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LessonsInElectricCircuitsVolumeII
Chapter1
BASICACTHEORY
Whatisalternatingcurrent(AC)?
ACwaveforms
MeasurementsofACmagnitude
SimpleACcircuitcalculations
ACphase
Principlesofradio
Contributors

Whatisalternatingcurrent(AC)?
Moststudentsofelectricitybegintheirstudywithwhatisknownasdirectcurrent(DC),whichis
electricityflowinginaconstantdirection,and/orpossessingavoltagewithconstantpolarity.DCisthe
kindofelectricitymadebyabattery(withdefinitepositiveandnegativeterminals),orthekindofcharge
generatedbyrubbingcertaintypesofmaterialsagainsteachother.

AsusefulandaseasytounderstandasDCis,itisnottheonlykindofelectricityinuse.Certain
sourcesofelectricity(mostnotably,rotaryelectromechanicalgenerators)naturallyproducevoltages
alternatinginpolarity,reversingpositiveandnegativeovertime.Eitherasavoltageswitchingpolarityor
asacurrentswitchingdirectionbackandforth,thiskindofelectricityisknownasAlternatingCurrent
(AC):Figurebelow

Directvsalternatingcurrent

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WhereasthefamiliarbatterysymbolisusedasagenericsymbolforanyDCvoltagesource,thecircle
withthewavylineinsideisthegenericsymbolforanyACvoltagesource.

OnemightwonderwhyanyonewouldbotherwithsuchathingasAC.ItistruethatinsomecasesAC
holdsnopracticaladvantageoverDC.Inapplicationswhereelectricityisusedtodissipateenergyinthe
formofheat,thepolarityordirectionofcurrentisirrelevant,solongasthereisenoughvoltageand
currenttotheloadtoproducethedesiredheat(powerdissipation).However,withACitispossibleto
buildelectricgenerators,motorsandpowerdistributionsystemsthatarefarmoreefficientthanDC,and
sowefindACusedpredominatelyacrosstheworldinhighpowerapplications.Toexplainthedetailsof
whythisisso,abitofbackgroundknowledgeaboutACisnecessary.

Ifamachineisconstructedtorotateamagneticfieldaroundasetofstationarywirecoilswiththeturning
ofashaft,ACvoltagewillbeproducedacrossthewirecoilsasthatshaftisrotated,inaccordancewith
Faraday'sLawofelectromagneticinduction.ThisisthebasicoperatingprincipleofanACgenerator,
alsoknownasanalternator:Figurebelow

Alternatoroperation

Noticehowthepolarityofthevoltageacrossthewirecoilsreversesastheoppositepolesoftherotating
magnetpassby.Connectedtoaload,thisreversingvoltagepolaritywillcreateareversingcurrent
directioninthecircuit.Thefasterthealternator'sshaftisturned,thefasterthemagnetwillspin,resulting
inanalternatingvoltageandcurrentthatswitchesdirectionsmoreofteninagivenamountoftime.

WhileDCgeneratorsworkonthesamegeneralprincipleofelectromagneticinduction,theirconstruction
isnotassimpleastheirACcounterparts.WithaDCgenerator,thecoilofwireismountedintheshaft
wherethemagnetisontheACalternator,andelectricalconnectionsaremadetothisspinningcoilvia
stationarycarbonbrushescontactingcopperstripsontherotatingshaft.Allthisisnecessarytoswitch
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thecoil'schangingoutputpolaritytotheexternalcircuitsotheexternalcircuitseesaconstantpolarity:
Figurebelow

DCgeneratoroperation

Thegeneratorshownabovewillproducetwopulsesofvoltageperrevolutionoftheshaft,bothpulsesin
thesamedirection(polarity).InorderforaDCgeneratortoproduceconstantvoltage,ratherthanbrief
pulsesofvoltageonceevery1/2revolution,therearemultiplesetsofcoilsmakingintermittentcontact
withthebrushes.Thediagramshownaboveisabitmoresimplifiedthanwhatyouwouldseeinreallife.

Theproblemsinvolvedwithmakingandbreakingelectricalcontactwithamovingcoilshouldbe
obvious(sparkingandheat),especiallyiftheshaftofthegeneratorisrevolvingathighspeed.Ifthe
atmospheresurroundingthemachinecontainsflammableorexplosivevapors,thepracticalproblemsof
sparkproducingbrushcontactsareevengreater.AnACgenerator(alternator)doesnotrequirebrushes
andcommutatorstowork,andsoisimmunetotheseproblemsexperiencedbyDCgenerators.

ThebenefitsofACoverDCwithregardtogeneratordesignisalsoreflectedinelectricmotors.While
DCmotorsrequiretheuseofbrushestomakeelectricalcontactwithmovingcoilsofwire,ACmotorsdo
not.Infact,ACandDCmotordesignsareverysimilartotheirgeneratorcounterparts(identicalforthe
sakeofthistutorial),theACmotorbeingdependentuponthereversingmagneticfieldproducedby
alternatingcurrentthroughitsstationarycoilsofwiretorotatetherotatingmagnetaroundonitsshaft,
andtheDCmotorbeingdependentonthebrushcontactsmakingandbreakingconnectionstoreverse
currentthroughtherotatingcoilevery1/2rotation(180degrees).

SoweknowthatACgeneratorsandACmotorstendtobesimplerthanDCgeneratorsandDCmotors.
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Thisrelativesimplicitytranslatesintogreaterreliabilityandlowercostofmanufacture.Butwhatelseis
ACgoodfor?Surelytheremustbemoretoitthandesigndetailsofgeneratorsandmotors!Indeedthere
is.Thereisaneffectofelectromagnetismknownasmutualinduction,wherebytwoormorecoilsofwire
placedsothatthechangingmagneticfieldcreatedbyoneinducesavoltageintheother.Ifwehavetwo
mutuallyinductivecoilsandweenergizeonecoilwithAC,wewillcreateanACvoltageintheother
coil.Whenusedassuch,thisdeviceisknownasatransformer:Figurebelow

TransformertransformsACvoltageandcurrent.

