THE DEVELOPMENT OF

NETWORK
STRATEGIES IN AVIATION

Development of network strategies in Aviation

Abstract
The commercial aviation industry revolves around three fundamental pillars: political, economic and technological developments. Since the start of the jet age,
these three pillars have affected the route system architecture that carriers fly. This paper investigates the shift in these three fundamental pillars over the past
decade, comparing the operational characteristics of the point-to-point and hub-and-spoke route systems. It also emphasises the importance of recent
developments in the commercial aviation industry, resulting in new opportunities for carriers to impact the route system architecture. In addition, a case study
has been performed to display the new patterns of air service on long-haul networks known as hub-bypassing. By applying this route strategy, carriers are
able to operate a significant number of additional city-pairs that have been enabled by developments in the three fundamental pillars. This poses a threat to
traditional hub-and-spoke carriers, which offer the same city-pairs, including an intermediate stop for connecting flights. However, hub-bypassing can also
decrease congested airports and offer passengers faster and more non-stop flights between unique city-pairs.

Introduction
Since the liberalisation of air transport the skies have transformed into one single market, increasing city-pair connections. Airports and regional planners focus
on primary airports (major hubs) associated with large cities (e.g. Schiphol/Amsterdam, Heathrow/London and Narita/Tokyo). Traditionally, carriers have
concentrated all of their traffic into large markets, flying towards these primary airports where new flights connect passengers to their various destinations.
This is known as the hub-and-spoke system. However, recent developments now mean that carriers are flying new routes, bypassing traditional hubs and
stepping away from their traditional route architecture. The market has changed, and the industry is adjusting through three fundamental pillars that affect the
development of network strategies: economic, political, and technological developments. As airlines connect cities, they are establishing new, highly profitable
city-pairs that were first regarded as secondary markets. The importance of a liberal aviation industry is also now widely recognized, resulting in multilateral
liberalisation. Correspondingly, new technological advancements have enabled manufacturers to build aircraft that allow carriers to open new long-haul routes
and offer passengers the advantage of flying non-stop to their final destination rather than transferring via a major hub airport. To explore this new network
strategy, a case study was performed comparing the route network of so-called hub-bypass systems and traditional hub-and-spoke networks, in order to gain
insight into the differences.


(Tretheway & Andriulaitis, 2015). The most recent example is the

The fundamentals of commercial aviation implementation of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) open
skies policy (ASEAN Briefing, 2015). The EU and the ASEAN have agreed to
The aviation industry can be found in practically every corner of the world,
start negotiations on an air transport agreement between both regions.
contributing to the world economy on a large scale. Three fundamental
The agreement will be the first substantive accord between two major
pillars affect the way carriers have developed their business model since
trading blocs, possibly providing an open skies or open aviation area
the start of the jet age (the 1970s). The first is the political element. Before
arrangement with unlimited market access for both sides' airlines and other
deregulation, technological innovations and governmental policies came
significant mutual benefits (Tan, 2015, p.1). In the 1970s, the aviation
before profitability and competition within the industry. The second is the
industry was conservative and heavily regulated. We currently see a trend
economic element. Global economic growth in combination with
in which the benefits of a liberal aviation industry are widely recognized by
urbanisation and increasing city size have resulted in more city-pairs. And
more countries, as efforts are made to create policies that allows airlines to
third, the technological element. Technological advancements are
penetrate more markets with fewer restrictions.
important in this industry, and have allowed manufacturers to build new,

advanced aircraft to meet the demands of carriers for long-haul city-pairs
Economic
(Airline Industry Overview, 2014).
In recent decades, the worlds population has undergone rapid

urbanisation. This has resulted in a dominant urban population that
Political
exceeds the rural population (Figure 1).
Prior to deregulation, flag carriers were government owned, serving the

public and political interests. The aviation system was based on a set of
tight regulatory rules and restrictions. As a result, travellers were deprived
of different price/service options. In 1978, the United States (US) re-
examined their regulatory system and deregulated the aviation industry in
the US (Goetz and Vowles 2009). The European Union (EU) followed the
example of the US, and gradually deregulated the aviation industry in the
1980s and 1990s in Europe. By the end of 1995, the US had open skies
agreements with ten European countries. These agreements allowed
services between any point in one country to any point in the other, with
no restrictions as to the number of carriers or capacity. Today, the US has
open skies agreements with more than 100 regions. However, the benefits
of a liberal aviation are not only recognized in the US.
Figure 1 : Global urban and rural population, 1950-2050.

