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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Learning outcomes
1 Describe the use of semiconductors in electronic devices
2 Construct simple diode circuit
3 Build and test a transistor amplifier and transistor switch
4 Design and build combinational logic circuit
5 Analyze the construction of sequential logic circuit
Delivering methods
1 Lectures (3hrs 15)
2 Tutorials (1hr 15)
3 Practicals (3hrs 5)
Recommended text books
1 Electronic Circuit and Devices, Theodore F. Bogart
2 Digital Systems:Principles and Applications, Ronald J. Tocci
Additional reading
1 Electronic Devices, Electron Flow Version, Thomas L. Floyd, 9th edition
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Atom
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
The Atom
All matter is composed of atoms
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the
characteristics of that element
All atoms consist of electrons, protons and neutrons
The atom was thought to be a tiny indivisible sphere
Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons in an atom circle the nucleus in
different obits (planetary model)
Valence Electrons
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Ionization
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Insulators
1 An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under
normal conditions
2 Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-element materials
and have very high resistivities
3 Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms
4 Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica and quartz 13 / 38
Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Band Gap
Electron exist in conduction band when it acquires enough additional
energy to leave from valence shell
The difference in energy between the valence band and the conduction
band is called an energy gap or band gap
Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to move throughout the
material and is not tied to any given atom
This can be further explained using energy diagram
Atom has a net charge of +4 (14 Copper atom has a net charge of
protons 10 electrons) +1 (29 protons 28 electrons)
Valence electron feels an attractive Valence electron feels an attractive
force of +4 force of +1
Electrons farthest from the nucleus have the most energy
It is easier for valence electrons in copper to acquire enough additional
energy to escape from their atoms 16 / 38
Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Both silicon and germanium have the characteristic four valence electrons
The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell while those in
silicon are in the third shell
Germanium valence electrons require a smaller amount of additional
energy to escape from the atom
Germanium more unstable at high temperatures and results in excessive
reverse current
This is why silicon is a more widely used semiconductor material 17 / 38
Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Covalent Bonds
Silicon atom positions itself with four adjacent silicon atoms to form a
silicon crystal
This effectively creates eight shared valence electrons for each atom and
produces a state of chemical stability
Also, this sharing of valence electrons produces the covalent bonds that
hold the atoms together
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Current in Semiconductors
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Intrinsic Si
Pure Si crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat energy for some
valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence band into the
conduction band
Free electrons are also called conduction electrons
When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the
valence band within the crystal
This vacancy is called a hole
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Si Crystal
For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there
is one hole left in the valence band - electron-hole pair
Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and
falls back into a hole in the valence band
Number of conduction-band electrons that are unattached to any atom
and are essentially drifting randomly throughout the material
There is also an equal number of holes in the valence band created
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Electron Current
Free electrons in the conduction band are attracted toward the positive
end
This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a semiconductor
material and is called electron current
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Hole Current
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Hole Current
Electrons remaining in the valence band are still attached to their atoms
However, a valence electron can move into a nearby hole with little
change in its energy level
Thus leaving another hole where it came from
Effectively the hole has moved from one place to another in the crystal
structure it is called hole current
These two currents can be compared with current in metal
1 Copper atoms form a sea of positive ion cores
2 The valence electrons are attracted to the positive ions, keeping the
positive ions together and forming the metallic bond
3 The valence electrons do not belong to a given atom, but to the crystal as
a whole
4 Application of a voltage results in current due to valence electrons
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
N-Type Semiconductor
Four of the Sb atoms valence electrons are used to form the covalent
bonds with Si atoms, leaving one extra electron
This extra electron becomes a conduction electron
Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is often called a
donor atom
A conduction electron created by this doping process does not leave a
hole in the valence band 28 / 38
Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Most of the carriers are electron when silicon (or germanium) is doped
with pentavalent atoms
The electrons are called the majority carriers in ntype material
There are a few holes that are created when electron-hole pairs are
thermally generated
These holes are not produced by the addition of the pentavalent impurity
atoms
Holes in an ntype material are called minority carriers
However, since the number of protons and the number of electrons are
equal throughout the material, there is no net charge in the material and
so it is neutral
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
P-Type Semiconductor
A hole results when each trivalent atom is added as four electrons are
required
Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as
an acceptor atom
A hole created by this doping process is not accompanied by a conduction
(free) electron
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Since most of the current carriers are holes when silicon (or germanium)
is doped with trivalent atoms
The holes are the majority carriers in ptype material
There are also a few conduction-band electrons that are created when
electron-hole pairs are thermally generated
These conduction-band electrons are not produced by the addition of the
trivalent impurity atoms
Conduction-band electrons in ptype material are the minority carriers
However, since the number of protons and the number of electrons are
equal throughout the material, there is no net charge in the material and
so it is neutral
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
The PN Junction
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
The PN Junction
If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is ntype and the other
part is ptype, a pn junction forms at the boundary
The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms
and only a few thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers)
The n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from the
impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated holes (minority
carriers)
Figure: PN junction
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Barrier Potential
After the initial surge of free electrons across the pn junction, the
depletion region has expanded to a point where equilibrium is established
and there is no further diffusion of electron
A point is reached where the total negative charge in the depletion region
repels any further diffusion of electrons
In other words, the depletion region acts as a barrier to the further
movement of electrons across the junction
The forces between the opposite charges form an electric field
The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region is
the amount of voltage required to move electrons through the electric field
This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is expressed
in volts
The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several factors
1 Type of semiconductor material
2 The amount of doping
3 The temperature
The typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V
for germanium at 25 C
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Energy Diagram
Figure: Energy diagrams illustrating the formation of the pn junction and depletion
region
Energy Diagram
The free electrons in the n region that occupy the upper part of the
conduction band in terms of their energy can easily diffuse across the
junction
Then temporarily become free electrons in the lower part of the pregion
conduction band
After crossing the junction, the electrons quickly lose energy and fall into
the holes in the pregion valence band
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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics
Energy Diagram
As the diffusion continues, the depletion region begins to form and the
energy level of the nregion conduction band decreases
This is due to loss of the higher-energy electrons that have diffused across
the junction to the p region
Soon, there are no electrons left in the nregion conduction band with
enough energy to get across the junction to the pregion conduction band
Hence, top of the nregion conduction band and the bottom of the
pregion conduction band will align
There is an energy gradient across the depletion region which acts as an
energy hill 38 / 38