Thefundamentalsignificanceofatransformerisitsabilitytostepvoltageupordownfromthepowered
coiltotheunpoweredcoil.TheACvoltageinducedintheunpowered(secondary)coilisequaltothe
ACvoltageacrossthepowered(primary)coilmultipliedbytheratioofsecondarycoilturnstoprimary
coilturns.Ifthesecondarycoilispoweringaload,thecurrentthroughthesecondarycoilisjustthe
opposite:primarycoilcurrentmultipliedbytheratioofprimarytosecondaryturns.Thisrelationshiphas
averyclosemechanicalanalogy,usingtorqueandspeedtorepresentvoltageandcurrent,respectively:
Figurebelow

Speedmultiplicationgeartrainstepstorquedownandspeedup.Stepdowntransformerstepsvoltage
downandcurrentup.

Ifthewindingratioisreversedsothattheprimarycoilhaslessturnsthanthesecondarycoil,the
transformerstepsupthevoltagefromthesourceleveltoahigherlevelattheload:Figurebelow

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Speedreductiongeartrainstepstorqueupandspeeddown.Stepuptransformerstepsvoltageupand
currentdown.

Thetransformer'sabilitytostepACvoltageupordownwitheasegivesACanadvantageunmatchedby
DCintherealmofpowerdistributioninfigurebelow.Whentransmittingelectricalpoweroverlong
distances,itisfarmoreefficienttodosowithsteppedupvoltagesandsteppeddowncurrents(smaller
diameterwirewithlessresistivepowerlosses),thenstepthevoltagebackdownandthecurrentbackup
forindustry,business,orconsumeruse.

Transformersenableefficientlongdistancehighvoltagetransmissionofelectricenergy.

Transformertechnologyhasmadelongrangeelectricpowerdistributionpractical.Withouttheabilityto
efficientlystepvoltageupanddown,itwouldbecostprohibitivetoconstructpowersystemsfor
anythingbutcloserange(withinafewmilesatmost)use.

Asusefulastransformersare,theyonlyworkwithAC,notDC.Becausethephenomenonofmutual
inductancereliesonchangingmagneticfields,anddirectcurrent(DC)canonlyproducesteadymagnetic
fields,transformerssimplywillnotworkwithdirectcurrent.Ofcourse,directcurrentmaybeinterrupted
(pulsed)throughtheprimarywindingofatransformertocreateachangingmagneticfield(asisdonein
automotiveignitionsystemstoproducehighvoltagesparkplugpowerfromalowvoltageDCbattery),
butpulsedDCisnotthatdifferentfromAC.Perhapsmorethananyotherreason,thisiswhyACfinds
suchwidespreadapplicationinpowersystems.

REVIEW:
DCstandsforDirectCurrent,meaningvoltageorcurrentthatmaintainsconstantpolarityor
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direction,respectively,overtime.
ACstandsforAlternatingCurrent,meaningvoltageorcurrentthatchangespolarityordirection,
respectively,overtime.
ACelectromechanicalgenerators,knownasalternators,areofsimplerconstructionthanDC
electromechanicalgenerators.
ACandDCmotordesignfollowsrespectivegeneratordesignprinciplesveryclosely.
AtransformerisapairofmutuallyinductivecoilsusedtoconveyACpowerfromonecoiltothe
other.Often,thenumberofturnsineachcoilissettocreateavoltageincreaseordecreasefrom
thepowered(primary)coiltotheunpowered(secondary)coil.
Secondaryvoltage=Primaryvoltage(secondaryturns/primaryturns)
Secondarycurrent=Primarycurrent(primaryturns/secondaryturns)

ACwaveforms
WhenanalternatorproducesACvoltage,thevoltageswitchespolarityovertime,butdoessoinavery
particularmanner.Whengraphedovertime,thewavetracedbythisvoltageofalternatingpolarity
fromanalternatortakesonadistinctshape,knownasasinewave:Figurebelow

GraphofACvoltageovertime(thesinewave).

Inthevoltageplotfromanelectromechanicalalternator,thechangefromonepolaritytotheotherisa
smoothone,thevoltagelevelchangingmostrapidlyatthezero(crossover)pointandmostslowlyatits
peak.Ifweweretographthetrigonometricfunctionofsineoverahorizontalrangeof0to360
degrees,wewouldfindtheexactsamepatternasinTablebelow.

Trigonometricsinefunction.

Angle(o) sin(angle) wave Angle(o) sin(angle) wave

0 0.0000 zero 180 0.0000 zero
15 0.2588 + 195 0.2588
30 0.5000 + 210 0.5000
45 0.7071 + 225 0.7071
60 0.8660 + 240 0.8660
75 0.9659 + 255 0.9659
90 1.0000 +peak 270 1.0000 peak
105 0.9659 + 285 0.9659
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120 0.8660 + 300 0.8660

135 0.7071 + 315 0.7071
150 0.5000 + 330 0.5000
165 0.2588 + 345 0.2588
180 0.0000 zero 360 0.0000 zero

ThereasonwhyanelectromechanicalalternatoroutputssinewaveACisduetothephysicsofits
operation.Thevoltageproducedbythestationarycoilsbythemotionoftherotatingmagnetis
proportionaltotherateatwhichthemagneticfluxischangingperpendiculartothecoils(Faraday'sLaw
ofElectromagneticInduction).Thatrateisgreatestwhenthemagnetpolesareclosesttothecoils,and
leastwhenthemagnetpolesarefurthestawayfromthecoils.Mathematically,therateofmagneticflux
changeduetoarotatingmagnetfollowsthatofasinefunction,sothevoltageproducedbythecoils
followsthatsamefunction.

Ifweweretofollowthechangingvoltageproducedbyacoilinanalternatorfromanypointonthesine
wavegraphtothatpointwhenthewaveshapebeginstorepeatitself,wewouldhavemarkedexactlyone
cycleofthatwave.Thisismosteasilyshownbyspanningthedistancebetweenidenticalpeaks,butmay
bemeasuredbetweenanycorrespondingpointsonthegraph.Thedegreemarksonthehorizontalaxisof
thegraphrepresentthedomainofthetrigonometricsinefunction,andalsotheangularpositionofour
simpletwopolealternatorshaftasitrotates:Figurebelow

Alternatorvoltageasfunctionofshaftposition(time).

