Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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SimplexDataTransmissionDatatransmissioninonedirectiononly.
HalfDuplexDataTransmissionDatatransmissionintwodirectionsbutnotatthesametime.
FullDuplexDataTransmissionDatatransmissionintwodirectionsatthesametime.
SerialDataTransmissionDataissentonebitatatimeoverasinglewireorchannel.
ParallelDataTransmissionSeveralbitsofdataaresenddownseveralwiresorchannels.
AsynchronousDataTransmissionDataisbeingtransferredinanagreedbitpatterntogetherwithcontrolsbitsknownasstartbit&stopbit.
SynchronousDatatransmissionDataisbeingtransferredinacontinuesstreamaccompaniedbytimingsignalsgeneratedbyaninternalclock;
timingsignalsaresynchronizedwitheachothertoenduresenderarereceiveraresynchronizedwitheachothertoensurebitsarereassembled
intothecorrectbitpattern.
USBUniversalSerialBus;anasynchronousserialdatatransmissionmethodwhichhasbecomeanindustrystandard
WhathappenswhenadeviceispluggedintoacomputersusingoneoftheUSBports?
1.) Thedeviceisautomaticallydetected.
2.) Aknowndeviceisrecognizedandadevicedriverisloaded.
3.) Ifanewdeviceispluggedin,thecomputerlooksforthecorrectdevicedriverortheuserwillbepromptedtodownloadthedriver.
ErrorCheckingMethodsofDataTransmission
WhatisparityCheck?
1.) ParityCheckscanbeeven(evennumberofbits)orodd(oddnumberofbits);onebitisknownasParitybit.
2.) Parityblocksallowanerroneousbittobeidentified.
3.) Iftheparityofabyteofdatahasntchanged(followingdatatransmission)butstillanerrorhasoccurred,thenitsimpossibleusingthis
methodtoidentitywheretheerrorhasoccurred.
WhatisAutomaticRepeatRequest(ARG)?
1.) ARGusedacknowledgmenttoindicatedatareceivercorrectly.
2.) Atimeoutisusedwhichisthetimeallowedtoelapsebeforeanacknowledgmentisreceived.
WhatisChecksum?
1.) Dataissentinblocks.
2.) AnadditionalvaluecalledChecksum,isendattheendoftheblockofdata.
3.) Thechecksumisbasedonthenumberofbytesintheblock.
4.) Ifthechecksumatthereceiversenddoesntmatchthechecksumattheendofthedatablock,thenanerrorintransmissionhas
occurred.
WhatisEchoCheck?
1.) Dataisreturnedtothesender.
2.) Thesendercomparesdatawiththedatareceivedback.
3.) Ifdifferenterrorhasoccurredsomewhereintheprocess.
4.) Theproblemcouldthatthedatawasactuallysendcorrectly,butitwasduringtheprocessingofsendingbacktothesenderthatthe
erroroccurred.
InternetTechnologies
InternetServiceProvider(ISP)AnISPiscompanythatprovidestheuserwithaccesstotheinternet,theyusuallychargeamonthlyfee.
InternetProtocol(IP)AddressEachdeviceisgivenanIPaddressassoonasitconnectstotheinternet.TheIPaddresswillbedifferenteach
timethedeviceconnects.
MediaAccessControl(MAC)AddressMACaddressuniquelyidentifiesadeviceconnectedtotheinternet.
HYPERTEXTMARKUPLANGUAGE(HTML)isusedwhenwritinganddevelopingwebpages.
HTMLStructureistheessentialpartoftheHTMLdocument;itincludesthesemantics(meaning)andstructuralmarkupofthedocument.
HTMLPRESENTATIONisthestyleofthedocument;i.e.howthedocumentwilllook(orevensoundifitincludesmultimediaelements).
WebBrowserissoftwarewhichallowsausertodisplayawebpageontheircomputerscreen.WebbrowsersinterpretortranslatetheHTML
codefromwebsitesandshowtheresultofthetranslation.
LogicGates&LogicCircuits
LogicGates:
Truthtables:
LogicStatements: LogicCircuits:
OperatingSystem
OperatingsystemThesoftwarerunninginbackgroundofacomputersystem.Itmanagesmanyofthebasicfunctions.
InterruptAninterruptisasignalsentfromadevice(orfromsomewhere)toprocessorrequestingitsattention.Theinterruptwillcausethe
processortotemporarilystopwhatitsdoingtoservetheinterrupt.
BufferAbufferistemporarymemoryareainadevice.Itallowstheprocessortocarryonwithothertaskswhilst.
ComputerArchitecture
BusesTheymovedataaroundthecomputerandalsoendsendoutcontrolsignalstosynchronizeinternaloperations.
TypesofBuses:
1.) AddressBusThiscarriessignalsrelatingtotheaddressbetweentheprocessorandmemory;itsunidirectional.
2.) DataBusThissendsdatabetweentheprocessor,memoryunitandtheinput/outputdevices;itsbidirectional.
3.) ControlBusThiscarriessignalsrelatingtocontrolandcoordinationofallactivateswithinthecomputer;itcanbeunidirectionalor
bidirectionalduetointernalconnections.
RegistersHighspeedstorageareaswithinthecomputer.
