
ters of the optimization in the investigated cases are presented in Tables 5.8
and 5.9.
Table 5.8: Parameters of the optimization program for two-area test system
(Case 1 - Case 4)
Parameter Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Kjmin 0.25Kjbase - - -
Mjmin 0.25Mjbase 0.25Mjbase 0.25Mjbase 0.25Mjbase
Kjmax 4Kjbase - - -
Mjmax 4M base 4Mjbase 4Mjbase 2Mjbase
X j
K tot Kjmax - - -
jK
X X X X
M tot Mjmax Mjmax Mjmax Mjmax
jM jM jM jM
c 100 100 100 100
cKj 0 0 0 0
cMj 0 0 0 0
c 0 0 0 0
fp [Hz] - - -0.312 -0.312
Table 5.9: Parameters of the optimization program for two-area test system
(Case 5 - Case 8)
Parameter Case 5 Case 6 Case 7 Case 8

Kjmin - 0.25Kjbase 0.25Kjbase 0.25Kjlow inert.
Mjmin 0.25Mjbase 0.25Mjbase 0.25Mjbase 0.25Mjlow inert.
Kjmax - 4Kjbase 4Kjbase 4Kjlow inert.
Mjmax 4Mjbase 4M base 4M base 4Mjlow inert.
X j X j X
K tot - Kjmax Kjmax Kjmax
X XjK XjK jK
X
M tot Mjmax Mjmax Mjmax Mjmax
jM jM jM jM
c 100 100 100 100
cKj 0 0 0.01 0.01
cMj 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015
c 0 0 0 15
fp [Hz] -0.312 -0.312 -0.312 -0.312
Case 1 In Case 1, the minimal damping ratio was optimized without

putting a constraint on the frequency overshoot. Furthermore, the costs
of inertia and damping procurement were set to zero. The results of this
simplified optimization case could serve as a validation of the general per-
formance of the algorithm.
By means of the developed optimization program, the minimal damping
ratio in Case 1 was increased by 94% compared to Base Case. The optimiza-
tion results are summarized in Table 5.10 and Table 5.11. The inertia con-
stants were significantly reduced compared to Base Case, whereas the damp-
ing coefficients were increased to the maximal possible values. This outcome
meets all the expectations and conforms with the findings of Low-Inertia case
analysis (Table 5.3). It should be noted, that the inertia constants M did
not reach the minimal values Mjmin = 0.25Mjbase . A simple computation of
the eigenvalues with Mjmin = 0.25Mjbase yields min = 0.3378, showing that
a further reduction of M from the values listed in Table 5.11 does not lead to
the enhancement of the minimal damping ratio. The changes in inertia and
damping that improve the damping ratio of one oscillatory mode may cause
a significant reduction of another damping ratio. Therefore, at some point,
a further enhancement of the minimal damping ratio becomes impossible,
since there are several damping ratios that compete with each other. Thus,
it can be concluded that the optimization program has successfully found
the optimal solution of Case 1.
Table 5.10: Optimization results of the two-area test system (Case 1)
0min 0.2074
min
opt 0.4024
Number of Iterations 90
Improvement 94%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.258
Table 5.11: Values of the inertia constants M and damping coefficients KD

on 900 MVA base in the two-area test system (Case 1)
Generator M [s] M/M base KD

G1 3.2500 0.25 4
G2 4.6222 0.34 4
G3 3.1435 0.25 4
G4 4.7548 0.38 4
The results of Case 1 implicate that a high share of RES should be seen
as a positive condition for the stability of the two-area test system with
regard to the damping of the oscillatory modes. However, as previously dis-

cussed, low values of inertia complicate the operation of the system, since
they require a faster reaction of control devices to large disturbances. In
Case 1, the optimization resulted into the maximal allowed values of KD
which illustrates that procurement of additional damping improves the min-
imal damping ratio. Furthermore, higher damping levels also improve the
transient frequency performance of the system and compensate for a poor
inertial response of the system. This could be seen by comparing the over-
shoot value in Case 1 Mpmin = 0.258 Hz with the values obtained for
Low-Inertia case (see Table 5.5). Thus, higher damping levels in the system
have a significant positive impact on the stability and operation of the test
system.
Case 2 To illustrate the impact of rotational inertia changes on the fre-

quency response of the test system, Case 2, a modified version of Case 1,
was investigated. In this version, the damping coefficients were assumed to
be constant, so the minimal damping ratio was maximized only by changing
the values of M . The optimization results for Case 2 are given in Tables 5.12
and 5.13.
Table 5.12: Optimization results of the two-area tests system (Case 2)
0min 0.2074
min
opt 0.3719
Improvement 79%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.398


G1 3.2500 0.25 1
G2 3.8726 0.30 1
G3 3.0875 0.25 1
G4 4.2606 0.35 1
The minimal damping ratio grew by 79% with respect to Base Case. At
the same time, the maximal magnitude of the transient frequency overshoot
increased by roughly 14%.
Case 3 The limitation of the overshoot magnitude is first considered in

Case 3, where the frequency overshoot constraint (4.93), ignored in Case 1
and Case 2, was activated. The damping level is kept constant in Case 3
to enable the investigation of the inertia impact on the frequency response.
The absolute value of |fp | = 0.312 Hz was chosen, which is smaller than
0.348 Hz, obtained in Base Case, but larger than 0.258 Hz of Case 1.
0min 0.2074
min
opt 0.4030
Improvement 94%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.294


G1 49.1459 3.78 1
G2 7.3904 0.57 1
G3 3.1622 0.26 1
G4 4.8596 0.39 1
It should be noted, that the 94% improvement, obtained in Case 3,

repeats the result of Case 1. However, in Case 3, the damping coefficients
remained at their initial level KD = 1, whereas in Case 1 their maximization
significantly enhances the minimal damping ratio, as it could be seen in
comparison to Case 2. It could be concluded, that the introduction of the
frequency overshoot constraint pushes the solution of the highly nonlinear
problem into another direction of the solving.
The results, presented in Tables 5.14 and 5.15, show that in order to
keep the transient frequency in the acceptable range while maximizing the
damping ratio, the program suggests to significantly increase the rotational
inertia at bus 1.
First of all, the results of Case 3 indicate a high participation of the G1
states in the dominating oscillatory mode. Furthermore, as it could be seen
in Tables 5.5-5.7, the frequency overshoot at buses 1 and 2 has a greater
magnitude than at nodes 3 and 4, hence, it is more likely for the frequency
of G1 or G2 to violate the overshoot constraint.
Case 4 To check how the availability of inertia at bus 1 affects the opti-
mal solution, Case 4 was designed, with the total available inertia at bus 1
reduced by 50% to 2M1base . The results of the Case 4 simulations can be
found in Tables 5.16 and 5.17.
0min 0.2074
min
opt 0.2829
Improvement 36%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.312


G1 26.0000 2.00 1
G2 12.6602 0.97 1
G3 5.4356 0.42 1
G4 7.8022 0.60 1
The restriction imposed on the bus 1 inertia reserves reduces the im-
provement of the minimal damping ratio from 94% to 36%. The solution
is obtained by deploying the whole available inertia reserve at bus 1 and
reducing the rotational inertia at buses 3 and 4.
Case 5 Another possibility to limit the inertia changes is to impose the

costs on each additional inertia unit. In the developed program, it is assumed
that both reduction and increase of the inertia could be regarded as a service
and could be rated with the same costs.
In Case 5, the damping at the generator buses remains unchanged,
whereas the rotational inertia changes are penalized with cMj = 0.015.
The transient frequency overshoot is restricted at the same level as before,
fp = 0.312 Hz.
0min 0.2074
min
opt 0.3832
Improvement 85%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.312