Sincethehorizontalaxisofthisgraphcanmarkthepassageoftimeaswellasshaftpositionindegrees,
thedimensionmarkedforonecycleisoftenmeasuredinaunitoftime,mostoftensecondsorfractions
ofasecond.Whenexpressedasameasurement,thisisoftencalledtheperiodofawave.Theperiodofa
waveindegreesisalways360,buttheamountoftimeoneperiodoccupiesdependsontheratevoltage
oscillatesbackandforth.

AmorepopularmeasurefordescribingthealternatingrateofanACvoltageorcurrentwavethanperiod
istherateofthatbackandforthoscillation.Thisiscalledfrequency.Themodernunitforfrequencyis
theHertz(abbreviatedHz),whichrepresentsthenumberofwavecyclescompletedduringonesecondof
time.IntheUnitedStatesofAmerica,thestandardpowerlinefrequencyis60Hz,meaningthattheAC
voltageoscillatesatarateof60completebackandforthcycleseverysecond.InEurope,wherethe
powersystemfrequencyis50Hz,theACvoltageonlycompletes50cycleseverysecond.Aradiostation
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transmitterbroadcastingatafrequencyof100MHzgeneratesanACvoltageoscillatingatarateof100
millioncycleseverysecond.

PriortothecanonizationoftheHertzunit,frequencywassimplyexpressedascyclespersecond.Older
metersandelectronicequipmentoftenborefrequencyunitsofCPS(CyclesPerSecond)insteadofHz.
ManypeoplebelievethechangefromselfexplanatoryunitslikeCPStoHertzconstitutesastep
backwardinclarity.AsimilarchangeoccurredwhentheunitofCelsiusreplacedthatofCentigrade
formetrictemperaturemeasurement.ThenameCentigradewasbasedona100count(Centi)scale(
grade)representingthemeltingandboilingpointsofH2O,respectively.ThenameCelsius,ontheother
hand,givesnohintastotheunit'soriginormeaning.

Periodandfrequencyaremathematicalreciprocalsofoneanother.Thatistosay,ifawavehasaperiod
of10seconds,itsfrequencywillbe0.1Hz,or1/10ofacyclepersecond:

Aninstrumentcalledanoscilloscope,Figurebelow,isusedtodisplayachangingvoltageovertimeona
graphicalscreen.YoumaybefamiliarwiththeappearanceofanECGorEKG(electrocardiograph)
machine,usedbyphysicianstographtheoscillationsofapatient'sheartovertime.TheECGisaspecial
purposeoscilloscopeexpresslydesignedformedicaluse.Generalpurposeoscilloscopeshavetheability
todisplayvoltagefromvirtuallyanyvoltagesource,plottedasagraphwithtimeastheindependent
variable.TherelationshipbetweenperiodandfrequencyisveryusefultoknowwhendisplayinganAC
voltageorcurrentwaveformonanoscilloscopescreen.Bymeasuringtheperiodofthewaveonthe
horizontalaxisoftheoscilloscopescreenandreciprocatingthattimevalue(inseconds),youcan
determinethefrequencyinHertz.

Timeperiodofsinewaveisshownonoscilloscope.

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Voltageandcurrentarebynomeanstheonlyphysicalvariablessubjecttovariationovertime.Much
morecommontooureverydayexperienceissound,whichisnothingmorethanthealternating
compressionanddecompression(pressurewaves)ofairmolecules,interpretedbyourearsasaphysical
sensation.Becausealternatingcurrentisawavephenomenon,itsharesmanyofthepropertiesofother
wavephenomena,likesound.Forthisreason,sound(especiallystructuredmusic)providesanexcellent
analogyforrelatingACconcepts.

Inmusicalterms,frequencyisequivalenttopitch.Lowpitchnotessuchasthoseproducedbyatubaor
bassoonconsistofairmoleculevibrationsthatarerelativelyslow(lowfrequency).Highpitchnotessuch
asthoseproducedbyafluteorwhistleconsistofthesametypeofvibrationsintheair,onlyvibratingata
muchfasterrate(higherfrequency).Figurebelowisatableshowingtheactualfrequenciesforarangeof
commonmusicalnotes.

ThefrequencyinHertz(Hz)isshownforvariousmusicalnotes.

Astuteobserverswillnoticethatallnotesonthetablebearingthesameletterdesignationarerelatedbya
frequencyratioof2:1.Forexample,thefirstfrequencyshown(designatedwiththeletterA)is220Hz.
ThenexthighestAnotehasafrequencyof440Hzexactlytwiceasmanysoundwavecyclesper
second.Thesame2:1ratioholdstrueforthefirstAsharp(233.08Hz)andthenextAsharp(466.16Hz),
andforallnotepairsfoundinthetable.

Audibly,twonoteswhosefrequenciesareexactlydoubleeachothersoundremarkablysimilar.This
similarityinsoundismusicallyrecognized,theshortestspanonamusicalscaleseparatingsuchnote
pairsbeingcalledanoctave.Followingthisrule,thenexthighestAnote(oneoctaveabove440Hz)
willbe880Hz,thenextlowestA(oneoctavebelow220Hz)willbe110Hz.Aviewofapiano
keyboardhelpstoputthisscaleintoperspective:Figurebelow

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Anoctaveisshownonamusicalkeyboard.

Asyoucansee,oneoctaveisequaltosevenwhitekeys'worthofdistanceonapianokeyboard.The
familiarmusicalmnemonic(doeraymeefahsolahtee)yes,thesamepatternimmortalizedinthe
whimsicalRodgersandHammersteinsongsunginTheSoundofMusiccoversoneoctavefromCto
C.