It is expected that this level of urbanisation will increase globally. Africa and
Other examples include the Australia-New Zealand Single Aviation Market
Asia are likely to take the lead, as major areas of these continents are still
and the Multilateral Agreement on the Liberalization of International Air
rurally populated. At the same time, global economic and population
Transportation (MALIAT) between Brunei Darussalam, Chile, the Cook
growth is forecasted to increase by 2050, leading to more metropolitan
Islands, Mongolia, New Zealand, Samoa, Singapore, Tonga and the US
 Development of network strategies in Aviation
cities. This increase, in combination with global urban population growth, is
propelled by the development of cities of all sizes (Figure 2, United Nations, Passenger volumes are increasing annually, and airlines are starting to fly
2014). from and to secondary airports rather than major hubs (Neufville, 2003). A
great example is Manchester airport, which was first known as a secondary
airport but is now London Heathrows number one competitor (Hind,
2014). In 2008, Manchester airport was serving 25 million passengers
annually. It is forecasted that by 2050, the airport will be handling a
staggering 55 million passengers a year (UK aviation forecast, 2013).
Continuous passenger growth and the rising number of new city-pairs will
add more secondary airport connections, resulting in further local
economic development (OConner and Fuellhart, 2015). Moreover, both
secondary and primary airports will experience a significant growth in
passenger movements due to the increase in regional city urbanization.
Figure 2 : Growth of cities of all sizes
The increase of new and larger cities is also triggered by factors such as Traffic is returning, oil prices have dropped and new business models are
liberalisation, consumer spending and the introduction of Low Cost Carriers increasing the return of profitability (PWC, 2014). The next section will
(LCCs) opening new markets, making flying between cities more accessible examine the high-profitability that enables airlines to fly these long-haul
for passengers. These factors have created a good environment for the city-pairs from or to secondary airports.
growth of primary and secondary airports (Cain, 2015), stimulating network
developments that connect more cities, increasing the number of city-pairs Technological
(Figure 3, IATA, 2011). The hub-and-spoke network has flourished around the world as a
consequence of airline liberalization. This liberalization in the 1980s and
1990s saw a significant rise in the European share of transfer traffic at the
major hub airports of Air France-KLM, British Airways and Lufthansa. Over
time, however, these carriers did not realize the potential advantages of
the hub-and-spoke network, and the lower unit cost of the hub-and-spoke
operation was especially under pressure. The hubs of major European
carriers have become congested over the years. The operating costs of
large aircraft were higher than expected in comparison to smaller aircraft.
Aircraft such as the B767/A330 were not able to operate on many city-pairs
directly at sufficient margins. The increasing congestion at major hub
airports demands a debate on patterns of air service (Morrell and Lu, 2007).
The evolution of aircraft plays a vital role, by facilitating greater switching
ability for airlines. This allows airlines to open new routes and offer the
advantage of flying non-stop to their final destination rather than
Figure 3: Network growth of city-pair connections
 Development of network strategies in Aviation
transferring via a major hub airport (Thelle, 2012). The Boeing 787, for advantages when bringing relatively smaller aircraft into secondary airports
example, is more fuel-efficient, reduces environmental impact and with similar or improved ASM costs than those of larger aircraft (Figure 5).
generates lower seat/kilometre costs (Figure 4). In the past, airlines were
not able to profitably serve medium to long haul markets of low to medium
density. Now, there are opportunities for a large number of profitable non- Network strategies
stop hub-bypass flights at a sufficient frequency (Boeing, 2015).
Hub-and-Spoke & Point-to-Point networks

During deregulation, a considerable number of city-pairs were not cost-

effective due to underutilized flights authorized to protect

domestic/regional airlines (Figure 6). This point-to-point network (Figure 7)

required a sustainable economy and adequate passenger flow at origin and
destination, both of which were not present during this period.
Liberalization transformed the skies into one single market (Scharpenseel,
2001), which led carriers to start making use of a hub-and-spoke system
(Figure 7).

Figure 5: Fuel cost per ASM (Source: AirInsight, 2012)

Figure 4: Aircraft fuel efficiency
As investigated by AirInsight (2012), the Boeing 787 brings advantages in
terms of fuel cost per Available Seat Mile (ASM). This creates further

Figure 6: The three pillars of Aviation during the 1970s.