G1 34.0543 2.62 1
G2 12.9336 1.00 1
G3 3.0875 0.25 1
G4 4.4721 0.35 1
The obtained results (see Tables 5.18 and 5.19) are similar to those of
Case 4. The inertia of G1 is increased by 162%, while it is set to the minimal
value at bus 3 and close to the minimal value at bus 4. However, the inertia
level at bus 2 remains intact which can be seen as a reaction to the costs
imposed on the changes.
Case 6 Case 6 illustrates the optimization of both inertia and damping

under the same conditions as in Case 5. The damping changes, in contrast
to the inertia changes, are not penalized by costs in this case. The results
in Tables 5.20 and 5.21 show that by setting the damping at the maximal
values, the improvement level of 86% can be achieved, which is close to
the performance of the program in Case 1. At the same time, the required
adjustments of inertia in Case 6 are much smaller than in Case 1. This
discrepancy draws attention to the important role of the damping for the
stability of the investigated two-area test system.
0min 0.2075
min
opt 0.3796
Improvement 83%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.252


G1 13.0000 1.00 4
G2 13.0000 1.00 4
G3 4.1744 0.34 4
G4 3.3003 0.27 4
However, procurement of damping at the generator buses implies costs

cKj 6= 0. Non-zero costs of damping were introduced in Case 7.
Case 7 The optimization results in Case 7 are presented in Tables 5.22 and
5.23. The following parameters were used in this case: cMj = 0.015, cKj =
0.01, fp = 0.312 Hz. Since the absolute value of fp is smaller than the
magnitude of the frequency overshoot in Base Case, the slack variable was
introduced to ensure the feasibility of the frequency overshoot constraint.
The costs c associated with the slack variable were set at the value c = 15.
0min 0.2074
min
opt 0.3768
Improvement 82%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.294


G1 13.0000 1.00 2.06
G2 13.0000 1.00 1.00
G3 3.0691 0.25 4.00
G4 3.3077 0.35 4.00
Case 8 The last optimization case for the considered test system, Case 8,
is based on Low-Inertia Case. The initial values of the rotational inertia are
already reduced by 50%, compared to the previous optimization cases. As
can be seen in Tables 5.24 and 5.25, improvement of the minimal damping
ratio is achieved by a further reduction of the rotational inertia, and the

frequency overshoot constraint is satisfied by increased damping levels.
0min 0.2926
min
opt 0.3840
Improvement 38%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.312

Generator M [s] M/M low inert KD

G1 3.4298 0.53 2.14
G2 4.0404 0.62 2.14
G3 2.9882 0.46 2.14
G4 4.4418 1.68 2.14
5.1.4 Transient Stability Analysis

The results obtained for the two-area test system by means of the optimiza-
tion program could be illustrated by the results of the transient simulations
implemented in MATLAB. The developed transient simulation program al-
lows to observe the behaviour of the system state variables after large sym-
metrical disturbances. One of the disturbances of interest is a three-phase
short circuit at one of the circuits of the line 8-9 close to bus 9. Such a
disturbance can be classified as an overfrequency event, since it leads to the
acceleration of the synchronous machines due to reduction of the electrical
torque at their rotors. The fault is cleared after 0.01 s by a disconnection
of the faulty circuit. The disconnection of the circuit changes the topology
of the system and decreases the transmission capacity between two areas.
The frequency of the generators rises, while the PFCs with Tt = 10s are
gradually adjusting the mechanical torque. After a sufficient deployment of
the primary control reserves is achieved, the frequency decreases and settles
at a new steady value.
As shown previously, inertia and damping in the test system influence on
the transient response of the system. The results of the simulations of the
discussed disturbance conform with this statement. Figure 5.6 illustrates the
transient frequency of G1 after the disturbance of interest in 5 different cases.
The presented cases can be divided in two groups, namely the ones with
KDj = 1 (Base Case, Low-Inertia Case, Case 2) and those with improved
damping KDj = 4 (Low Inertia and Low Damping, Case 1). The peaks of
the first group lines lay considerably higher than those of the second group
lines. This stands as a clear illustration of the influence of damping on the
transient frequency in the investigated system.
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04 base case

lowinertia case
0.02 low inertia and high damping
case 1
case 2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [s]
Figure 5.6: Transient frequency of G1 after a short cirtcuit at bus 9 and

disconnection of a circuit of the line 8-9 of the two-area test system
Among the cases of the first group, Base Case implicates the highest val-
ues of the rotational inertia and, thus, demonstrates the strongest inertial
response. Therefore, as illustrated by the blue line in the graph, Base Case is
associated with the slowest rise and the smallest magnitude of the transient
frequency compared to the other cases in the group. Case 2, character-
ized by very low levels of inertia and an improved minimal damping ratio,
demonstrates the highest rate and magnitude of the frequency deviation.
However, the difference between the peak values of the transient frequency
in Base Case and Case 2 is merely 0.01 Hz which is 6.25% of the magnitude
in Base Case.
Figure 5.6 does not give a clear impression on the transients occuring
right after the short circuit. The transient frequency within the first 5
seconds after the fault is shown in Figure 5.7. This graph demonstrates that
the lower is the inertia, the steeper is the growth of the frequency after the
disturbance. In this case, the rate of the frequency change is independent

from the damping in the system. Thus, the inertial response of the system,
along with the initial state of the system and severeness of the disturbance,
define how much time the protection systems have to clear the fault before
the system stability is lost.
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
base case
0.02 lowinertia case
low inertia and high damping
case 1
case 2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time [s]
Figure 5.7: Transient frequency of G1 after a short cirtcuit at bus 9 and

disconnection of a circuit of the line 8-9 of the two-area test system (first 5
seconds)
The effect of the inertial response on the critical fault clearing time can
be observed by comparing two plots in Figure 5.8. Both plots represent the
rotor angles of the four generators after the considered disturbance. The
fault was cleared in both cases after 0.012 s, but the rotational inertia of the
generators in the left graph was set to the values of Base Case, whereas at
the right, the same event within Low-Inertia Case is modelled. With inertia
values of Base Case, the system remains stable. In contrast, in Low-Inertia
Case, the generators G3 and G4 fall out of step, which implicates islanding
of the two areas.
5.2. IEEE SOUTH EAST AUSTRALIAN TEST SYSTEM 77
0.8 8000
7000
0.6
Relative Rotor Angle [rad]
Relative Rotor Angle [rad]

6000
0.4
5000
0.2 4000
0 3000
2000
0.2
1000
G1 G1
0.4 G2 G2
0
G3 G3
G4 G4
0.6 1000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 5.8: Rotor angles of the generators G1-G4 of the two-area test system
after a short circuit at bus 9 in Base Case (left) and Low-Inertia Case (right)
5.2 IEEE South East Australian Test System
5.2.1 System Description
A simplified 14-generator test system, based on the southern and eastern

Australian power networks, is shown in Figure E.1. It consists of 5 areas,
with areas 1 and 2 more closely electrically coupled. This test system will
be further reffered to as the five-area test system. The system is charac-
terized by its long tie lines and, according to [4], demonstrates 3 inter-area
oscillatory modes and 10 local-area modes, with some of these modes being
unstable without PSSs. The parameters of the grid elements and the power
flow data are adopted from [4]. The initial steady-state operating condition
of the system corresponds to the case 2 (medium-heavy loading) of [4].
The parameters of the grid and the detailed power flow data are pre-
sented in Appendix E. The parameters of the PFCs repeat those of the
two-area system. It should be noted, that the types and models of AVR and
PSS used in the present thesis (see Chapter 2) differ from those implemented
by the authors of [4]. Modelling of SVC is not included in the present work,
therefore, all the SVCs were represented by uncontrolled reactive shunts.
Furthermore, some of the generator parameters, listed in Table E.3, such as
saturation constants, were approximated by using the typical data from [2]
and [19], since they are not given in [4]. Due to the mentioned discrepancies
in the modelling, benchmarking of the results presented in this thesis with
those of [4] is not possible.
The initial operating condition of the investigated system is described in
Table 5.26. Power flow occurs from south (Area 5) to north (Area 4).
Table 5.26: Steady-state operating condition of the five-area test system
Load Condition Medium-Heavy