TypesofRegisters:
1.) MemoryAddressRegister(MAR)
2.) MemoryDataRegister(MDR)
3.) Arithmetic&LogicUnit(ALU)
4.) ProgramCounter(PC)
5.) CurrentInstructionRegister(CIR)
MemoryUnitMadeuptoaddressandcontents.Eachaddresswilluniquelyidentifyeachlocationwithinthememorymap.
ControlUnitControlstheoperationofthememory,processor,andinput/outputdevices;thecontrolunitreadsinstructions,interpretsthem
andsendsoutsignalsalongthecontrolbustosynchronizeallcomputercomponents.
WhatisFetchExecuteStyle?
FetchThenextinstructionisfetchedfromthememoryaddresscurrentlystoresinprogramcounter(PC)andisthenstoresinCurrent
InstructionRegister(CIR);ThePCisthenincrementedsothatthenextinstructioncanbeprocessed.
ExecuteThedecodedinstructionisthenpassedasasetofcontrolsignalstotheappropriatecomponentsofthecomputersystem.
InputDevices
2DScannersTheseconverthardcopydocumentsintoanelectronicformwhichcanbestoriedinacommutermemory
3DScannersscansolidobjectsandproduceathreedimensionalimage.Sincesolidobjectshavex,yandzcoordinates,thesescannerstake
imagesatseveralpointsalongthesethreecoordinates.Adigitalimagewhichrepresentsthesolidobjectisformed.Thescannedimagescanbe
usedinCOMPUTERAIDEDDESIGN(CAD)or,morerecently,senttoa3Dprintertoproduceaworkingmodelofthescannedimage.Theymake
useoflasers,magneticresonance,whitelight,andsoon.
Xrays:CT(computedtomography)scanners.
RadioWaves:MRI(magneticresonanceimaging)scanners.
Gammarays:SPECT(singlephotonemissioncomputedtechnology)scanners.
BarcodesAbarcodeisaseriesofdarkandlightparallellinesofvaryingthickness.Thenumbers0to9areeachrepresentedbyauniqueseries
oflines.
Sowhathappenswhenabarcodeisscanned?
ThebarcodeisfirstreadbyaredlaserorredLED(LIGHTEMITTINGDIODE).
Lightisreflectedbackoffthebarcode;thedarkareasreflectlittleornolightwhichallowsthebarstoberead.
Thereflectedlightisreadbysensors(photoelectriccells).
AsthelaserorLEDlightisscannedacrossthebarcode,apatternisgeneratedwhichisconvertedintodigitaldatathisallowsthe
computertounderstandthebarcode.
Forexample:thedigit3ontheleftgeneratesthepatternLDDDDLD(whereL=lightandD=dark);thishasthebinaryequivalent
of0111101(whereL=0andD=1).
Sothebarcodehasbeenread,thenwhathappens?
Thebarcodenumberislookedupinthestockdatabase(thebarcodeisknownastheKEYFIELDinthestockitemrecord);thiskey
fielduniquelyidentifieseachstockitem.
Whenthebarcodenumberisfound,thestockitemrecordislookedup.
Thepriceandotherstockitemdetailsaresentbacktothecheckout(orPOINTOFSALETERMINAL(POS)).
Thenumberofstockitemsintherecordisreducedbyoneeachtimethebarcodeisread.
Thisnewvaluefornumberofstockitemsiswrittenbacktothestockitemrecord.
Thenumberofstockitemsiscomparedtothereorderlevel;ifitislessthanorequaltothisvalue,morestockitemsare
automaticallyordered.
Onceanorderformorestockitemsisgenerated,aflagisaddedtotherecordtostopreorderingeverytimethestockitembarcode
isread.
Whennewstockitemsarrive,thestocklevelsareupdatedinthedatabase.
Advantagesofusingbarcodestothemanagementinclude:
mucheasierandfastertochangepricesonstockitems
muchbetter,moreuptodatesalesinformation/salestrends
noneedtopriceeverystockitemontheshelves(thisreducestimeandcosttothemanagement)
allowsforautomaticstockcontrol
possibletocheckcustomerbuyinghabitsmoreeasilybylinkingbarcodesto,forexample,customerloyaltycards.
Advantagesofusingbarcodestothecustomersinclude:
fastercheckoutqueues(staffdontneedtoremember/lookuppricesofitems)
errorsinchargingcustomersarereduced
thecustomerisgivenanitemizedbill
costsavingscanbepassedontothecustomer
bettertrackofsellbydatessofoodshouldbefresher.
QR(QuickResponse)Codesisanothertypeof.Itismadeupofamatrixoffilledindarksquaresonalightbackground.Tomakeacomparison,
normalbarcodescanholdupto30digits;QRcodescanholdover7000digits.Byusingthebuiltincamerafacilityon
modernphonesanddownloadingtheappropriateapplication(orapp),itispossibletoreadtheQRcode.Thecodemaycontainawebsitelinkor
someformofadvertising
Keyboards/KeypadsKeyboardsarethemostcommoninputdevice;keysarepressedbytheoperatortoenterdatadirectlyintothecomputer.
Whenakeyispressed,itcompletesacircuitandasignalissenttothemicroprocessorwhichinterpretswhichkeyhasbeenpressed.
PointingdevicesThemostcommonpointingdevicesarethemouseandthetrackerball.Theyareusedtocontrolacursoronscreenorto
selectoptionsfrommenus.Themouseusuallyhastwobuttonsusedforselectionandotherfunctionstogetherwithascrollup/downwheel.