Whileelectromechanicalalternatorsandmanyotherphysicalphenomenanaturallyproducesinewaves,
thisisnottheonlykindofalternatingwaveinexistence.OtherwaveformsofACarecommonly
producedwithinelectroniccircuitry.Herearebutafewsamplewaveformsandtheircommon
designationsinfigurebelow

Somecommonwaveshapes(waveforms).

Thesewaveformsarebynomeanstheonlykindsofwaveformsinexistence.They'resimplyafewthat
arecommonenoughtohavebeengivendistinctnames.Evenincircuitsthataresupposedtomanifest
puresine,square,triangle,orsawtoothvoltage/currentwaveforms,therealliferesultisoftena
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distortedversionoftheintendedwaveshape.Somewaveformsaresocomplexthattheydefy
classificationasaparticulartype(includingwaveformsassociatedwithmanykindsofmusical
instruments).Generallyspeaking,anywaveshapebearingcloseresemblancetoaperfectsinewaveis
termedsinusoidal,anythingdifferentbeinglabeledasnonsinusoidal.BeingthatthewaveformofanAC
voltageorcurrentiscrucialtoitsimpactinacircuit,weneedtobeawareofthefactthatACwavescome
inavarietyofshapes.

REVIEW:
ACproducedbyanelectromechanicalalternatorfollowsthegraphicalshapeofasinewave.
Onecycleofawaveisonecompleteevolutionofitsshapeuntilthepointthatitisreadytorepeat
itself.
Theperiodofawaveistheamountoftimeittakestocompleteonecycle.
Frequencyisthenumberofcompletecyclesthatawavecompletesinagivenamountoftime.
UsuallymeasuredinHertz(Hz),1Hzbeingequaltoonecompletewavecyclepersecond.
Frequency=1/(periodinseconds)

MeasurementsofACmagnitude
SofarweknowthatACvoltagealternatesinpolarityandACcurrentalternatesindirection.Wealso
knowthatACcanalternateinavarietyofdifferentways,andbytracingthealternationovertimewecan
plotitasawaveform.Wecanmeasuretherateofalternationbymeasuringthetimeittakesforawave
toevolvebeforeitrepeatsitself(theperiod),andexpressthisascyclesperunittime,orfrequency.
Inmusic,frequencyisthesameaspitch,whichistheessentialpropertydistinguishingonenotefrom
another.

However,weencounterameasurementproblemifwetrytoexpresshowlargeorsmallanACquantity
is.WithDC,wherequantitiesofvoltageandcurrentaregenerallystable,wehavelittletrouble
expressinghowmuchvoltageorcurrentwehaveinanypartofacircuit.Buthowdoyougrantasingle
measurementofmagnitudetosomethingthatisconstantlychanging?

Onewaytoexpresstheintensity,ormagnitude(alsocalledtheamplitude),ofanACquantityisto
measureitspeakheightonawaveformgraph.ThisisknownasthepeakorcrestvalueofanAC
waveform:Figurebelow

Peakvoltageofawaveform.

Anotherwayistomeasurethetotalheightbetweenoppositepeaks.Thisisknownasthepeaktopeak
(PP)valueofanACwaveform:Figurebelow

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Peaktopeakvoltageofawaveform.

Unfortunately,eitheroneoftheseexpressionsofwaveformamplitudecanbemisleadingwhen
comparingtwodifferenttypesofwaves.Forexample,asquarewavepeakingat10voltsisobviouslya
greateramountofvoltageforagreateramountoftimethanatrianglewavepeakingat10volts.The
effectsofthesetwoACvoltagespoweringaloadwouldbequitedifferent:Figurebelow

Asquarewaveproducesagreaterheatingeffectthanthesamepeakvoltagetrianglewave.

Onewayofexpressingtheamplitudeofdifferentwaveshapesinamoreequivalentfashionisto
mathematicallyaveragethevaluesofallthepointsonawaveform'sgraphtoasingle,aggregatenumber.
Thisamplitudemeasureisknownsimplyastheaveragevalueofthewaveform.Ifweaverageallthe
pointsonthewaveformalgebraically(thatis,toconsidertheirsign,eitherpositiveornegative),the
averagevalueformostwaveformsistechnicallyzero,becauseallthepositivepointscanceloutallthe
negativepointsoverafullcycle:Figurebelow

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Theaveragevalueofasinewaveiszero.

This,ofcourse,willbetrueforanywaveformhavingequalareaportionsaboveandbelowthezero
lineofaplot.However,asapracticalmeasureofawaveform'saggregatevalue,averageisusually
definedasthemathematicalmeanofallthepoints'absolutevaluesoveracycle.Inotherwords,we
calculatethepracticalaveragevalueofthewaveformbyconsideringallpointsonthewaveaspositive
quantities,asifthewaveformlookedlikethis:Figurebelow

WaveformseenbyACaveragerespondingmeter.

Polarityinsensitivemechanicalmetermovements(metersdesignedtorespondequallytothepositiveand
negativehalfcyclesofanalternatingvoltageorcurrent)registerinproportiontothewaveform's
(practical)averagevalue,becausetheinertiaofthepointeragainstthetensionofthespringnaturally
averagestheforceproducedbythevaryingvoltage/currentvaluesovertime.Conversely,polarity
sensitivemetermovementsvibrateuselesslyifexposedtoACvoltageorcurrent,theirneedlesoscillating
rapidlyaboutthezeromark,indicatingthetrue(algebraic)averagevalueofzeroforasymmetrical
waveform.Whentheaveragevalueofawaveformisreferencedinthistext,itwillbeassumedthatthe
practicaldefinitionofaverageisintendedunlessotherwisespecified.

Anothermethodofderivinganaggregatevalueforwaveformamplitudeisbasedonthewaveform's
abilitytodousefulworkwhenappliedtoaloadresistance.Unfortunately,anACmeasurementbasedon
workperformedbyawaveformisnotthesameasthatwaveform'saveragevalue,becausethepower
dissipatedbyagivenload(workperformedperunittime)isnotdirectlyproportionaltothemagnitudeof
eitherthevoltageorcurrentimpresseduponit.Rather,powerisproportionaltothesquareofthevoltage
orcurrentappliedtoaresistance(P=E2/R,andP=I2R).Althoughthemathematicsofsuchan
amplitudemeasurementmightnotbestraightforward,theutilityofitis.

Considerabandsawandajigsaw,twopiecesofmodernwoodworkingequipment.Bothtypesofsawscut
withathin,toothed,motorpoweredmetalbladetocutwood.Butwhilethebandsawusesacontinuous
motionofthebladetocut,thejigsawusesabackandforthmotion.Thecomparisonofalternating
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current(AC)todirectcurrent(DC)maybelikenedtothecomparisonofthesetwosawtypes:Figure
below

BandsawjigsawanalogyofDCvsAC.

TheproblemoftryingtodescribethechangingquantitiesofACvoltageorcurrentinasingle,aggregate
measurementisalsopresentinthissawanalogy:howmightweexpressthespeedofajigsawblade?A
bandsawblademoveswithaconstantspeed,similartothewayDCvoltagepushesorDCcurrentmoves
withaconstantmagnitude.Ajigsawblade,ontheotherhand,movesbackandforth,itsbladespeed
constantlychanging.Whatismore,thebackandforthmotionofanytwojigsawsmaynotbeofthesame
type,dependingonthemechanicaldesignofthesaws.Onejigsawmightmoveitsbladewithasinewave
motion,whileanotherwithatrianglewavemotion.Torateajigsawbasedonitspeakbladespeedwould
bequitemisleadingwhencomparingonejigsawtoanother(orajigsawwithabandsaw!).Despitethe
factthatthesedifferentsawsmovetheirbladesindifferentmanners,theyareequalinonerespect:they
allcutwood,andaquantitativecomparisonofthiscommonfunctioncanserveasacommonbasisfor
whichtoratebladespeed.

Pictureajigsawandbandsawsidebyside,equippedwithidenticalblades(sametoothpitch,angle,etc.),
equallycapableofcuttingthesamethicknessofthesametypeofwoodatthesamerate.Wemightsay
thatthetwosawswereequivalentorequalintheircuttingcapacity.Mightthiscomparisonbeusedto
assignabandsawequivalentbladespeedtothejigsaw'sbackandforthblademotiontorelatethe
woodcuttingeffectivenessofonetotheother?ThisisthegeneralideausedtoassignaDCequivalent
measurementtoanyACvoltageorcurrent:whatevermagnitudeofDCvoltageorcurrentwouldproduce
thesameamountofheatenergydissipationthroughanequalresistance:Figurebelow

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AnRMSvoltageproducesthesameheatingeffectasathesameDCvoltage

Inthetwocircuitsabove,wehavethesameamountofloadresistance(2)dissipatingthesameamount
ofpowerintheformofheat(50watts),onepoweredbyACandtheotherbyDC.BecausetheAC
voltagesourcepicturedaboveisequivalent(intermsofpowerdeliveredtoaload)toa10voltDC
battery,wewouldcallthisa10voltACsource.Morespecifically,wewoulddenoteitsvoltagevalue
asbeing10voltsRMS.ThequalifierRMSstandsforRootMeanSquare,thealgorithmusedtoobtain
theDCequivalentvaluefrompointsonagraph(essentially,theprocedureconsistsofsquaringallthe
positiveandnegativepointsonawaveformgraph,averagingthosesquaredvalues,thentakingthesquare
rootofthataveragetoobtainthefinalanswer).SometimesthealternativetermsequivalentorDC
equivalentareusedinsteadofRMS,butthequantityandprincipleareboththesame.

RMSamplitudemeasurementisthebestwaytorelateACquantitiestoDCquantities,orotherAC
quantitiesofdifferingwaveformshapes,whendealingwithmeasurementsofelectricpower.Forother
considerations,peakorpeaktopeakmeasurementsmaybethebesttoemploy.Forinstance,when
determiningthepropersizeofwire(ampacity)toconductelectricpowerfromasourcetoaload,RMS
currentmeasurementisthebesttouse,becausetheprincipalconcernwithcurrentisoverheatingofthe
wire,whichisafunctionofpowerdissipationcausedbycurrentthroughtheresistanceofthewire.
However,whenratinginsulatorsforserviceinhighvoltageACapplications,peakvoltagemeasurements
arethemostappropriate,becausetheprincipalconcernhereisinsulatorflashovercausedbybrief
spikesofvoltage,irrespectiveoftime.

Peakandpeaktopeakmeasurementsarebestperformedwithanoscilloscope,whichcancapturethe
crestsofthewaveformwithahighdegreeofaccuracyduetothefastactionofthecathoderaytubein
responsetochangesinvoltage.ForRMSmeasurements,analogmetermovements(D'Arsonval,Weston,
ironvane,electrodynamometer)willworksolongastheyhavebeencalibratedinRMSfigures.Because
themechanicalinertiaanddampeningeffectsofanelectromechanicalmetermovementmakesthe
deflectionoftheneedlenaturallyproportionaltotheaveragevalueoftheAC,notthetrueRMSvalue,
analogmetersmustbespecificallycalibrated(ormiscalibrated,dependingonhowyoulookatit)to
indicatevoltageorcurrentinRMSunits.Theaccuracyofthiscalibrationdependsonanassumed
waveshape,usuallyasinewave.

ElectronicmetersspecificallydesignedforRMSmeasurementarebestforthetask.Someinstrument
manufacturershavedesignedingeniousmethodsfordeterminingtheRMSvalueofanywaveform.One
suchmanufacturerproducesTrueRMSmeterswithatinyresistiveheatingelementpoweredbya
voltageproportionaltothatbeingmeasured.Theheatingeffectofthatresistanceelementismeasured
thermallytogiveatrueRMSvaluewithnomathematicalcalculationswhatsoever,justthelawsof
physicsinactioninfulfillmentofthedefinitionofRMS.TheaccuracyofthistypeofRMSmeasurement
isindependentofwaveshape.