 Development of network strategies in Aviation
This new route architecture allows carriers to feed passengers from
secondary airports into a single airport (the hub). From this hub, new
flights connect passengers to their various destinations (along the spokes).
The goal of a hub-and-spoke route system is to capture the passenger
from origin to destination at a high profitably rate (Cook, 2008).

Figure 8: Current pillars of Aviation

Figure 7: Route network illustrated

Hub-bypass Case study
Traditional European legacy carriers rely on the hub-and-spoke network For this case study, a comparison of hub-bypass systems and traditional
model, because it offers advantages in terms of demand stimulation by hub-and-spoke networks has been created in order to gain insight into their
providing a large variety of Origin & Destination (O&D) city pairs, including differences.
routes that could never be viable under direct operation (Bailey et al., 1986;
Maertens, 2010). While these hubs have become essential to enable Carriers use primary and secondary airports in both network types. A
carriers to build a dominant market, the congestion that comes with the primary airport is defined as an airport that carries 20% or more of the total
hubs sizes have encouraged carriers to grow their business through hub- passengers in that region. Secondary airports serve up to 20% of the
bypass strategies. These hub-bypass strategies emerged from the passengers in their region (Bonnefoy; Neufville; & Hansman, 2008). The
development of jets with enough range to link a substantial number of Boeing 787 Dreamliner was marketed as a hub-buster, enabling carriers to
smaller city-pairs, enabling airlines to operate from and to niche markets open new routes that would operate in thinner markets. It has been
(Clark, 2007). However, as depicted in Figure 8, non-European carriers concluded that 20% of the routes operated by this aircraft are new routes.
operating flights to European cities can fly to secondary European airports, This does not mean that these routes could not have been opened with
applying hub-bypass strategies (Maertens, 2010). other aircraft types, but there are indications that the lower cost and
smaller capacity are conducive for these routes (CAPA, 2014).
 Development of network strategies in Aviation
The routes used for this case study are listed in Table 1 as either a hub-and- 2015; SFO Airport, 2015; OAK Airport, 2015). This percentage indicates that
spoke route or a hub-bypass route. These routes are not solely operated by San Jos airport is a secondary airport in the region (Table 2).
Boeing 787s (Table 4).
Airport Annual pax Share (%)
O&D Hub-bypass route Hub-and-spoke network (2014)
ADD-PVG ADD-PVG (ET) ADD-DOH-PVG (QR)
SJC 9,600,000 14.5%
788 320 77W
BHX-JFK BHX-JFK (AA)
OAK 10,336,788 15.6%
BHX-AMS-JFK (KL)
752 F70 744 SFO 46,191,454 69.9%
DUS-HND DUS-HND (NH) DUS-CDG-HND Total: 66,128,242 100%
Table 2: Airport passenger numbers
788 RJ85 777

HND-BOS HND-BOS (JL) HND-SFO-BOS (UA)
San Jose has two daily connections between Beijing (PEK) and San Francisco
788 777 738
(SFO) by Air China (CA) and United Airlines (UA) and is also connected by
HND-SJC HND-SJC (NH) HND-LAX-SJC (DL)
Hainan Airways (HU). San Jos accounts for 14% of all available seats on
788 777 E175
flights between the Bay Area and Beijing (Table 3) (Flightmap Analytics,
LAS-PEK LAS-PEK (AA) LAS-YVR-PEK (AC)
2015).
788 319 77W

LHR-AUS LHR-AUS (BA) LHR DFW AUS (BA AA)
Route: Seats/month Share
788 744 MD80
PEK-BOS PEK-BOS (HU) PEK-DTW-BOS (DL) SFO-PEK 23,000 86%
788 744 320 SJC-PEK 3,834 14%
PEK-SJC PEK-SJC (HU) PEK-SEA-SJC (DL) Total: 26,834 100%
788 763 CRJ900 Table 3: Route seat numbers (July 2015).
Table 1: Hub-bypass and hub-and-spoke routes

For this case study, the route provided by Hainan Airways (HU) from Beijing
(PEK) to San Jos (SJC) is operated by a Boeing 787-8, and has been selected
as an example (Figure 6).