Microphonesareusedtoinputsoundintoacomputer.Whenthemicrophonepicksupsound,adiaphragmvibratesproducinganelectric
signal.Asoundcardinthecomputerconvertsthesignalintodigitalvalueswhichcanbestoredinitsmemory.
VoiceRecognitionItisusedtoidentifyifa'known'personisspeakingin,forexample,asecuritysystem.Thesoftwarecompareswavepatterns
fromtheperson'svoicewithwavepatternsstoredinmemory.
SpeechRecognitionitisverydifferenttovoicerecognition.Thisworksbyfirstconvertingspeechpatternsintoadigitalform.Thedigitalimage
isbrokenupintophonemeswhicharethencomparedwithwordsstoredinthebuiltindictionary.Thespokenwordscanthenberecognized.
Touchscreensallowselectionstobe1nadebysimplytouchinganiconormenuoptiononascreen.
Sensorssenddatafromtherealworldtoacomputer.Theyoftenrequireananaloguetodigitalconverter(ADC)tochangethedataintoa
formatthatthecomputer(ormicroprocessor)canunderstand.
Sensorsformpartofmanymonitoringorcontrolsystems:
Monitoringsystemsinclude:monitoringapatient'svitalsignsinahospital,burglar/intruderalarmsystems,checkingkeydataina
carengineormonitoringpollutionlevelsinariverortheair.
Controlsystemsinclude:trafficlightcontrol,greenhouseenvironment,streetlighting,antilockbrakingsystemonavehicleor
controlofachemicalornuclearprocess.
Interactivewhiteboardsallowcomputerimagestobedisplayedusingadigitalprojector.Theyallowuserstowriteonthewhiteboardandthe
text/imagescreatedcanthenbestoredinaco1nputermemory.
OutputDevices
Inkjetprintersrelyonaliquidinksystemwhichspraysinkontothepaperlinebylineasthepaperadvances;theinksystemuseseitherthermal
bubbleorpiezoelectrictechnologies.
Laserprintersrelyonpositiveandnegativechargesontheprintdrumandpaper;(drypowder)tonerstickstothepaperinonlycertainareas
andispermanentlyfixedusingafuser.
DotMatrixprintersuseamatrixofpinswhichstrikeaninkedribbon(eitherblackorupto4colored)toproducecharactersinamatrixonthe
paper,e.g.
AdvantagesandDisadvantagesamongstLaser,Inkjet&DotMatrix:
3DPRINTERSareprimarilyusedinCOMPUTERAIDEDDESIGN(CAD)applications.Theycanproducesolidobjectswhichactuallywork.Thesolid
objectisbuiltuplayerbylayerusingmaterialssuchaspowderedresin,powderedmetal,paperorceramicpowder.Some3Dprintersusebinder
technologywhichinvolvestheuseofabinder(atypeof'glue')toformsolidlayers.
2D/3DcuttersTheseareusedtocutintomaterialstoform3Dobjectsandarecontrolledbycomputersandsoftware(suchasCAD/CAM).
Commonmaterialsinclude:glass,crystal,metal,polymersandwood.
Loudspeakersconvertanaloguevoltagesintosound.Iftheoutputisfromcomputer,thedigitalsignalsarefirstconvertedintoanalogue
voltagesusingaDAC.TherateatwhichtheDACcantranslatedigitaloutputintoanaloguevoltagesiscalledthesa1nplingrateusually44100
samples/secondforatypical16bitsystem.
LCD)liquidcrystaldisplay/diode
TheadvantagesofusingLEDs(ratherthanCCFLs)tobacklightthedisplayare:
Theyreachmaximumbrightnessmuchfaster.
Theygiveawhiterlightmakingtheimagemorevivid.
Thebrighterlightimprovescolordefinition.
Thedisplayscanbemuchthinnerandlighterinweight.
LEDslastalmostindefinitely.
Theyconsumemuchlesspowerandthereforealsorunmuchcooler.
(OLED)organiclightemittingdiode
TheadvantagesofusingOLEDwhencomparedtoolderLEDtechnologyinclude:
Theyallowforverythinandveryflexiblescreenswhichareverylightweight.
Theyproducea,muchbrighterlightthanLEDs.
Theydon'trequireanyformofbacklighting
Theyallowforamuchlargerfieldofview..
LightProjectors
1.) DLPDigitalLightProjectorsreliesonmillionsofmicromirrorswhichcanswitchonoroffseveralthousandtimesasecondcreatingvarious
shadesofgrey.Colorfiltersallowtheshadesofgreytobeconvertedintocolorswhichareprojectedontoalargescreenthusrepresenting
theoutputfromthecomputer.
2.) LCDProjectorsusechromaticcoatedmirrorswhichreflectlightatdifferentwavelengths.ThelightcomponentspassthroughthreeLCD
screenswhicharethenrecombinedusingaprismtoproducethecolorimagewhichisprojectedontoalargescreen.
FileFormats
Musicalinstrumentdigitalinterface(MIDI)MIDIfilesconsistoflistsofcommandswhichinstructadevicehowtoproduceaMusicalnote/sound
MP3usesaudiocompressiontostoremusicinanMP3fileformat.Thesecanoftenbe90%smallerthancomparableCDmusicfiles.Theyusea
lossyformat.Themusicqualityisretained.byusingperceptualmusicshaping(i.e.removingsoundsthatthehumanearcan'tclearlydistinguish).
MP4MP4filesareslightlydifferenttoMP3filessincetheycanstoremultimediaratherthanjustmusic.