Total generation [MW] 21590
Total load [MW] 21000
Inter-area flows
Area 4 to Area 2 [MW] -500
5.2.2 Small-Signal Stability Analysis

Similarly as in case of the two-area test system, the analysis of the small-
signal stability of the five-area test system starts with calculation of the
eigenvalues of the system matrix in Base Case and Low-Inertia Case. Com-
plete lists of the eigenvalues in the two considered cases can be found in
Appendix E.
The values of M and KD used in the two cases are presented in Ta-
ble 5.27. The parameters are given on 100 MVA base to conform with the
p.u. base of the data in Appendix E. The values of KD in Table 5.27 cor-
respond to KD = 1 on rated power of the generators. In Base Case, the
Table 5.27: Rotational inertia constants M and damping coefficients of the

five-area test system generators in Base Case and Low-Inertia Case, calcu-
lated on 100 MVA base
Generator G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7
Node 101 201 202 203 204 301 302
KD 9.999 33.335 22.224 16.668 26.668 53.336 17.776
M Base [s] 71.993 213.344 124.454 106.675 138.674 298.682 124.432
M Low Inertia [s] 35.996 106.672 62.227 53.338 69.337 149.341 62.216
Generator G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14
Node 401 402 403 404 501 502 503
KD 17.776 9.999 17.776 19.998 6.666 10.000 8.335
M Base [s] 106.656 79.992 92.435 103.990 46.662 80.000 125.025
M Low Inertia [s] 53.328 39.996 46.218 51.995 23.331 40.000 62.513
five-area system has a very low minimal damping ratio, basemin = 0.096, as
could be seen in Table E.4. Furthermore, the system exhibits three more
oscillatory modes with damping ratios lower than 0.200. Thus, oscillations
occuring after small disturbances in this system decay at a very slow rate,
and changes of the operating state of the system might lead to its instability.
In Low-Inertia Case, the system is unstable with an expanding oscillatory
mode = 1.812 39.368 (see Table E.5). This might cause considerable
concerns, if the system has a high installed capacity of RES.
Frequency response of the five-area test system was estimated in the
same way as it was done for the two-area system, i.e. by applying steplike
load changes to the generator buses. The results of the transient overshoot
approximation are shown in Table 5.28. The magnitude of the overshoot
depends on the node where disturbance occured. As could be seen in Ta-
ble 5.28, disturbances that take place in the same area cause frequency
deviations of the same amplitude. The magnitude of the overshoot has the
highest value in Area 5 and decreases in accordance with the power flow
direction.
Table 5.28: Results of transient overshoot computation in the five-area test

system in Base Case
Node Generator Mpmin [Hz] Node Generator Mpmin [Hz]

101 G1 -0.040 401 G8 -0.032
201 G2 -0.040 402 G9 -0.035
202 G3 -0.040 403 G10 -0.035
203 G4 -0.040 404 G11 -0.035
204 G5 -0.040 501 G12 -0.050
301 G6 -0.049 502 G13 -0.052
302 G7 -0.047 503 G14 -0.052
5.2.3 Optimization
Poor damping of oscillatory modes in the five-area system can be improved

by providing synthetical inertia and additional damping. By means of the
developed optimization program, the required amount of inertia and damp-
ing at the generator nodes can be estimated.
The optimization was carried out for three cases with different parame-
ters presented in Table 5.29.
Table 5.29: Parameters of the optimization program for the five-area test
system
Parameter Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Kjmin 0.25Kjbase 0.25Kjbase 0.25Kjbase
Mjmin 0.25Mjbase 0.25Mjbase 0.25Mjbase
Kjmax 4Kjbase 4Kjbase 4Kjbase
Mjmax 4Mjbase 4Mjbase 4Mjbase
c 100 100 100
cKj 0 0.001 0.001
cMj 0 0.015 0.015
c 0 0 15
fp [Hz] - - -0.045
Case 1 In Case 1, costs of inertia and damping provision were set to

zero, and the frequency overshoot was not constrained. The results of the
optimization in Case 1 are shown in Tables 5.30 and 5.31. The developed
program allows to improve the minimal damping ratio by 82%. Any further
improvement of the initially lowest damping ratio leads to a decrease in
another critical damping ratio which limits the possible advances of the
algorithm.
To achieve an 82% improvement of the minimal damping ratio, the rota-

tional inertia at five buses was reduced, whereas at the rest of the nodes, it
was increased, with the maximal value of 3.62M base at G12. Furthermore,
adjusted values of damping at majority of the buses are lower than those
in Base Case. Only the damping values of the generators in Area 5 are
significantly increased.
Table 5.30: Optimization results of the five-area test system (Case 1)
0min 0.0960
min
opt 0.1743
Improvement 82%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.047

on 100 MVA base in the five-area test system (Case 1)
Generator M [s] M/M base KD base

KD /KD
G1 30.06 0.42 8.82 0.88
G2 500.74 2.35 27.07 0.81
G3 257.49 2.07 11.14 0.50
G4 183.60 1.72 20.77 1.25
G5 311.87 2.25 13.34 0.50
G6 193.20 0.65 26.70 0.50
G7 172.32 1.38 13.58 0.76
G8 155.43 1.46 13.65 0.77
G9 52.79 0.66 5.03 0.50
G10 39.10 0.42 16.98 0.96
G11 114.45 1.10 10.06 0.50
G12 169.12 3.62 23.75 3.56
G13 72.55 0.91 34.20 3.42
G14 149.22 1.19 28.65 3.44
Case 2 In Case 2, changes of inertia and damping are penalized by costs

cMj = 0.015 and cKj = 0.01, respectively. As shown in Tables 5.32 and 5.33,
introduction of the costs significantly affects the optimization results. In
contrast to Case 1, inertia is changed only at two generators in Area 2, G2
and G4, and two generators in Area 5, G12 and G14. The values of inertia of
the corresponding aggregated machines are increased, furthermore, damping
of G2 and G12 is considerably higher than in Base Case. Inertia and damp-
ing at the rest of nodes stay intact. From the results of Case 1 and Case 2,
it could be concluded that generators G2, G4, G12, and G14 participate the
most in the critical oscillatory modes. However, the obtained results do not
conform with the expectation that damping ratios are improved by inertia
reduction.
Table 5.32: Optimization results for the five-area test system (Case 2)
0min 0.0960
min
opt 0.1511
Improvement 58%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.049


KD /KD
G1 71.99 1.00 10.00 1.00
G2 319.95 1.50 71.73 2.15
G3 124.45 1.00 22.22 1.00
G4 115.53 1.08 16.67 1.00
G5 138.67 1.00 26.67 1.00
G6 298.68 1.00 53.34 1.00
G7 124.43 1.00 17.78 1.00
G8 106.66 1.00 17.78 1.00
G9 79.99 1.00 10.00 1.00
G10 92.44 1.00 17.78 1.00
G11 103.99 1.00 20.00 1.00
G12 123.20 2.64 17.50 2.63
G13 80.00 1.00 10.00 1.00
G14 141.52 1.13 8.34 1.00
Case 3 Optimization under the frequency overshoot constraint was con-

sidered in Case 3. The threshold fp was set to -0.045 Hz. The optimization
results for Case 3 are presented in Tables 5.34 and 5.35. Inertia and damp-
ing of generator G12 are significantly increased compared with Case 2. The
optimization of inertia and damping levels in the five-area system with con-
strained transient frequency allowed to improve the minimal damping ratio
of the system by 66%.
Table 5.34: Optimization results for the five-area test system (Case 3)
0min 0.0960
min
opt 0.1590
Improvement 66%
Mpmin , [Hz] -0.045