Forpurewaveforms,simpleconversioncoefficientsexistforequatingPeak,PeaktoPeak,Average
(practical,notalgebraic),andRMSmeasurementstooneanother:Figurebelow

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Conversionfactorsforcommonwaveforms.

InadditiontoRMS,average,peak(crest),andpeaktopeakmeasuresofanACwaveform,thereare
ratiosexpressingtheproportionalitybetweensomeofthesefundamentalmeasurements.Thecrestfactor
ofanACwaveform,forinstance,istheratioofitspeak(crest)valuedividedbyitsRMSvalue.Theform
factorofanACwaveformistheratioofitsRMSvaluedividedbyitsaveragevalue.Squareshaped
waveformsalwayshavecrestandformfactorsequalto1,sincethepeakisthesameastheRMSand
averagevalues.SinusoidalwaveformshaveanRMSvalueof0.707(thereciprocalofthesquarerootof
2)andaformfactorof1.11(0.707/0.636).TriangleandsawtoothshapedwaveformshaveRMSvalues
of0.577(thereciprocalofsquarerootof3)andformfactorsof1.15(0.577/0.5).

Bearinmindthattheconversionconstantsshownhereforpeak,RMS,andaverageamplitudesofsine
waves,squarewaves,andtrianglewavesholdtrueonlyforpureformsofthesewaveshapes.TheRMS
andaveragevaluesofdistortedwaveshapesarenotrelatedbythesameratios:Figurebelow

Arbitrarywaveformshavenosimpleconversions.

ThisisaveryimportantconcepttounderstandwhenusingananalogD'Arsonvalmetermovementto
measureACvoltageorcurrent.AnanalogD'Arsonvalmovement,calibratedtoindicatesinewaveRMS
amplitude,willonlybeaccuratewhenmeasuringpuresinewaves.Ifthewaveformofthevoltageor
currentbeingmeasuredisanythingbutapuresinewave,theindicationgivenbythemeterwillnotbethe
trueRMSvalueofthewaveform,becausethedegreeofneedledeflectioninananalogD'Arsonvalmeter
movementisproportionaltotheaveragevalueofthewaveform,nottheRMS.RMSmetercalibrationis
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obtainedbyskewingthespanofthemetersothatitdisplaysasmallmultipleoftheaveragevalue,
whichwillbeequaltobetheRMSvalueforaparticularwaveshapeandaparticularwaveshapeonly.

Sincethesinewaveshapeismostcommoninelectricalmeasurements,itisthewaveshapeassumedfor
analogmetercalibration,andthesmallmultipleusedinthecalibrationofthemeteris1.1107(theform
factor:0.707/0.636:theratioofRMSdividedbyaverageforasinusoidalwaveform).Anywaveshape
otherthanapuresinewavewillhaveadifferentratioofRMSandaveragevalues,andthusameter
calibratedforsinewavevoltageorcurrentwillnotindicatetrueRMSwhenreadinganonsinusoidal
wave.Bearinmindthatthislimitationappliesonlytosimple,analogACmetersnotemployingTrue
RMStechnology.

REVIEW:
TheamplitudeofanACwaveformisitsheightasdepictedonagraphovertime.Anamplitude
measurementcantaketheformofpeak,peaktopeak,average,orRMSquantity.
PeakamplitudeistheheightofanACwaveformasmeasuredfromthezeromarktothehighest
positiveorlowestnegativepointonagraph.Alsoknownasthecrestamplitudeofawave.
PeaktopeakamplitudeisthetotalheightofanACwaveformasmeasuredfrommaximum
positivetomaximumnegativepeaksonagraph.OftenabbreviatedasPP.
Averageamplitudeisthemathematicalmeanofallawaveform'spointsovertheperiodofone
cycle.Technically,theaverageamplitudeofanywaveformwithequalareaportionsaboveand
belowthezerolineonagraphiszero.However,asapracticalmeasureofamplitude,a
waveform'saveragevalueisoftencalculatedasthemathematicalmeanofallthepoints'absolute
values(takingallthenegativevaluesandconsideringthemaspositive).Forasinewave,the
averagevaluesocalculatedisapproximately0.637ofitspeakvalue.
RMSstandsforRootMeanSquare,andisawayofexpressinganACquantityofvoltageor
currentintermsfunctionallyequivalenttoDC.Forexample,10voltsACRMSistheamountof
voltagethatwouldproducethesameamountofheatdissipationacrossaresistorofgivenvalueas
a10voltDCpowersupply.AlsoknownastheequivalentorDCequivalentvalueofanAC
voltageorcurrent.Forasinewave,theRMSvalueisapproximately0.707ofitspeakvalue.
ThecrestfactorofanACwaveformistheratioofitspeak(crest)toitsRMSvalue.
TheformfactorofanACwaveformistheratioofitsRMSvaluetoitsaveragevalue.
Analog,electromechanicalmetermovementsrespondproportionallytotheaveragevalueofanAC
voltageorcurrent.WhenRMSindicationisdesired,themeter'scalibrationmustbeskewed
accordingly.Thismeansthattheaccuracyofanelectromechanicalmeter'sRMSindicationis
dependentonthepurityofthewaveform:whetheritistheexactsamewaveshapeasthewaveform
usedincalibrating.

SimpleACcircuitcalculations
Overthecourseofthenextfewchapters,youwilllearnthatACcircuitmeasurementsandcalculations
cangetverycomplicatedduetothecomplexnatureofalternatingcurrentincircuitswithinductanceand
capacitance.However,withsimplecircuits(figurebelow)involvingnothingmorethananACpower
sourceandresistance,thesamelawsandrulesofDCapplysimplyanddirectly.

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ACcircuitcalculationsforresistivecircuitsarethesameasforDC.

Seriesresistancesstilladd,parallelresistancesstilldiminish,andtheLawsofKirchhoffandOhmstill
holdtrue.Actually,aswewilldiscoverlateron,theserulesandlawsalwaysholdtrue,itsjustthatwe
havetoexpressthequantitiesofvoltage,current,andoppositiontocurrentinmoreadvanced
mathematicalforms.Withpurelyresistivecircuits,however,thesecomplexitiesofACareofnopractical
consequence,andsowecantreatthenumbersasthoughweweredealingwithsimpleDCquantities.

Becauseallthesemathematicalrelationshipsstillholdtrue,wecanmakeuseofourfamiliartable
methodoforganizingcircuitvaluesjustaswithDC:

Onemajorcaveatneedstobegivenhere:allmeasurementsofACvoltageandcurrentmustbeexpressed
inthesameterms(peak,peaktopeak,average,orRMS).IfthesourcevoltageisgiveninpeakACvolts,
thenallcurrentsandvoltagessubsequentlycalculatedarecastintermsofpeakunits.Ifthesource
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voltageisgiveninACRMSvolts,thenallcalculatedcurrentsandvoltagesarecastinACRMSunitsas
well.ThisholdstrueforanycalculationbasedonOhm'sLaws,Kirchhoff'sLaws,etc.Unlessotherwise
stated,allvaluesofvoltageandcurrentinACcircuitsaregenerallyassumedtobeRMSratherthanpeak,
average,orpeaktopeak.Insomeareasofelectronics,peakmeasurementsareassumed,butinmost
applications(especiallyindustrialelectronics)theassumptionisRMS.

REVIEW:
AlltheoldrulesandlawsofDC(Kirchhoff'sVoltageandCurrentLaws,Ohm'sLaw)stillhold
trueforAC.However,withmorecomplexcircuits,wemayneedtorepresenttheACquantitiesin
morecomplexform.Moreonthislater,Ipromise!
ThetablemethodoforganizingcircuitvaluesisstillavalidanalysistoolforACcircuits.

ACphase
ThingsstarttogetcomplicatedwhenweneedtorelatetwoormoreACvoltagesorcurrentsthatareout
ofstepwitheachother.Byoutofstep,Imeanthatthetwowaveformsarenotsynchronized:thattheir
peaksandzeropointsdonotmatchupatthesamepointsintime.Thegraphinfigurebelowillustratesan
exampleofthis.

Outofphasewaveforms

Thetwowavesshownabove(AversusB)areofthesameamplitudeandfrequency,buttheyareoutof
stepwitheachother.Intechnicalterms,thisiscalledaphaseshift.Earlierwesawhowwecouldplota
sinewavebycalculatingthetrigonometricsinefunctionforanglesrangingfrom0to360degrees,a
fullcircle.Thestartingpointofasinewavewaszeroamplitudeatzerodegrees,progressingtofull
positiveamplitudeat90degrees,zeroat180degrees,fullnegativeat270degrees,andbacktothe
startingpointofzeroat360degrees.Wecanusethisanglescalealongthehorizontalaxisofour
waveformplottoexpressjusthowfaroutofsteponewaveiswithanother:Figurebelow

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WaveAleadswaveBby45o

Theshiftbetweenthesetwowaveformsisabout45degrees,theAwavebeingaheadoftheBwave.
Asamplingofdifferentphaseshiftsisgiveninthefollowinggraphstobetterillustratethisconcept:
Figurebelow

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Examplesofphaseshifts.

Becausethewaveformsintheaboveexamplesareatthesamefrequency,theywillbeoutofstepbythe
sameangularamountateverypointintime.Forthisreason,wecanexpressphaseshiftfortwoormore
waveformsofthesamefrequencyasaconstantquantityfortheentirewave,andnotjustanexpressionof
shiftbetweenanytwoparticularpointsalongthewaves.Thatis,itissafetosaysomethinglike,voltage
'A'is45degreesoutofphasewithvoltage'B'.Whicheverwaveformisaheadinitsevolutionissaidto
beleadingandtheonebehindissaidtobelagging.

Phaseshift,likevoltage,isalwaysameasurementrelativebetweentwothings.There'sreallynosuch
thingasawaveformwithanabsolutephasemeasurementbecausethere'snoknownuniversalreference
forphase.TypicallyintheanalysisofACcircuits,thevoltagewaveformofthepowersupplyisusedasa
referenceforphase,thatvoltagestatedasxxxvoltsat0degrees.AnyotherACvoltageorcurrentin
thatcircuitwillhaveitsphaseshiftexpressedintermsrelativetothatsourcevoltage.

ThisiswhatmakesACcircuitcalculationsmorecomplicatedthanDC.WhenapplyingOhm'sLawand
Kirchhoff'sLaws,quantitiesofACvoltageandcurrentmustreflectphaseshiftaswellasamplitude.
Mathematicaloperationsofaddition,subtraction,multiplication,anddivisionmustoperateonthese
quantitiesofphaseshiftaswellasamplitude.Fortunately,thereisamathematicalsystemofquantities
calledcomplexnumbersideallysuitedforthistaskofrepresentingamplitudeandphase.

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BecausethesubjectofcomplexnumbersissoessentialtotheunderstandingofACcircuits,thenext
chapterwillbedevotedtothatsubjectalone.

REVIEW:
Phaseshiftiswheretwoormorewaveformsareoutofstepwitheachother.
Theamountofphaseshiftbetweentwowavescanbeexpressedintermsofdegrees,asdefinedby
thedegreeunitsonthehorizontalaxisofthewaveformgraphusedinplottingthetrigonometric
sinefunction.
Aleadingwaveformisdefinedasonewaveformthatisaheadofanotherinitsevolution.A
laggingwaveformisonethatisbehindanother.Example:

CalculationsforACcircuitanalysismusttakeintoconsiderationbothamplitudeandphaseshiftof
voltageandcurrentwaveformstobecompletelyaccurate.Thisrequirestheuseofamathematical
systemcalledcomplexnumbers.

Principlesofradio
Oneofthemorefascinatingapplicationsofelectricityisinthegenerationofinvisibleripplesofenergy
calledradiowaves.Thelimitedscopeofthislessononalternatingcurrentdoesnotpermitfull
explorationoftheconcept,someofthebasicprincipleswillbecovered.

WithOersted'saccidentaldiscoveryofelectromagnetism,itwasrealizedthatelectricityandmagnetism
wererelatedtoeachother.Whenanelectriccurrentwaspassedthroughaconductor,amagneticfield
wasgeneratedperpendiculartotheaxisofflow.Likewise,ifaconductorwasexposedtoachangein
magneticfluxperpendiculartotheconductor,avoltagewasproducedalongthelengthofthatconductor.
Sofar,scientistsknewthatelectricityandmagnetismalwaysseemedtoaffecteachotheratrightangles.
However,amajordiscoverylayhiddenjustbeneaththisseeminglysimpleconceptofrelated
perpendicularity,anditsunveilingwasoneofthepivotalmomentsinmodernscience.

Thisbreakthroughinphysicsishardtooverstate.Themanresponsibleforthisconceptualrevolutionwas
theScottishphysicistJamesClerkMaxwell(18311879),whounifiedthestudyofelectricityand
magnetisminfourrelativelytidyequations.Inessence,whathediscoveredwasthatelectricand
magneticfieldswereintrinsicallyrelatedtooneanother,withorwithoutthepresenceofaconductive
pathforelectronstoflow.Statedmoreformally,Maxwell'sdiscoverywasthis:

Achangingelectricfieldproducesaperpendicularmagneticfield,and

Achangingmagneticfieldproducesaperpendicularelectricfield.

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Allofthiscantakeplaceinopenspace,thealternatingelectricandmagneticfieldssupportingeachother
astheytravelthroughspaceatthespeedoflight.Thisdynamicstructureofelectricandmagneticfields
propagatingthroughspaceisbetterknownasanelectromagneticwave.

Therearemanykindsofnaturalradiativeenergycomposedofelectromagneticwaves.Evenlightis
electromagneticinnature.SoareXraysandgammarayradiation.Theonlydifferencebetweenthese
kindsofelectromagneticradiationisthefrequencyoftheiroscillation(alternationoftheelectricand
magneticfieldsbackandforthinpolarity).ByusingasourceofACvoltageandaspecialdevicecalled
anantenna,wecancreateelectromagneticwaves(ofamuchlowerfrequencythanthatoflight)with
ease.

Anantennaisnothingmorethanadevicebuilttoproduceadispersingelectricormagneticfield.Two
fundamentaltypesofantennaearethedipoleandtheloop:Figurebelow

Dipoleandloopantennae

Whilethedipolelookslikenothingmorethananopencircuit,andtheloopashortcircuit,thesepiecesof
wireareeffectiveradiatorsofelectromagneticfieldswhenconnectedtoACsourcesoftheproper
frequency.Thetwoopenwiresofthedipoleactasasortofcapacitor(twoconductorsseparatedbya
dielectric),withtheelectricfieldopentodispersalinsteadofbeingconcentratedbetweentwoclosely
spacedplates.Theclosedwirepathoftheloopantennaactslikeaninductorwithalargeaircore,again
providingampleopportunityforthefieldtodisperseawayfromtheantennainsteadofbeing
concentratedandcontainedasinanormalinductor.

Asthepowereddipoleradiatesitschangingelectricfieldintospace,achangingmagneticfieldis
producedatrightangles,thussustainingtheelectricfieldfurtherintospace,andsoonasthewave
propagatesatthespeedoflight.Asthepoweredloopantennaradiatesitschangingmagneticfieldinto
space,achangingelectricfieldisproducedatrightangles,withthesameendresultofacontinuous
electromagneticwavesentawayfromtheantenna.Eitherantennaachievesthesamebasictask:the
controlledproductionofanelectromagneticfield.

WhenattachedtoasourceofhighfrequencyACpower,anantennaactsasatransmittingdevice,
convertingACvoltageandcurrentintoelectromagneticwaveenergy.Antennasalsohavetheabilityto
interceptelectromagneticwavesandconverttheirenergyintoACvoltageandcurrent.Inthismode,an
antennaactsasareceivingdevice:Figurebelow

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Basicradiotransmitterandreceiver

Whilethereismuchmorethatmaybesaidaboutantennatechnology,thisbriefintroductionisenoughto
giveyouthegeneralideaofwhat'sgoingon(andperhapsenoughinformationtoprovokeafew
experiments).

REVIEW:
JamesMaxwelldiscoveredthatchangingelectricfieldsproduceperpendicularmagneticfields,and
viceversa,eveninemptyspace.
Atwinsetofelectricandmagneticfields,oscillatingatrightanglestoeachotherandtravelingat
thespeedoflight,constitutesanelectromagneticwave.
Anantennaisadevicemadeofwire,designedtoradiateachangingelectricfieldorchanging
magneticfieldwhenpoweredbyahighfrequencyACsource,orinterceptanelectromagneticfield
andconvertittoanACvoltageorcurrent.
Thedipoleantennaconsistsoftwopiecesofwire(nottouching),primarilygeneratinganelectric
fieldwhenenergized,andsecondarilyproducingamagneticfieldinspace.
Theloopantennaconsistsofaloopofwire,primarilygeneratingamagneticfieldwhenenergized,
andsecondarilyproducinganelectricfieldinspace.

Contributors
Contributorstothischapterarelistedinchronologicalorderoftheircontributions,frommostrecentto
first.SeeAppendix2(ContributorList)fordatesandcontactinformation.

HarveyLew(February7,2004):Correctedtypographicalerror:circuitshouldhavebeencircle.

DuaneDamiano(February25,2003):PointedoutmagneticpolarityerrorinDCgeneratorillustration.

MarkD.Zarella(April28,2002):Suggestionforimprovingexplanationofaveragewaveform
amplitude.

JohnSymonds(March28,2002):SuggestionforimprovingexplanationoftheunitHertz.
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JasonStarck(June2000):HTMLdocumentformatting,whichledtoamuchbetterlookingsecond
edition.

LessonsInElectricCircuitscopyright(C)20002015TonyR.Kuphaldt,underthetermsandconditions
oftheDesignScienceLicense.

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