JointPhotographicExpertsGroup(JPEG)JPEGfilesusealossyformatfilecompressionmethod.JPEGisusedtostorephotographsasareduced
filesize.Theyrelyoncertainpropertiesofthehumaneye(e.g.itsinabilitytodetectsmallbrightnessdifferencesorcolorhues).
Textandnumberfileformats:
1.) TextisstoredinASCIIformatandtextfilesareusuallystoredinalosslessformat.
2.) Numberscanbestoredasreal,integer,currency,andsoon.Losslessformatisusedsinceaccuracyofdataisveryimportant.
losslessfilecompressionallthedatafromtheoriginalfilesisreconstructedwhenthefileisagainuncompressed.
lossyfilecompressionunnecessarydataiseliminatedformingafilethatcan'tbereconstructedtogetbacktotheoriginalfile.
Memory&Storage
Primarymemory:
1.) RAMthismemoryisvolatile/temporaryinnature.Itisusedtostoredata,programsorpartsoftheoperatingsystemcurrentlyinuse.
Thememorycanbewrittentoorreadfrom.
2.) DRAMneedstobeconstantlyrefreshedtoretainthedata;itusesmillionsoftransistorsandcapacitors.
3.) SRAMdoesn'tneedtobeconstantlyrefreshedtoretainitsdata;itusesflipflops.
4.) ROMthismemoryisnonvolatile/permanentinnature.ItisusedtostorethestartupproceduresorBIOS(basicinput/outputsystem).
Thememorycanonlybereadandnotwrittento.
Harddiskdrive(HDD)usescircularplatterscoatedinmagneticmaterial.Severalreadwriteheadsareusedsothatallthesurfacescanbe
accessed;dataisstoredinsectorsandtracksinblocks.AccesstodataisslowerthanwithRAM.Manyapplicationsrequirethereadwriteheads
tomoveinandoutseveraltimestoseektheappropriatedatablocks.Thisisreferredtoaslatencythetimetakenforaspecificblockofdataon
atracktorotatearoundtothereadwritehead.
Solidstatedrives(SSD)
Solidstatedriveshavenomovingparts;therefore,alldataisretrievedatthesamerateandlatencyisnotanissue.MostcommontypesofSSD
useNANDchipstocontrolthemovementofelectrons(andthereforedata).SomesolidstatesystemsuseEEPROMs(electronicallyerasable
programmablereadonlymemory)whichutilizeNORchips.
AdvantagesofSSDswhencomparedtoHDDS:
1.) Theyaremorereliableandrobust(nomovingparts).
2.) Theyaremuchlighterinweightandalsomuchthinner.
3.) Theyconsumelesspowerandalsorunmuchcooler.
4.) NoneedtowaitforSSDto'getuptospeed'andalsohaveafasterdataaccessrate.
OfflineStorageinclude:CD/DVD/DVDRAM(alloptical),Bluraydisks(opticalmedia),flashmemory/memorystick/SDXDcards(solidstate
devices)andremovableharddiskdrives(magneticmedia).
CD/DVDCDsandDVDsusearedlaserlighttowriteandreadthedata.Eachdiskhasasinglespiraltrackthatrunsfromthecentertotheouter
edge.Theycanbe'R'(writeonceandcanthenonlyberead)or'RW'(canbewrittentoandreadfromseveraltimes).DVDscanholdmoredata
thanCDsduetoduallayeringtechnology(i.e.thediskshavetwoindividualrecordinglayers).
DVDRAMThistechnologyisnearlyobsolescent.Itusesanumberofconcentrictracks(unlikeCDsandDVDs)enablingsimultaneousreadwrite
operationstotakeplace.Theyhavegreatlongevitywhichmakesthemidealforarchivingofdata.
Bluraydisksusebluelaserlighttoreadandwritethedata.Sincethewavelengthofbluelightis405nmcomparedtoredlightwavelengthof
650nm,theycanstoreconsiderablymoredata.Theyuseasinglepolycarbonatedisk(unlikeDVDswhichuseasandwichoftwopolycarbonate
disks);becauseofthis,Bluraydisksdon'tsufferfrombirefringence(i.e.lightrefractionintotwoseparatebeanswhichcancausereadingerrors).
Flashmemory/memorysticksTheseusesolidstatetechnologyandusuallyconnecttothecomputerthroughtheUSBport.Theyareverysmall
andlightweightwhichmakesthemidealfortransferringfilesandphotosbetweendifferentcomputers.AswithSSD,theyuseNANDchipsand
havenophysicalmovingparts.Theyneedtobereadeverynowandthentoretaintheirdataintegrityanditisimportanttofollowthecorrect
removalproceduretoavoidcorruptingthestoragedevice.
ComputerPrograms
HighlevelLanguagesenablesaprogrammertofocusontheproblemtosolvedandrequirenoknowledgeofthehardwareandinstructionset
ofbecomputerthatwillusetheprogram.Highlevelprogramminglanguagestheareportableandcanbeusedondifferenttypesofcomputer.
Lowlevellanguagescanrelatetothespecificarchitectureandhardwareofparticulartypeofcomputer.Lowlevellanguagescanreferto
machinecodeorassemblylanguage.
Assemblylanguageisalowlevelprogramminglanguagethatneedstobetranslatedintomachinecodebyanassembler.
Machinecodeisthebinaryinstructionsthatacomputerunderstands.noTranslationisrequired.