San Jos Airport is located within the Bay Area, in which San Francisco
International Airport (SFO) and Oakland International Airport (OAK) are
located (Ishii, Jun, van Dender, 2009). In terms of passenger numbers, San
Jos airport accounts for 14.5% of all traffic within the region (SJC Airport,
 Development of network strategies in Aviation
O&D Hub-bypass (airline) Traditional hub-and-spoke
aircraft type network aircraft type
EDI-HKT EDI-DOH-HKT (QR) EDI-LHR-BKK-HKT(BA PG)
788 788 763 77W 320
ZRH-BNE ZRH-AUH-BNE (EY) ZRH-LHR-SIN-BNE (BA QF)
789 789 321 77E 332
Table 4: Hub-bypass and hub-and-spoke network hybrid

The routes in the table above are examples of connections that passengers
can make due to hub-bypass strategy routes, with only one transfer
compared to two transfers in the traditional hub-and-spoke network flights
(Figure 10).

Figure 9: Route comparison from PEK-SJC

Mayor Liccardo of San Jos has indicated that because San Jos lies in the
heart of Silicon Valley and is the home of the worlds high-tech industry, it
can facilitate business travel for the areas multi-national companies (PR
Newswire, 2015).

These routes have either their origin or destination at a hub or primary
airport (Maertens, 2010). This hub airport at either side of the connection
provides connectivity to more destinations, and therefore more city-pairs.
These pairs enable more connections for passengers with fewer transfers
Figure 10: Route comparison
(Table 4). This type of routing creates a hybrid version of the hub-and-

spoke network and the hub-bypass network (Maertens, 2010).
This figure shows that Qatar Airways operates directly to both Edinburgh,

UK (EDI) and Phuket, TH (HKT). This bypassing of the main hubs of London
The three fundamental pillars of the aviation industry are developed in
Heathrow and Bangkok enables passengers to travel between EDI and HKT
such a way that enables Hainan Airways to operate between Beijing (PEK)
via Doha, Qatar (DOH).
and San Jose (SJC). Political bilateral agreements between the Peoples

Republic of China and the US enable flight operation between the two

countries. The economy has developed in both Beijing and San Jose. And
technological advances in aircraft operating costs have enabled a viable
operation between the two markets.

 Development of network strategies in Aviation
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http://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/2015/01/02/asean-open-skies-policy- openen en de vraag voor hubs verminderde. Luchtvaartmaatschappijen
implemented-2015.html bieden in groeiende hoeveelheden lijnvluchten aan naar secundaire steden
en by-passen daarmee hubs en versterken daarmee hun eigen hub. De
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content/uploads/2015/05/Robert-Cain-Tourism-Futures- om met directe vluchten te opereren naar kleinere markten in plaats van
International_Presentation-1May2015.pdf het verbinden met een hub.

This is a Luchtvaartfeiten.nl / AviationFacts.eu publication.
Peter Hind 2014 The optimal size of a UK hub airport Retrieved 12/2,
2015, from http://www.theitc.org.uk/docs/113.pdf Authors: Thomas Berntsen, Jeffrey Schfer, Hares Wardak

Editorial staff: R.J. de Boer PhD Msc, G. Boosten MSc & G.J.S. Vlaming MSc
Richard de Neufville 2003 The future of secondary airports Retrieved
12/2,2015,from
http://ardent.mit.edu/airports/ASP_papers/Cahiers%20S%20du%20Transp Copying texts is allowed. Please cite:
ort%20English%2005--%20Neufville.pdf Luchtvaartfeiten.nl (2016), Development of Network Strategies in Aviation
Fact sheet, www.luchtvaartfeiten.nl
Image references (top to bottom, left to right)
Luchtvaartfeiten.nl is an initiative by the Aviation Academy at the
1 Cover Jeffrey Schfer
Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences (HvA). Students and teachers
2 Boeing Fuel efficiency of aircraft share knowledge with politicians and the general public to ensure that
discussions are based on facts
3 Gert Meijer Fundamentals of Aviation
Dutch Summary May 2016
De luchtvaartindustrie draait om drie fundamentele elementen: politieke,
economische en technologische ontwikkelingen. Deze ontwikkelingen
benvloeden het routesysteem dat luchtvaartmaatschappijen vliegen. Na
deregulatie waren luchtvaartmaatschappijen in staat om actief de
concurrentie met elkaar aan te gaan en meer markten te penetreren met
minder restricties. Een grote invloed hierop heeft de introductie van Next-
Generation vliegtuigen die de operationele en reikwijdte van
luchtvaartmaatschappijen verbeterden. In 2011 introduceerde Boeing de
787 als een hub-buster die het mogelijk maakte om non-stop routes te