KD /KD
G1 71.99 1.00 10.00 1.000
G2 363.11 1.70 33.30 1.000
G3 145.29 1.17 22.23 1.000
G4 121.11 1.14 16.67 1.000
G5 138.67 1.00 26.66 1.000
G6 298.68 1.00 53.34 1.000
G7 124.43 1.00 17.77 1.000
G8 106.66 1.00 17.75 1.000
G9 79.99 1.00 10.00 1.000
G10 92.43 1.00 17.78 1.000
G11 103.99 1.00 19.99 1.000
G12 154.57 3.31 20.97 3.146
G13 71.12 0.89 12.98 1.298
G14 146.87 1.17 8.33 1.000
5.2.4 Transient Stability Analysis

In Case 1, rotational inertia of several generators is significantly reduced.
This might affect the frequency stability of the system after large distur-
bances. For further investigation, a short circuit at bus 217 was modelled
by means of the developed transient simulations tool. The short circuit is
eliminated after 0.005 s by disconnection of one of the circuits of the line
217-215. Thus, the transmisission capacity between Area 1 and Area 2 is re-
duced. Figure 5.9 illustrates the resulting rotor angular velocity excursions
in Base Case (left) and Case 1 (right).
x 104
4 0.03
G1 G1
3.5 G2 G2
G3 G3
G4 0.02 G4
3 G5 G5
G6 G6
2.5 G7 0.01 G7
G8 G8
G9 G9
2 G10 G10
G11 0 G11
1.5 G12 G12
G13 G13
G14 G14
1 0.01
0.5
0.02
0
0.5 0.03
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Figure 5.9: Rotor angular velocity of the generators of the five-area test
system after a short circuit at bus 217 and disconnection of a circuit of the
line 217-215 in Base Case (left) and Case 1 (right)
Generator G1 has the electrically closest location to the faulty bus. The
fault leads to a large power imbalance at the rotor of this generator, with
mechanical power exceeding the power that can be transmitted from the
generator to other areas or consumed by the load at bus 102. In Case 1,
with inertia of G1 reduced by 60%, the disturnance leads to the acceleration
of G1 and, consequently, this generator loses synchronism with the grid.
This illustrates the importance of the transient frequency restriction for the
inertia optimization.
5.3. DISCUSSION OF SIMULATION RESULTS 85
5.3 Discussion of Simulation Results
Case analysis has demonstrated that damping of the critical oscillatory mode
in the IEEE two-area test system is significantly improved at reduced levels
of inertia. Thus, the minimal damping ratio could be increased by 79%
compared to the convenitional Base Case by reducing the inertia constants
by 65%-75%. However, a further reduction of the inertia would not lead
to any advancements which indicates that there is a specific level of the
RES penetration in the test system, optimal for damping of the interarea
oscillatory mode.
However, high shares of RES generation and low inertia levels raise a
common concern over the transient frequency response of the system. The
transient simulations have shown that the magnitude of the frequency over-
shoot after a short circuit greatly depends on the inertia levels in the system,
as it is defined by the inertial response of the synchronous machines. Rota-
tional inertia levels may become crucial for the system stability because low
inertia in the system leads to reduction of the critical fault clearing time.
Nevertheless, the magnitude of the frequency overshoot after 10s of sec-

onds following the fault clearance shows a weaker relation to the inertia lev-
els. In this case, the frequency response is mainly affected by the damping
levels which also agrees with the results of optimization under the frequency
overshoot constraint.
The results of Case 3 and Case 5 show that the frequency overshoot
in the test system can also be limited by a considerable increase of the
rotational inertia at bus 1. Procurement of inertia at this bus could be
seen as an effective measure of securing an acceptable level of the frequency
overshoot. However, if the limitation imposed on the frequency magnitude
is too strict, it might become too expensive to comply with it by increasing
inertia solely. Thus, procurement of additional damping would become an
appropriate measure to limit the frequency deviations that develop in the
first minute after a large disturbance.
The magnitude of these frequency oscillations is also strongly related

to the speed of the PFC operation. Figure 5.10 illustrates the transient
frequency after a sudden load change at bus 1 for three different values of
Tt . It is clear from the plot, that the reduction of the PFC time constant
from Tt = 10 s to Tt = 3 s allows to significantly reduce the frequency
deviations. Instantaneous reaction of PFC, modelled by Tt = 1 s allows to
prevent any major frequency oscillations and causes only a slight deviation
of the settling frequency from 60 Hz.
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4 Tt = 1s
0.45 Tt = 3s
Tt = 10s
0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time [s]
Figure 5.10: Transient frequency response to a disturbance in the two-area

test system with different values of the time constant Tt
Such a fast PFC could be provided by BESS [7]. The damping procure-
ment might be also accomplished by means of BESS [20]. However, if the
storage systems are used for damping, it requires from them an immedi-
ate reaction to any oscillations of the frequency, whereas PFC reserves are
activated outside of a dead-band around the nominal frequency. In Conti-
nental Europe, this dead-band is 10mHz [7]. The potential of the battery
systems in provision of these two services simultaneously should be further
investigated.
IEEE South East Australian test system has demonstrated very poor
damping of the oscillatory modes. Improvement of the minimal damping
ratio by 82% can be achieved by inertia and damping adjustment. The
solution implicates increased level of inertia at particular buses which does
not meet the expectations that high inertia would worsen the damping.
Furthermore, in Low-Inertia Case, with inertia constant reduced by 50%,
the test system becomes unstable.
The discrepancy between the results and the expectations can be orig-
inated in the simplicity of the employed AVR and PSS models and lack of
tuning of thier parameters. Alternative models of the control devices were
5.3. DISCUSSION OF SIMULATION RESULTS 87
not implemented due to a different focus of the present work. To further

improve the optimization program, various types of AVR and PSS should
be added to its modelling capabilities. Nevertheless, the developed program
proved to enable the inertia and damping optimization for a more complex
power system than the two-area test system.
Chapter 6
Conclusions and outlook
The present work investigated the impact of rotational inertia changes on

damping of oscillatory modes and frequency stability of a power system.
The analysis of system stability was based on a multimachine power system
representation with incorporation of a detailed synchronous machine model.
This model takes into account the voltage dynamics and includes the effects
of AVR, PSS and PFC operation. Based on the implemented synchronous
machine model, along with the models of the interconnecting transmission
network and aggregated load, a set of system equations was formulated.
Linearization of these equations enabled the calculation of the system state
matrix and the small-signal stability analysis of a power system.
Further, the sensitivities of the damping ratios of the system oscillatory
modes to inertia and damping were calculated. This allows to evaluate
the changes in the system modes due to incremental changes of inertia and
damping at the system nodes. To assess the frequency dynamics of a power
system, the magnitude of the transient overshoot in response to a steplike
load change was approximated by using a transfer function. The sensitivities
of this magnitude to inertia and damping were estimated by computing the
sensitivities of the eigenvector product.
The calculated sensitivities were employed in an algorithm for optimiza-
tion of inertia and damping. The objective of this algorithm, based on [1], is
the maximization of the minimal damping ratio associated with the system
oscillatory modes. The improvement is achieved by adjusting rotational in-
ertia and damping at the system nodes. At the same time, the algorithm
allows to limit the magnitude of the transient frequency overshoot which
ensures acceptable levels of the frequency deviations in the system. The
changes of inertia and damping are penalized with costs which serves as a
simplified representation of remuneration for provision of synthetic inertia
and additional damping.
The proposed algorithm was implemented in the engineering environ-
ment MATLAB. To assess the performance of the developed program, a
89
90 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
case study was conducted for two test systems, IEEE two-area test system
and IEEE South East Australian test system. The case analysis of the for-
mer system included eight cases with different optimization parameters. It
was shown, that a reduction of rotational inertia significantly improves the
damping of the oscillatory modes. However, a simultaneous limitation of
the transient frequency deviations required the provision of additional iner-
tia and damping at particular nodes. Introduction of costs for inertia and
damping procurement affected the optimal solution by leaving only the most
effective changes of inertia and damping. The influence of PFC speed on
the frequency nadir was shown. The impact of inertia on frequency devi-
ations after a severe disturbance was illustrated by the results of transient
simulations implemented in MATLAB.
The minimal damping ratio of IEEE South East Australian test system
was optimized in three different cases. As an optimal solution in case of
non-zero costs, higher levels of rotational inertia and damping at particular
system nodes are suggested. However, the modelling accuracy in case of
this system should be improved by incorporation of realistic models and
parameters of AVR and PSS.
Detailed modelling of AVR, PSS, and turbine governors can be proposed
as as an objective for the future work. Implementation of the RES models
is another possible enhancement of the modelling framework. Furthermore,
the algorithm could be adjusted to consider the provision of inertia and
damping at buses with no generation.
Another possible field of research is the economical aspects of inertia and
damping procurement. Economical factors clearly have a great influence on
the optimal inertia and damping levels. Furthermore, pricing at potential
inertia-as-a-service markets requires an adequate estimation of the econom-
ical losses due to complications in system operation and outages caused by
a certain inertia level.
If the focus of analysis is to be shifted from the maximization of the
damping of oscillations to minimization of the transient frequency overshoot
in a system with low inertia, the optimization program could be adjusted
respectively, by setting the frequency overshoot magnitude as a main ob-
jective while restraining the minimal damping ratio. This would allow to
optimize the operation of the system during a high RES penetration with
regard to the frequency response. As shown in the case analysis of the IEEE
two-area test system, with the optimization program focused on the mini-
mal damping ratio, the already low inertia levels are proposed to be further
reduced. To find a proper balance between two objectives, the consequences
of both poor oscillatory mode damping and high frequency overshoot should
be evaluated for each particular power system.
Appendix A
Runge-Kutta Methods of
Numerical Integration
R-K methods used for numerical integration in the present work were pro-
posed for power system transient simulations in [2]. Depending on the
number of evaluations of the first derivative in Taylor series solution, R-
K methods of different orders could be used for this purpose. In this thesis,
the second order R-K method and Gills version of the fourth order R-K
method were implemented.
Second order R-K method

Consider the first-order differential equation
dx
= f (x, t)
dt
with initial condition xn at the moment tn .

The second-order R-K formula for the value of x at the moment t =
tn + t is [2]
k1 + k2
xn+1 = xn + x = xn + (A.1)
2
where
k1 = f (xn , tn )t
(A.2)
k2 = f (xn + k1 , tn + t)t
Gills version of fourth order R-K method

In Gills version of the fourth order R-K method, solution of the differ-
ential equation is obtained by a four-step approximation of x. Each stage is
91
92 APPENDIX A. RUNGE-KUTTA METHODS
denoted by j = 1, 2, 3, 4 and described by
kj = aj [f (xj1 , t) bj qj1 ]
xj = xj1 + kj t (A.3)
qj = qj1 + 3kj cj f (xj1 , t)
For the first time interval q0 = 0, in further calculations the value of q0 is

given by q4 of the previous step. The values of a, b, and c are given by

a1 = 1/2, b1 = 2, c1 = a1 , a2 = 1 0.5, b2 = 1, c2 = a2

a3 = 1 + 0.5, b3 = 1, c3 = a3 , a4 = 1/6, b4 = 2, c4 = 1/2
Solution at each time step is represented by x4 . The advantage of Gills

version of fourth order R-K method is minimization of the roundoff errors
achieved by implementation of the q variable. Furthermore, it requires less
storage capacity than the original R-K methods.
Appendix B
Calculation of Initial Steady

State
Complex voltage and current at the terminals of a synchronous machine in

the initial operational state can be denoted as
Vt = V ej
It = Iej (B.1)
The initial value of the rotor angle can be estimated by [2]
= arg(Vt + (Ra + jXqs )It ) (B.2)
Further, d-q components of voltage and current can be calculated as
id = Re(It ej(+0.5) ) (B.3)

j(+0.5)
iq = Im(It e ) (B.4)
j(+0.5)
ed = Re(Vt e ) (B.5)
j(+0.5)
eq = Im(Vt e ) (B.6)
Field circuit current and voltage are given by
eq + Ra iq + Xds id
ifd = (B.7)
Xads
efd = Rfd ifd (B.8)
Xadu
Efd = (B.9)
Rfd efd
The mutual flux linkages ad and aq are calculated as follows
ad = Xads (id + ifd ) (B.10)

aq = Xaqs iq (B.11)
93
94 APPENDIX B. CALCULATION OF INITIAL STEADY STATE
Initial values of the flux linkages of the rotor circuits are defined by
fd = ad + Xfd ifd (B.12)

1d = Xads (ifd id ) (B.13)
1q = Xaqs iq (B.14)
2q = Xaqs iq (B.15)
The relative rotor angular velocity is equal to zero in a steady state
r = 0 (B.16)
The excitation quantities are determined as follows
v1 = V (B.17)
v2 = 0 (B.18)
vs = 0 (B.19)
The AVR reference is given by

Efd
Vref = + v1 (B.20)
KA
The mechanical power is not regulated in the initial steady state
Pm = 0 (B.21)
Appendix C
Modelling of Transmission
Network Elements
Reactive Shunt Devices

Reactive shunt devices (shunt capacitors and reactors) can be represented
by corresponding shunt admittance yksh .
Figure C.1: A shunt connected to bus k [3]
With the sign convention from [3], the current injection from the shunt
is defined by
Iksh = yksh Ek (C.1)
where Ek is the complex voltage at bus k.
Transmission Lines and Transformers

Depending on the goals of analysis, transmission lines could be modelled
by either differential or algebraic equations. Since the network transients
are out of the focus of the present work, an algebraic model, namely the
lumped-circuit model of a transmission line, is used (see Figure C.2).
95
96 APPENDIX C. TRANSMISSION NETWORK MODELLING
Figure C.2: Lumped-circuit model of a transmission line [3]
This model is characterized by its series impedance
zkm = rkm + jxkm (C.2)
and shunt admittance

sh sh
ykm = gkm + jbsh
km (C.3)
The series admittance of the line model is given by
1
ykm = zkm = gkm + jbkm (C.4)
where
rkm
gkm = 2 (C.5)
+ x2km
rkm
xkm
bkm = 2 (C.6)
rkm + x2km
Another -model, derived in [3], is used to represent transformers. In case

of transformers, the -model incorporates complex tap ratios
tkm = akm ejkm (C.7)
where akm is the turns ratio. For in-phase transformers, considered in this
thesis, tkm = akm which means that tkm R.
In [3], a unified branch model for lines, in-phase transformers, and phase-
shifting transformers was developed to facilitate the modelling routine. This
model is shown in Figure C.3.
97
Figure C.3: Unified branch model [3]
The general expression for the branch current in this model is given by
Ikm = a2km (yk msh + ykm )Ek tkm tmk ykm Em (C.8)
where Ek and Em are the complex node voltages.
Admittance Matrix Elements

On the base of the unified branch model, the elements of the admittance
matrix Y can be derived as
Ykm = tkm tmk ykm (C.9)

X
Ykk = yksh + a2km (ykm
sh
+ ykm ) (C.10)
mk
where k is the set of nodes adjacent to k, k = 1, 2, ..., N , m = 1, 2, ..., N ,

m 6= k, with N representing the number of nodes in the network.
98 APPENDIX C. TRANSMISSION NETWORK MODELLING
Appendix D
Structure of MATLAB input

arrays
Table D.1: Bus data structure (BUSES)
Column Parameter
1 Bus number
2 Active power generation [p.u.]
3 Reactive power generation [p.u.]
4 Active power demand [p.u.]
5 Reactive power demand [p.u.]
6 Voltage magnitude [p.u.]
7 Damping coefficient
8 Shunt susceptance [p.u. injected at V=1.0 p.u.]
9 Slack bus = 1, Other buses =0
10 Area
11 Maximal reactive power [p.u.]
12 Minimal reactive power [p.u.]
13 Total MVA base of generator [p.u,]
14 Maximal active power [p.u.]
15 Base Voltage [kV]
99
100 APPENDIX D. STRUCTURE OF MATLAB INPUT ARRAYS
Table D.2: Branch data structure (LINES)
Column Parameter
1 Branch number
2 From bus number
3 To bus number
4 Transformer tap ratio
5 Branch resistance [p.u.]
6 Branch reactance [p.u.]
7 Total line charging susceptance [p.u.]
Table D.3: Generator data structure (GENS)
Row Parameter
1 Aggregated Generator No.
2 Node
3 Power rating [MVA]
4 Inertia constant H [s]
5 Number of generators
6 Number of generators on-line
7 Synchronous reactance Xd [p.u.]
8 Synchronous reactance Xq [p.u.]
9 Stator leakage inductance Xl [p.u.]
10 Stator resistance Ra [p.u.]
11 Transient reactance Xd0 [p.u.]
12 Transient reactance Xq0 [p.u.]
13 Subtransient reactance Xd00 [p.u.]
14 Subtransient reactance Xq00 [p.u.]
15 Transient OC time constanct Td0 0 [s]
16 Transient OC time constanct Tq0 0 [s]
17 Subtransient OC time constant Td0 00 [s]
18 Subtransient OC time constant Tq0 00 [s]
19 Saturation constant Asat

20 Saturation constant Bsat
21 Saturation constant t
22 AVR constant KA
23 AVR time constant TR [s]
24 PSS constant KSTAB
25 PSS time constant TW [s]
26 PSS time constant T1 [s]
27 PSS time constant T2 [s]
28 Damping coefficient KD
29 Voltage base [kV]
101
102 APPENDIX E. IEEE SOUTH EAST AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM
Appendix E
IEEE South East Australian

System
Figure E.1: IEEE South East Australian five-area test system [4]
103
Table E.1: Power flow input data for IEEE South Australian test system [4]
calculated on 100 MVA base
Bus No. Pg [p.u.] Qg [p.u.] Pl [p.u.] Ql [p.u.] Vi [p.u.] Qshunt [p.u.] Area Base Voltage [kV]
101 4.788 1.632 0 0 1.000 0 1 15
102 0 0 -3.8 -0.38 0 1 330
201 28 1.945 0 0 1.000 0 2 20
202 19.2 2.42 0 0 1.000 0 2 20
203 13.5 2.472 0 0 1.000 0 2 20
204 15.84 0.712 0 0 1.000 0 2 20
205 0 0.418 -3.3 -0.33 1.055 0 2 330
206 0 0 -1.1 -0.11 0 2 330
207 0 0 -16 -1.6 0 2 330
208 0 0 -1.8 -0.18 0 2 330
209 0 0 0 0 0 2 330
210 0 0 0 0 0 2 500
211 0 0 -14.45 -1.45 0 2 330
212 0 0 -14.1 -1.4 1.5 2 330
213 0 0 0 0 0 2 500
214 0 0 0 0 0 2 330
215 0 0 -4.1 -0.4 0 2 330
216 0 0 -15.65 -1.55 1.5 2 330
217 0 0 -10.7 -1.1 0 2 330
301 46.8 11.28 0 0 1.000 0 3 20
302 15.32 2.532 0 0 1.000 0 3 20
303 0 0 0 0 0 3 500
304 0 0 0 0 0 3 500
305 0 0 0 0 0 3 500
306 0 0 -12.3 -1.23 0 3 500
307 0 0 -6.5 -0.65 0 3 500
308 0 0 -6.55 -0.66 0 3 500
309 0 0 -1.95 -0.2 0 3 330
310 0 0 0 0 0 3 330
311 0 0 0 0 0 3 330
312 0 0 -1.15 -0.12 0 3 220
313 0 1.294 -24.05 -2.4 1.015 0 3 220
314 0 0 -2.5 -0.25 0 3 220
315 0 0 0 0 0 3 275
401 14 4.66 0 0 1.000 0 4 20
402 8.7 0.942 0 0 1.000 0 4 20
403 14 1.888 0 0 1.000 0 4 20
404 14.64 2.388 0 0 1.000 0 4 20
405 0 0 -12.15 -1.2 0 4 275
406 0 0 -9.05 -0.9 0 4 275
407 0 0 0 0 0 4 275
408 0 0 -1.85 -0.2 0 4 275
409 0 0 -3.1 -0.3 0.6 4 275
410 0 0 -6.5 -0.65 0 4 275
411 0 0 -7 -0.7 0.3 4 275
412 0 0.639 -15.35 -1.55 1.000 0 4 275
413 0 0 0 0 0 4 275
414 0 0 0 0 -0.3 4 330
415 0 0 0 0 -0.6 4 330
416 0 0 0 0 -0.6 4 330
501 6 -0.176 0 0 1.000 0 5 20
502 8 2.12 0 0 1.000 0 5 15
503 6.9 1.845 0 0 1.000 0 5 15
504 0 0 -2 -0.4 -0.9 5 275
505 0 0 0 0 0 5 275
506 0 0 0 0 0 5 275
507 0 0.368 -7.1 -1.4 1.040 0 5 275
508 0 0 -5.2 -1.05 0 5 275
509 0 0.502 -0.7 -0.15 1.027 0 5 275
Table E.2: Parameters of the branches of IEEE South Australian test system
[4] calculated on 100 MVA base
Line No. From Bus To Bus Tap Ratio R [p.u.] X [p.u.] Bsh [p.u.] Line No. From Bus To Bus Tap Ratio R [p.u.] X [p.u.] Bsh [p.u.]
1 102 217 1 0.002022 0.016066 3.268 38 408 410 1 0.005500 0.064000 2.019
2 102 309 1 0.001865 0.014771 1.634 39 409 411 1 0.005150 0.035450 0.920
3 205 206 1 0.004800 0.038000 1.862 40 410 411 1 0.004300 0.053200 0.427
4 205 416 1 0.001850 0.023000 1.460 41 410 412 1 0.001075 0.013300 1.708
5 206 207 1 0.002250 0.017800 0.874 42 410 413 1 0.002000 0.024700 0.800
6 206 212 1 0.003300 0.026350 1.292 43 411 412 1 0.000600 0.012500 0.780
7 206 215 1 0.003300 0.026350 1.292 44 414 415 1 0.001000 0.012500 0.780
8 207 208 1 0.000900 0.007000 0.342 45 415 416 1 0.001850 0.023000 1.460
9 207 209 1 0.000800 0.006200 0.076 46 504 507 1 0.011500 0.075000 1.120
10 208 211 1 0.001033 0.008267 0.912 47 504 508 1 0.013000 0.009500 1.740
11 209 212 1 0.004500 0.035600 0.437 48 505 507 1 0.000800 0.008500 0.060
12 210 213 1 0.000500 0.007250 3.080 49 505 508 1 0.002500 0.028000 0.170
13 211 212 1 0.000700 0.005400 0.266 50 506 507 1 0.000800 0.008500 0.060
14 211 214 1 0.001900 0.015500 0.190 51 506 508 1 0.015000 0.110000 1.800
15 212 217 1 0.007000 0.055800 0.684 52 507 508 1 0.002000 0.019000 0.090
16 214 216 1 0.001000 0.007700 0.095 53 507 509 1 0.003000 0.022000 0.900
17 214 217 1 0.004900 0.038800 0.475 54 101 102 0.948 0.000000 0.012000 0.000
18 215 216 1 0.002550 0.020150 0.988 55 201 206 0.948 0.000000 0.004800 0.000
19 215 217 1 0.003600 0.028700 1.406 56 202 209 0.948 0.000000 0.007200 0.000
20 216 217 1 0.005100 0.040300 0.494 57 203 208 0.948 0.000000 0.010200 0.000
21 303 304 1 0.001000 0.014000 1.480 58 204 215 0.948 0.000000 0.006000 0.000
22 303 305 1 0.000550 0.008000 3.400 59 209 210 0.99 0.000000 0.006800 0.000
23 304 305 1 0.000300 0.004000 0.424 60 213 214 1 0.000000 0.006800 0.000
24 305 306 1 0.000200 0.003000 0.320 61 301 303 0.935 0.000000 0.003000 0.000
25 305 307 1 0.000150 0.002250 0.894 62 302 312 0.952 0.000000 0.008450 0.000
26 306 307 1 0.000100 0.001200 0.127 63 304 313 0.961 0.000000 0.016000 0.000
27 307 308 1 0.001150 0.016250 6.890 64 305 311 1 0.000000 0.012000 0.000
28 309 310 1 0.004500 0.035667 1.748 65 305 314 1 0.000000 0.012150 0.000
29 310 311 1 0.000000 -0.016850 0.000 66 308 315 0.96 0.000000 0.013500 0.000
30 312 313 1 0.002000 0.015000 0.900 67 401 410 0.939 0.000000 0.008450 0.000
31 313 314 1 0.000500 0.005000 0.520 69 403 407 0.952 0.000000 0.008450 0.000
32 315 509 1 0.003500 0.025000 0.380 70 404 405 0.952 0.000000 0.008500 0.000
33 405 406 1 0.001950 0.023750 0.762 71 413 414 1 0.000000 0.002667 0.000
34 405 408 1 0.005400 0.050000 0.189 72 501 504 0.952 0.000000 0.025500 0.000
35 405 409 1 0.006000 0.040667 2.370 73 502 505 0.93 0.000000 0.016000 0.000
36 406 407 1 0.000300 0.003800 0.124 74 503 506 0.93 0.000000 0.020000 0.000
37 407 408 1 0.004200 0.051300 0.412
Table E.3: Parameters of the aggregated synchornous machines of IEEE

South East Australian
Aggregated Generator No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Node 101 201 202 203 204 301 302 401 402 403 404 501 502 503
Power Rating [MVA] 333.3 666.7 555.6 555.6 666.7 666.7 444.4 444.4 333.3 444.4 333.3 333.3 250 166.7
H [s] 3.6 3.2 2.8 3.2 2.6 2.8 3.5 3 4 2.6 2.6 3.5 4 7.5
Number of generators 12 6 5 4 6 8 4 4 3 4 6 2 4 6
Number of generators on-line 3 5 4 3 4 8 4 4 3 4 6 2 4 5
Synchronous reactance Xd [p.u.] 1.1 1.8 2.2 1.8 2.3 2.7 2 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.2 2 2.3
Synchronous reactance Xq [p.u.] 0.65 1.75 2.1 1.75 1.7 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.4 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.5 2
Stator leakage inductance Xl [p.u.] 0.15 0.2 0.15 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Stator resistance Ra [p.u.] 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025
Transient reactance Xd0 [p.u.] 0.25 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.32 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.25
Transient reactance Xq0 [p.u.] 0.55 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.85 0.55 0.55 0.75 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.35
Subtransient reactance Xd00 [p.u.] 0.25 0.21 0.2 0.21 0.25 0.25 0.2 0.26 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.22 0.17
Subtransient reactance Xq00 [p.u.] 0.25 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.25 0.25 0.2 0.26 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.22 0.17
Transient OC time constanct Td0 0 [s] 8.5 8.5 4.5 8.5 5 7.5 7.5 6.5 9 5 5 7.5 7.5 5
Transient OC time constanct Tq0 0 [s] 0.4 0.3 1.5 0.3 2 0.85 0.4 1.4 1.4 2 2 1.5 3 1
Subtransient OC time constant Td0 00 [s] 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.035 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.025 0.04 0.022
Subtransient OC time constant Tq0 00 [s] 0.2 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.25 0.12 0.25 0.04 0.13 0.25 0.25 0.1 0.2 0.035
Saturation constant Asat 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015
Saturation constant Bsat 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6
Saturation constant t 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
AVR constant KA 200 400 400 300 400 400 200 300 300 300 250 1000 400 300
AVR time constant TR [s] 0.1 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.01 0.2 0.04 0.5 0.01
PSS constant KSTAB 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
PSS time constant TW [s] 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
PSS time constant T1 [s] 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
PSS time constant T2 [s] 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
105
Table E.4: Eigenvalues of the South East Australian test system in Base
Case
Eigenvalue Damping Eigenvalue Damping Eigenvalue Damping

Rel Imaginary Ratio Rel Imaginary Ratio Rel Imaginary Ratio
4.57E-13 0 1 -0.638 -2.751 0.226 -28.886 0 1
-0.033 0 1 -0.638 2.751 0.226 -29.313 0 1
-0.033 0 1 -1.290 -3.390 0.356 -6.192 -28.747 0.211
-0.033 0 1 -1.290 3.390 0.356 -6.192 28.747 0.211
-0.033 0 1 -4.067 0 1 -8.563 -28.819 0.285
-0.033 0 1 -1.032 -4.345 0.231 -8.563 28.819 0.285
-0.033 0 1 -1.032 4.345 0.231 -30.781 0 1
-0.033 -1.56E-07 1 -4.683 0 1 -3.402 -31.147 0.109
-0.033 1.56E-07 1 -2.521 -3.946 0.538 -3.402 31.147 0.109
-0.033 0 1 -2.521 3.946 0.538 -31.379 0 1
-0.033 0 1 -1.981 -4.728 0.387 -31.438 0 1
-0.033 0 1 -1.981 4.728 0.387 -10.882 -29.944 0.342
-0.033 0 1 -3.024 -4.289 0.576 -10.882 29.944 0.342
-0.033 0 1 -3.024 4.289 0.576 -7.069 -32.543 0.212
-0.035 -0.053 0.549 -2.365 -4.720 0.448 -7.069 32.543 0.212
-0.035 0.053 0.549 -2.365 4.720 0.448 -4.224 -34.133 0.123
-0.493 0 1 -2.160 -4.946 0.400 -4.224 34.133 0.123
-0.677 -0.100 0.989 -2.160 4.946 0.400 -37.717 0 1
-0.677 0.100 0.989 -4.127 -3.618 0.752 -42.761 0 1
-0.725 -0.143 0.981 -4.127 3.618 0.752 -16.877 -44.072 0.358
-0.725 0.143 0.981 -2.435 -5.300 0.417 -16.877 44.072 0.358
-0.754 0 1 -2.435 5.300 0.417 -48.896 0 1
-0.761 0 1 -2.010 -5.603 0.338 -7.404 -48.448 0.151
-0.771 -0.055 0.997 -2.010 5.603 0.338 -7.404 48.448 0.151
-0.771 0.055 0.997 -6.883 0 1 -50.000 0 1
-0.800 0 1 -6.903 0 1 -50.000 0 1
-0.825 0 1 -6.953 0 1 -50.000 0 1
-0.837 0 1 -7.864 0 1 -50.000 0 1
-0.846 -0.0266 0.999 -9.688 0 1 -50.000 0 1
-0.846 0.0266 0.999 -11.791 0 1 -52.194 0 1
-0.905 0 1 -12.884 0 1 -11.885 -50.909 0.227
-0.925 0 1 -13.910 0 1 -11.885 50.909 0.227
-0.948 -0.125 0.991 -15.837 0 1 -53.951 0 1
-0.948 0.125 0.991 -16.561 0 1 -56.069 0 1
-1.189 0 1 -7.886 -15.535 0.453 -57.587 0 1
-1.281 0 1 -7.886 15.535 0.453 -57.795 0 1
-0.475 -1.213 0.364 -20.000 0 1 -5.647 -58.540 0.096
-0.475 1.213 0.364 -7.651 -21.558 0.334 -5.647 58.540 0.096
-1.387 0 1 -7.651 21.558 0.334 -59.302 0 1
-1.663 0 1 -23.233 -0.004 1.000 -60.553 0 1
-1.729 0 1 -23.233 0.004 1.000 -62.474 0 1
-2.149 0 1 -6.100 -23.599 0.250 -65.097 0 1
-2.344 0 1 -6.100 23.599 0.250 -68.293 0 1
-2.539 0 1 -5.255 -24.518 0.210 -75.534 0 1
-0.625 -2.473 0.245 -5.255 24.518 0.210 -92.866 0 1
-0.625 2.473 0.245 -25.880 0 1 -103.288 0 1
-28.226 0 1 -141.098 0 1
Table E.5: Eigenvalues of the South East Australian system in Low-Inertia

case
Eigenvalue Damping Eigenvalue Damping Eigenvalue Damping

Rel Imaginary Ratio Rel Imaginary Ratio Rel Imaginary Ratio
5.12E-13 0 -1 -1.293 -2.966 0.400 -31.345 0 1
-0.033 0 1 -1.293 2.966 0.400 -5.959 -30.809 0.190
-0.033 0 1 -3.700 0 1 -5.959 30.809 0.190
-0.033 0 1 -1.687 -3.884 0.398 -4.286 -33.750 0.126
-0.033 0 1 -1.687 3.884 0.398 -4.286 33.750 0.126
-0.033 0 1 -4.576 0 1 -34.515 0 1
-0.033 0 1 -1.165 -4.646 0.243 -2.721 -36.133 0.075
-0.033 -1.56E-07 1 -1.165 4.646 0.243 -2.721 36.133 0.075
-0.033 1.56E-07 1 -3.028 -4.250 0.580 -37.796 0 1
-0.033 0 1 -3.028 4.250 0.580 -1.265 -39.190 0.032
-0.033 0 1 -2.393 -5.054 0.428 -1.265 39.190 0.032
-0.033 0 1 -2.393 5.054 0.428 1.812 -39.368 -0.046
-0.033 0 1 -3.477 -4.467 0.614 1.812 39.368 -0.046
-0.033 0 1 -3.477 4.467 0.614 -8.347 -41.850 0.196
-0.037 -0.056 0.554 -2.882 -4.900 0.507 -8.347 41.850 0.196
-0.037 0.056 0.554 -2.882 4.900 0.507 -11.864 -41.653 0.274
-0.493 0 1 -2.636 -5.330 0.443 -11.864 41.653 0.274
-0.676 -0.100 0.989 -2.636 5.330 0.443 -10.765 -42.572 0.245
-0.676 0.100 0.989 -4.697 -3.709 0.785 -10.765 42.572 0.245
-0.724 -0.143 0.981 -4.697 3.709 0.785 -48.484 0 1
-0.724 0.143 0.981 -2.950 -5.642 0.463 -50.000 0 1
-0.754 0 1 -2.950 5.642 0.463 -50.000 0 1
-0.762 0 1 -2.510 -6.107 0.380 -50.000 0 1
-0.771 -0.056 0.997 -2.510 6.107 0.380 -50.000 0 1
-0.771 0.056 0.997 -6.855 0 1 -50.000 0 1
-0.801 0 1 -6.896 0 1 -52.313 0 1
-0.827 0 1 -6.921 0 1 -56.124 0 1
-0.838 0 1 -7.563 0 1 -58.495 0 1
-0.850 -0.030 0.999 -8.576 0 1 -14.378 -57.587 0.242
-0.850 0.030 0.999 -11.476 0 1 -14.378 57.587 0.242
-0.904 0 1 -12.034 0 1 -60.061 0 1
-0.927 0 1 -12.866 0 1 -61.470 0 1
-0.947 -0.129 0.991 -15.389 0 1 -61.601 0 1
-0.947 0.129 0.991 -15.722 0 1 -6.345 -62.552 0.101
-1.271 0 1 -18.789 0 1 -6.345 62.552 0.101
-1.360 -0.038 1.000 -20.000 0 1 -63.369 0 1
-1.360 0.038 1.000 -22.639 0 1 -10.377 -64.836 0.158
-0.724 -1.298 0.487 -12.170 -21.993 0.484 -10.377 64.836 0.158
-0.724 1.298 0.487 -12.170 21.993 0.484 -66.093 0 1
-1.655 0 1 -25.351 0 1 -71.711 0 1
-1.691 0 1 -25.795 0 1 -73.283 0 1
-2.229 0 1 -26.339 0 1 -4.147 -77.155 0.054
-2.522 0 1 -28.519 0 1 -4.147 77.155 0.054
-0.505 -2.758 0.180 -29.111 -0.081 1.000 -80.751 0 1
-0.505 2.758 0.180 -29.111 0.081 1.000 -93.441 0 1
-3.117 0 1 -7.778 -28.753 0.261 -103.459 0 1
-7.778 28.753 0.261 -144.905 0 1
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eeh power systems

Impact of Rotational Inertia Changes on

EEH Power Systems Laboratory

Examiner: Prof. Dr. Goran Andersson

Zurich, November 11, 2015

High shares of converter-connected renewable generation and consumer de-

List of Figures viii

List of Acronyms xiii

2 Power System Stability Fundamentals 5

3 Modelling of Power System 13

4 Impact of Inertia and Damping 39

6 Conclusions and outlook 89

B Calculation of Initial Steady State 93

C Transmission Network Modelling 95

D Structure of MATLAB input arrays 99

E IEEE South East Australian System 101

3.1 Thyristor excitation system with AVR [2] . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.1 Structure of the developed optimization program . . . . . . . 51

5.1 Two-area test system [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

5.1 System modes with manual excitation control . . . . . . . . 57

D.1 Bus data structure (BUSES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

A The state matrix

u The vector of input variables

i A state matrix eigenvalue

J The total moment of inertia of a synchronous machine

The rotor angle of a synchronous machine

G(s) A transfer function

1.1 Background and Literature Overview

The speed of primary frequency control might become insufficient to prevent

1.2 Research Objectives

minimal damping ratio of system modes under a transient frequency devia-

Power System Stability

2.1 Definitions and Classification

Higher frequency oscillation modes (0.4-0.7 Hz) representing the swings

Transient stability is the ability of the power system to maintain syn-

2.2 State-Space Representation

lines after a contigency decay too fast to be included in the analysis of

2.3 Small-Signal Stability

A is the state matrix, n n

C is the output matrix, m n

If the eigenvalues have real parts equal to zero, it is not possible on

The characteristic equation of the state matrix A is given by

where I is the identity matrix, and = 1 , 2 , ..., n are eigenvalues of the

If the column vector i satisfies

it is referred to as the right eigenvector of the state matrix A associated

is called the left eigenvector of A associated with i .

The natural response of the system (when u = 0) is given by the solution

Thus, the natural response of the system can be represented as a linear

A real eigenvalue is associated with a non-oscillatory mode. Negative

A conjugate pair of complex eigenvalues is associated with an oscil-

A conjugate pair of complex eigenvalues can be presented as

The damping of the oscillations is evaluated by means of the damping ratio

Ensuring that the damping of oscillatory modes in the system is sufficient

2.4 Transient Stability

If a power system is in a normal operational state, the balance between

A major contigency, as a rule, triggers the relay protection of the power

to avoid the damage of the equipment by the high currents,

to prevent the loss of synchronism of the generators.

An example of a severe contigency is a short circuit on a transmission line

Modelling of Power System

3.1 Synchronous Machine Modelling

3.1.1 Swing Equation

To express the moment of inertia in electrical p.u. quantities, the inertia

Rewriting Equation (3.1) in p.u. of the synchronous machine rating and