Translators
Security&Ethics
Hacking
Hackingisawayofgainingillegalaccesstoacomputersystem
Thiscanleadtoidentitytheftandlossorcorruptionofdata.
TheRiskofhackingcanbeminimizedbyusingstrongpasswordsandfirewalls
Cracking
Crackingistheeditingofprogramsourcecodesothatitcanbeexploitedorchangedforaspecificpurpose(mostlyanillegalact).
Itisoftendoneformaliciouspurposes,e.g.modifyinglegitimatesoftwaretodosomethinglikeredirectausertoafakewebsite.
Itisdifficulttoguardagainst;softwareengineersneedtomaketheactofbreakingintothesoftwarenearlyimpossible(i.e.makeit
difficulttoidentify'backdoors').
Viruses
Avirusisprogramcodethatcanreplicate/copyitselfwiththeintentionofdeleting/corruptingdata/filesorcausingthecomputerto
malfunction.
Theycancausethecomputertorunslow(duetotheharddiskfillingupwithdata,forexample)orcrash(e.g.duetodeletionofsome
key.exefiles);theycanalsocausesomesoftwaretorunabnormally(duetoJossorcorruptionoffiles/data).
Theriskofvirusescanbeminimizedbyrunningantivirussoftwareornotopeningemailsorsoftwarefromunknownsources.
Phishing
Legitimatelookingemailsaresenttousers;onopeningtheemail,theusercouldbeaskedtosupplypersonalorfinancialdetailsor
theymaybeaskedtoclickonalinkwhichsendsthemtoafake/boguswebsitewheretheusercouldbeaskedtosupplypersonaldata.
Oncetheuserissenttothefake/boguswebsite,theymaybeaskedtogiveoutpersonalorfinancialdata.
ManyISPsfilteroutphishingemails;theusershouldalsobeverycautiousaboutopeningemailsfromunknownsources.
Thereareanumberofsignstolookoutforinphishingemails:
Messagescontainingpoorspellingandgrammar
Amessagethatasksforpersonalinformationorwhereyoudidntinitiatetheaction
Amessagethatmakesunrealisticthreatsorpromises,orfinancialrewards,forexample,cashprizes,lotterywinnings,
investmentorpensionsadvice.
Pharming
Maliciouscodeisinstalledonauser'scomputerorwebserver;thecoderedirectstheusertoafakeorboguswebsitewithouttheir
knowledge.
Oncetheuserissenttothefake/boguswebsite,theymaybeaskedtogiveoutpersonalorfinancialdata.
Someantispywaresoftwarecanidentifyandremovepharmingcodeontheharddrive;theusershouldalsolookoutforcluesthat
theyarebeingredirected(websiteswhicharesafecanusuallybeidentifiedbyhttpsorbythegreenpadlocksigninthestatusbar).
Wardriving
Thisistheactoflocatingandusingwirelessinternetconnectionsillegally.
Couldleadtostealingofinternettimeandbandwidth;alsouser'spasswordsandotherdatamaybeintercepted.
PreventedbyuseofWEP(wiredequivalentprivacy)encryption;useofcomplexpasswordsbeforeaccessingtheinternetanduseof
firewallstopreventoutsidersgainingaccess.
Spyware/keyloggingsoftware
Gathersdatabymonitoringkeypressesonuser'skeyboardsandsendingthedatabacktothepersonwhosentthespyware.
SendsImportantdata,suchaspasswords,backtotheoriginatorofthespyware;itcanalsoallowtheoriginatortochangesettingson
theuser'scomputer.
Preventedbyuseofantispyware;useofmousetoselectcharactersfromadropdownboxtoenterpasswordsratherthanusinga
keyboard.
Cookies
Piecesofdatawhichallowdetectionofwebpagesviewedbyauserandstoretheirpreferences.
Createananonymoususerprofile(e.g.user'spreferences).
Cookiescanbedeletedfromtheuser'sdesktop,althoughthiscanremovesomeofthefeaturesofcertainwebsites.
Dataintegrity
Datacanbelostonacomputerdueto:
accidentalormaliciousmaloperation
hardwaremalfunction
softwaremalfunction.
Accidentalormaliciouslossofdata
Thiscouldbeduetoaccidentallydeletingafileortomaliciousattackfromvirusesorhacking.
Thiscanbeguardedagainstbydoingregularbackupsofdata(althoughthiswon'tallowrecoveryfollowingvirusattack);alsouseof
passwordsanduseridstoprotectthedata(seeaboveforvirusandhackingsafeguards).
Hardwarefaults
Thesecanbeguardedagainstbyregularbackupsofdata,useofUPStoprevent'powerglitches/loss'anduseofparallelhardware.
Softwarefaults(e.g.twopiecesofincompatiblesoftware)
Thesecanbeguardedagainstbyregularbackupsofdataandthesavingofdataevery30mins,forexample,incasethecomputer
becomesunresponsive.
Firewalls
Examinestrafficbetweenuser'scomputerandapublicnetwork.
Checkswhetherincoming/outgoingdatameetscertaincriteria.
Ifdatafailscriteria,thefirewallblocksthetrafficandissuesawarning.Logsallincoming/outgoingtraffic.
Criteriacanbesettopreventaccesstocertainwebsites;thiscanbedoneby
thefirewallkeepingalistofallundesirableIPaddresses.
FirewallsCANhelptopreventvirusesorhackersenteringauser'scomputer.
Warnstheuserifsomesoftwareontheirsystemtriestoaccessanexternaldatasource(e.g.automaticsoftwareupgrade)
SecurityProtocols
SecureSocketsLayer(SSL)
Typeofprotocol(setofrules)usedbycomputerstocommunicatewitheachotheracrossanetwork.
Allowsdatatobesentandreceivedsecurelyacrossanetwork.
Whenauserlogson,SSLencryptsthedata.
UserknowsifSSLisbeingappliedwhentheyseehttpsorthegreenpadlocksigninthestatusbar.
Whenauserwantstoaccessawebsite,thewebbrowserasksthewebservertoidentifyitself;thewebserversendsacopyoftheSSL
certificatewhichthewebbrowserauthenticates;ifthisisOKthenSSLencryptedtwowaydatatransferbeginsbetweenuser's
computerandwebserver
TransportLayerSecurity(TLS)
TLSissimilartoSSLbutismorerecentandamoreeffectivesystem.
TLSisformedofarecordprotocol(containsdatabeingtransferredovertheinternet)andahandshakeprotocol(whichpermits
websiteandclienttoauthenticateeachotherandmakeuseofencryptionalgorithms).
OnlyrecentwebbrowserssupportTLS.
Makesuseofsessioncachingwhichimprovestheoverallperformance(hereTLScaneitherstartanewsessioneachtimeauser
accessesawebsite,oritcanattempttoresumeanearlier/existingsessionwhichimprovessystemperformance).
Encryption
Symmetricencryption
Utilizesasecretkey;whenthekeyisapplied,theplaintext(originaltext)goesthroughanencryptionalgorithm,toproducecypher
text(encryptedmessage).
Therecipientneedsakeytothendecryptthemessagebackintoplaintext.
Themainriskisthatbothsenderandrecipientneedthesamekeywhichcouldbehackedorinterceptedallowingathirdpartyto
decryptthesentencryptedmessage.
Asymmetricencryption
Asymmetricencryptionusespublickeysandprivatekeys.
Publickeyisavailabletoeverybody;privatekeyisknown.
Encryptionkeysaregeneratedbyahashingalgorithmthistranslatesthemessageorkeyintoastringofcharactersoftenshownin
hexnotation;(thegreaterthenumberofbits,theharderitisto'crack'theencryption)
Authentication
Usedtoverifythatdatacomesfromatrustedsource.
Makesuseofpasswords,digitalsignaturesand/orbiometrics.
DenialofServiceAttacks
Denialofserviceisanattemptatpreventingusersfromaccessingpartofanetwork,notablyinternetservers.
Canpreventusersfromaccessingtheiremails,accessingcertainwebsitesoraccessingonlineservices.
Thisisachievedbytheattackerfloodingthenetworkwithuselesstraffic;forexample,sendingoutthousandsofrequeststoawebsite
orsendingoutthousandsofspamemailstousers,'cloggingitup'.
Canbemitigatedagainstby:
Usinganuptodateviruschecker.
Usingafirewalltorestricttraffic.
Usingemailfilter.
Lookingoutforsigns.
Ethics
Ethicsisasetofprinciplessetouttoregulateuseofcomputers;threefactorsareconsidered:
Intellectualpropertyrights.
Privacyissues.
Effectofcomputersonsociety.
AcodeofethicsispublishedbytheACMandIEEEC.
FreesoftwareUsershavethefreedon1torun,copy,changeoradoptfreesoftware.
Therearerules,thatneedtobeobeyed:
Cannotaddsourcecodeexceptfromsoftwarewhichisalsofreesoftware.
Cannotproduceanysoftwarewhichcopiesexistingsoftwarethatissubjecttocopyrightlaws.
Cannotalterthesourcecodesothatitinfringesanycopyrightthatprotectsothersoftware.
Maynotproducesoftwarethatispossiblyoffensive.
FreewareSoftwarethatausercandownloadfreeofcharge.Therearenofeesassociatedwiththesoftware(e.g.AdobeorSkype)buttheyare
subjecttocopyrightlawsandtheuserisoftenaskedtotickaboxtosaytheyunderstandandagreetothetermsandconditionsgoverningthe
software.
SharewareUsersareallowedtotryoutsharewarefreeforatrialperiod.Attheendofthisperiod,theuserwillberequestedtopayafee.Very
often,thetrialversiondoesn'thaveallthefeaturesofthefullversionallthefeaturesbecomeavailableoncethefeeispaid.
ComputerSystems&SubSystems
Topdowndesignisthebreakingdownofacomputersystemintoasetofsubsystems,thenbreakingeachsubsystemdownintoasetof
smallersubsystems,untileachsubsystemjustperformsasingleaction.
Structurediagramsshowsthedesignofacomputersysteminahierarchicalway,witheachlevelgivingamoredetailedbreakdownofthe
systemintosubsystems.
Libraryroutinesisasetofprogramminginstructionsforagiventaskthatisalreadyavailableforuse.Itispretestedandusuallyperformsatask
thatisfrequentlyrequired.
Subroutinesareasetofprogramminginstructionsforagiventaskthatformsasubsystemnotthewholesystem.Subroutineswritteninhigh
levelprograminglanguagesarecalledproceduresorfunctionsdependingupon
TestData
NormaldataSolutionsneedtobetestedtoprovethattheydowhattheyaresupposedtodo.Asetoftestdatashouldbeusedtogetherwith
theresult(s)thatareexpectedfromthatdata.Thetypeoftestdatausedtodothisiscallednormaldata;thisshouldbeusedtoworkthrough
thesolutiontofindtheactualresult(s)andseeifthesearethesameastheexpectedresult(s).
Erroneous/abnormaldataSolutionsalsoneedtobetestedtoprovethattheydonotdowhattheyarenotsupposedtodo.Testdatashouldbe
usedthatwillberejectedasthevaluesarenotsuitable.Thistypeoftestdataiscallederroneousorabnormaltestdata;itshouldberejectedby
thesolution.
Extremedataarethelargestandsmallestvaluesthatnormaldatacantake.
Boundarydatathisisusedtoestablishwherethelargestandsmallestvaluesoccur.Ateachboundarytwovaluesarerequired;onevalueis
acceptedandtheothervalueisrejected.
Summary:
Validation&Verification
Validationistheautomatedcheckingbyaprogramthatdataisreasonablebeforeitisacceptedintoacomputersystem.Differenttypesof
checkmaybeusedonthesamepieceofdata.
Verificationischeckingthatdatahasbeenaccuratelycopiedontothecomputerortransferredfromonepartofacomputersyste1nto
another.
Summary:
TrackingAlgorithms
Tracetablescanbeusedtorecordtheresultsfromeachstepinanalgorithm;itisusedtorecordthevalueofanitem(variable)eachtimeit
changes.
DryrunThismanualexerciseiscalledadryrun.Atracetableissetupwithacolumnforeachvariableandacolumnforanyoutput.
Answer:
Pseudocode
PseudocodeDescribeswhatanalgorithmdoesbyusingEnglishkeywordsthatareverysimilartothoseusedinahighlevelprogramming
language
AssignmentValuesareassignedtoanitem/variableusingtheoperator.Thevariableontheleftoftheisassignedthevalueofthe
expressionontheright.
ConditionalStatementsCanbeusedtodecidewhichactionshouldbetaken.
Therearetwotypesofconditionalstatement:
1.) aconditionthatcanbetrueorfalse:IF...THEN...ELSE...ENDIF
2.) achoicebetweenseveraldifferentvalues:CASE...OF...OTHERWISE...ENDCASE
LoopStructuressomeactionsperformedaspartofanalgorithmneedrepeatingthisiscallediteration.Loopstructuresareusedtoperformthe
iteration.
Therearethreedifferenttypesofloopstructure:
1.) Asetnumberofrepetitions:FOR...TO...NEXT
2.) Arepetition,wherethenumberofrepeatsisnotknown,thatiscompletedatleastonce:REPEAT...UNTIL
3.) Arepetition,wheremenumberofrepeatsisnotknown,thatmayneverbecompleted:WHILE...DO...ENDWHILE
InputandoutputstatementsINPUTandOUTPUTareusedfortheentryofdataanddisplayofinformation.SometimesREADcanbeused
insteadofINPUT&PRINTisusedinsteadofOUTPUT.
StandardactionsTheabilitytorepeatactionsisveryimportantinthedesignofalgorithms,forexampletokeeparunningtotal.
RunningTotalRunningTotal+Value
Keepingacountofthenumberoftimesanactionisperformedisanotherstandardaction.
CountCount+1
Countingisalsousedtocountdownuntilacertainvalueisreached.
NumberinStockNumberinStock1
FlowchartSymbols
BasicDataTypes
Integerisapositiveornegativewholenumberthatcanbeusedwithmathematicaloperators.
Realisapositiveornegativenumberwithafractionalpart.Realnumberscanbeusedwithmathematicaloperators
.
CharAvariableorconstantoftypecharisasinglecharacter.
StringAvariableorconstantoftypestringisseveralcharactersinlength.Stringsvaryinlengthandmayevenhavenocharacters,anempty
string;thecharacterscanbelettersand/ordigitsand/oranyotherprintablesymbol.
BooleanABooleanvariablecanhaveonlytwovalues,TRUEorFALSE.
ProgrammingTechniques
SequenceStatementsarefollowedinsequencesotheorderofthestatementsinaprogramisimportant.
Selectionisaveryusefultechnique,allowingdataitemstobepickedoutaccordingtogivencriteria,forexampleselectingthelargestvalueor
thesmallestvalue,selectingitemsoveracertainprice,selectingeveryonewhoismale.
Repetition
Mostprogramminglanguagessupportthreetypesofrepetition:
1.) Afixednumberofrepetitions
2.) Anunknownnumberofrepetitionswithatleastonerepetition,astheconditionistested.attheendoftheloop
3.) Anunknownnumberofrepetitionswhichmaynotbecompleted.atall,astheconditionistestedatthebeginningofthe
loop.
Totalingisusedwithrepetition,withthetotalupdated.everytimetheloopisrepeated.Keepingarunningtotalisoneofthemostfrequently
usedprogrammingtechniquesinmanycomputersystems.
Countingisusedwithrepetitionwiththecounterincreasedby1everytimetheloopisrepeated.Countingitemsoreventsisanotherofthe
mostfrequentlyusedprogrammingtechniques.
Arrays
OnedimensionalarrayListsinprogrammingareidentified.bytheuseofasinglenameandeachitem
inthelistcanbefoundbyanindexnumbershowingtheplaceinthelist.
ElementTheitemsinthelistaretheelementsofthearray.
IndexInordertorepeatthesametaskmanytimesforalltheitemsinalist,eachitemneedstobereferredtointhesamewayusingtheindex
numberforeachelementoftheonedimensionalarray.Ifavariableisusedforthisindexnumber,thenthesamecodecanbereusedforeach
item.
ReadorwritevaluesinanarrayusingaFOR...TO...NEXTloopAFOR...TO...NEXTloopusesafixednumberofrepeatssoitisidealto
usewithanarray,whenthenumberofelementsisknown,astheloopcountercanbeusedasthearrayindex.
Database
Databaseisastructuredcollectionofdatathatallowspeopletoextractinformationinawaythatmeetstheirneeds.
Tablecontaindataaboutonetypeofitemorpersonorevent,usingrowsandcolumns.Thereareasetnumberofcolumnsandavariable
numberofrows.
RecordEachrecord,orrow,withinatablecontainsdataaboutasingleitem,personorevent.
FieldEachfield,orcolumn,containsonespecificpieceofinformationaboutasingleitem,personorevent.Fieldsaregivenadatatype,for
example,number,text,yes/no,currencyanddate/time.
PrimarykeyInordertobesurethateachrecordcanbefoundeasilyandtopreventmorethanonecopyofthesamerecordbeingkept,each
recordincludesaprimarykeyfield.Eachprimarykeyfieldinatableisunique.
Summary:
IMPORTANTMODELANSWERSFORPAPER1(THEORY)
PlagiarismThetakingofsomebodysideaorsoftwareandclaimthattheideaorsoftwarecodewerecreatedbythetaker.
WhatistheHexadecimalCodeinMACaddressrepresent?
Thehardware/physicaladdress.Thefirst6/8digitsrepresentmanufacturercodeandthelast6/8digitsrepresentserialnumberofdevice
WhySSDsarereplacingHDDs?
1. nolatency
2. runcooler
3. runquieter
4. dataaccessisfaster
5. lighter,somoresuitableforaportablecomputer/laptop
6. nomovingpartssomorereliable
WhywebserversusestilluseHDD?
1. HDDischeaperforlargeramountsofstoragespace
2. HDDhasgreaterlongevityforread/writefunctions
3. HDDaretrustedtechnology
HowauserusesaQRcode?
1. UserscanstheQRcodewiththecameraonthemobiledevice
2. Appisusedtoread/interprettheQRcode
3. linkstoawebsite/opensadocumenttoaccessinformation
4. canstoretheQRcodetorefertoagainfortheinformation
BenefitofwritingprograminHighlevellanguage?
1. closetoEnglish/native/humanlanguage
2. easier/fastertocorrecterrors/read/write
3. worksonmanydifferentmachines/operatingsystems(portable)
BenefitofwritingprograminLowlevellanguage?
1. workdirectlyonregisters/CPU
2. morecontroloverwhathappensincomputer
3. canusemachinespecificfunctions
StagesawebBrowergoesthroughtodetectwhetherawebsiteissecure?
1. requestswebservertoidentifyitself/viewthe(SSL)certificate
2. receivesacopyofthe(SSL)certificate,sentfromthewebserver
3. checksifSSLcertificateisauthentic/trustworthy
4. sendssignalbacktowebserverthatthecertificateisauthentic/trustworthy
5. startstotransmitdataonceconnectionisestablishedassecure
Howischecksumusedtoverifythatthefilehasnotbeencorruptedduringtransmission?
1. thechecksumforthebytesiscalculated
2. thisvalueisthentransmittedwiththeblockofdata
3. atthereceivingend,thechecksumisrecalculatedfromtheblockofdatareceived
4. thecalculatedvalueisthencomparedtothechecksumtransmitted
5. iftheyarethesamevalue,thenthedatawastransmittedwithoutanyerror
6. ifthevaluesaredifferent,thenanerrorhasbeenfound
Ethicalissuestobeconsideredwhenusingcomputers:
1. Thatweshouldnothack/crackothercomputers
2. Thatweshouldprotectourowncomputersagainstmalware
3. Thatweshouldconsiderprivacyissues(whenusingsocialnetworking)
4. Thatweshouldconsiderenvironmentalimpactswhenusingcomputers
5. Loss/creationofjobsfromuseofcomputers/robotics
AdvantagesofusingLEDoverCCFL
1. noneedtowarmup
2. higherresolution
3. morereliabletechnology,longerlasting
4. usesmuchlesspower,moreefficient
DescribetheuseofHTMLstructureandpresentation?
1. Presentationisusedtoformatcolor/style
2. Structureisusedtocreatelayout
3. InaHTMLdocumentstructureandpresentationareoftenkeptseparate
4. Bykeepingthepresentationseparateitiseasiertoupdatecolor/font
5. PresentationisoftenstoredinafilecalledaCSS
6. (Markup)tagsareusedtodefinethestructureofthedocument
Differencebetweencompilersandinterpreters
1. compilerproducesobjectcode/interpreterdoesntproduceobjectcode
2. compilertranslateswholeprograminonego/interpretertranslatesandexecuteslineatatime
3. compilerproduceslistofallerrors/interpreterproduceserrormessageeachtimeanerrorencountered
4. compilerproducesstandalonecode/interpreterdoesntproducestandalonecode
5. compilationprocessisslowbutresultantcoderunsveryquickly/interpretedcoderunsslowly
Sensors: