Pageiii

StrategicJobModeling
WorkingattheCoreofIntegratedHumanResources

JefferyS.Schippmann

PersonnelDecisionsInternational,Minneapolis

LAWRENCEERLBAUMASSOCIATES,PUBLISHERS
Mahwah,NewJersey
London

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Copyright1999byLawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybeproducedinany
form,byphotostat,microfilm,retrievalsystem,oranyother
means,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.

LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.,Publishers
10IndustrialAvenue
Mahwah,NJ07430

CoverdesignbyKathrynHoughtalingLacey

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData

Schippmann,JefferyS.
Strategicjobmodeling:workingatthecoreofintegratedhumanre
source/JefferyS.Schippmann
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindexes.
ISBN0805830529(cloth:alk.paper).ISBN0805830537
(pbk.:alk.paper)
1.JobanalysisMathematicalmodels.I.Title.
HF5549.5.J6S351999
658.3'06dc219917929
CIP

BookspublishedbyLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesareprintedonacidfreepaper,andtheirbindingsarechosenforstrengthanddurability.

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10987654321

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Totwowonderfulpeople,
whoalsohappentobemymomanddad,
BobbiandEdSchippmann

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CONTENTS

Preface ix

I:TheBasicsofStrategicJobModeling

Chapter1 3
IntroductiontoStrategicJobModeling

Chapter2 16
TheLanguageofStrategicJobModeling

II:ThePracticeofStrategicJobModeling

Chapter3 35
WhatistheOrganization'sVisionandCompetitiveStrategy?

Chapter4 69
WhatApplicationsareRequiredtoAchieveDesiredOutcomes?

Chapter5 117
WhoistheTargetPopulation?

Chapter6 153
WhichQuestionsareAsked?

Chapter7 190
HowistheInformationAnalyzedandDisplayed?

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III:TheFutureofStrategicJobModeling

Chapter8 233
FinalCommentsandPrognostications

AppendixA 238
WorkActivityandCompetencyTaxonomiesforManagement

AppendixB 260
DataReductionTechniquesinJobModeling

References 275

AuthorIndex 289

SubjectIndex 294

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PREFACE
Therealvoyageofdiscoveryconsistsnotinseekingnewlands,butseeingwithneweyes.
MarcelProust

Theconceptofjobanalysishasadeepreachintothepastofhumanhistory.Systematicproceduresforidentifyinganddescribingtheimportantworkrelatedaspects
ofajobandtheassociatedworkerrequirementscanbetracedbacktotheearlyGreeks.Indiscussingtheneedsoftheidealstate,Socratesnotedthatdifferentkinds
ofpeople,withdifferentmixesofspecialskills,arerequiredtosatisfydifferentneeds.1

Theroleofsystematicanalysisproceduresgainedprominenceintheearly1900swhentheirinformationgeneratingpropertieswererecognizedbyindustrialengineers,
managementtheorists,personnelspecialists,andpsychologists.Thetermjobanalysisevolvedaboutthistime,andenthusiasmforthesubjectgrewasthebasicideas
formedthefoundationofTaylor'sscientificmanagement.2

Althoughthepopularityofthepracticehaswaxedandwanedsincethe1920s,thesamefundamentalideashavebeenusedtosupportasteadilyincreasingrangeof
organizationalapplications.Inthe1940s,Zergaidentifiedmorethan20usesofjobanalysisinformation.3 Inthelate1990s,theresultsofjobanalysispracticeare
wovenintothefabricofvirtuallyeveryapplicationinvolvinganorganization'speopleresources.

However,asthe21stcenturyloomsjustahead,jobanalysisisatacrossroad.Jobanalysispracticesinthelate1990sareaproductofthemassproductionapproach
tothinkingaboutwork,wheredivisionoflaborandjobsimplificationareaprerequisiteforhighvolumeproductionandinterchangeableparts.4 ,5 ,6 Justasitis
questionablewhetherthisphilosophyofworkwillequiporganizationsforsuccessinabusinessenvironmentcharacterizedbyunprecedentedcompetitionandchange,
onecanquestionwhethercurrentapproachestojob

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analysisarecapableofprovidingmaximallyusefulinformationinthisnewenvironment.

Iamnotsuggestingthathumanresource(HR)professionalsandconsultantstossthislongfavoredtoolonthescrapheap.Tothecontrary,itisascary,competitive,
andchangingbusinessenvironmentoutthere.Nowmorethanever,organizationaldecisionmakersneedqualityinformationtoguidetheirthinking.However,using
conventionaljobanalysisapproachestodevelopHRapplicationsislikeusinghandoperateddrills,saws,andtheliketobuildahouseinanageofpowertools.We
needtoleveragewhatisvaluableintheapproachwhileupgradingitfromhandtopowertool.

Strategicjobmodeling(SJM)isthetermIusetodescribethespecificupgradedapproachtojobanalysispresentedinthisbook.Attheriskofmuddyingthewater
byintroducingnewwords,thereareseveralreasonswhyIbelieveitisimportanttomakethedistinction.First,inmanycases,conventionaljobanalysisproceduresare
tooshortsightedtomeetthestrategicandfutureorientedneedsoftoday'sorganizations.Outofnecessity,organizationsarebusyplanningforthefutureandpursuing
strategiesthatwilldifferentiatethemfromothersinthemarketbycreatingcompetitiveadvantage.Althoughitistheresponsibilityofmanagementtomarshalthe
resourcestoachievetheorganization'svisionandstrategy,thoseworkingintheHRarenaareresponsibleforguidingandsupportingtheacquisition,development,
deployment,andmaintenanceofthehumancapitalportfolio.Therefore,itfollowsthatdecisionsaboutthestrategyanddirectionoftheorganizationwillhave
downstreamimpactsonworkcontentandworkerrequirements.Thenextgenerationjobanalysisapproachpresentedhereprovidesaprocessforunderstandingthe
ultimateobjectivesofanorganizationandtranslatingthisinformationintoworkrequirements.Inotherwords,conventionaljobanalysisproceduresfrequentlyprovidea
pasttensedescriptionofsomethingstatic,whereasstrategicjobmodelingcreatesafuturetensedescriptionofsomethingchanging.

Second,manyorganizationsareflattening,creatingworkenvironmentsthatarehighlymatrixed,relyingwithgreaterfrequencyonselfmanagedteams,aligningtheir
resourcesalongvaluechains,orotherwiserethinkinghowbesttostructurework.7 Infact,someprofessionalsarewritingabouttheendofthejoborhowtheideaof
anindividualholdingajobinanorganizationmaybeanoutdatedconcept.8 ,9 ,10AlthoughIdonotbuyintotheideathattheeraofthejobisover,jobsare,like
everythingelse,certainlychangingthewaywedefineandmeasurethecharacteristicsofjobsneedstochangeaswell.Furthermore,althoughthefocusofconventional
jobanalysishastraditionallybeenajob,thetargetintoday'sworkplacemightbethejoboritcouldbeajobfamily,amixofjobsinavaluechain,abusinessunit,or
anentireorganization.Hence,althoughtheuseofthewordjobinSJMissomethingofamisnomer,thehopeisthattheuseofafreshphrasewillunderscoretheshiftin
orientationrepresentedinthisbook.

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Third,thetermjobanalysis,andmuchoftheresearchandreportingofconventionaljobanalyticapproaches,sendsthemessagethatweareanalyzingjobsand
workerfunctionsintosmallerandsmallerparts,takingareductionisticviewoftheresearchactivitiesinvolved.Whilethisactivityoftenoccurs,itisnotthegoal.The
intentofusingmodelingratherthananalysisistounderscoretheimportanceoftakingthepiecesthathavebeenexaminedandbuildingaplatformofinformationthat
canbeusedtosupportaparticularapplication,clusterofapplications,oralloftheapplicationsinanHRsystem.Thecreativeandmodelbuildingcomponentinvolved
inthisconstellationofHRresearchactivitiesoftenseemstogetoverlookedindiscussionsofconventionaljobanalysis.Inonesmallway,Ihopetheuseoftheword
modelingbettercapturesthedevelopmentalspiritinvolvedintheapproachpresentedhere.

Finally,conventionalthinkingaboutjobanalysisisthatitisamundane,technicalactivityconductedonanasneededbasistodevelopspecificHRapplicationsoneata
time.However,weareoperatingattheintersectionoftheInformationAgeandtheLearningAgethereisanintensedemandtoextracteveryounceofmeaningfrom
informationandputittousequicklyandbroadly.Inthiscontext,effortstosystematicallyexamineworkandworkerrequirementshavesignificantimplicationsfor
broaderorganizationalgoalsandmanagementprocesses,andthefindingscanbecompiledandusedtoadvancethecauseoftheorganizationinamultitudeofways.
Thus,thenextgenerationapproachtojobanalysispresentedheremightbemoreappropriatelythoughtofasanongoingorganizationalinterventionversusaloosely
connectedseriesoftacticalprojects.

Insummary,fewoftoday'sorganizationscanbesuccessfulwithouttalentedpeopleworkingtogethertoimplementthestrategiesoftheirrespectiveorganizations.
Furthermore,thereisnoquestionthatthelevelofsuccessattainedbyindividualsandworkteamsinanorganizationisdirectlyinfluencedbythequalityandsuccessof
thevariousHRapplicationsthataredesignedtosupporttheorganization'speople.Thechallengeofhowtodothis,andhowtointegratetheseapplicationssothey
worktogetherinacomplementaryfashion,isemergingasanexcitingfrontier,offeringcompetitiveadvantagetoorganizationsthatrisetothechallenge.Thisnew
frontierisSJM.

Itmakessense,atthispoint,toexplainhowthetermsjobmodelingandjobanalysisareusedinthisbook.AnytimeIrefertoconventionaljobanalysispracticeor
specificapproacheslinkedtoearlythoughtleadersinthefield,thephrasethatwasprevalentatthetimeisused:jobanalysis.However,whenreferringtothefuture
practiceofjobanalysisinageneralway,thetermjobmodelingisused.Whenspecificallyreferringtotheapproachpresentedinthisbook,thephrasestrategicjob
modeling(SJM)isused.

ThefollowingpagescontainideasandtechniquesforplanningandmanagingSJMprojects.Theresultsofthesejobmodelinginitiativesputoneinapositionto
capitalizefullyonthepotentialreturnfromawiderangeofHRapplications.BecauseSJMisevolutionaryversusrevolutionaryinnature,many

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oftheideasandtechniquesbuildonconventionaljobanalysismethodsandwillbefamiliartoreaderswhoknowthisliterature.Otherconceptsandsuggestionsare
likelytobequitenew.However,everythingispackagedinapracticalframeworkforactuallyusingwhatshouldbeoneofthemostimportantandfrequentlyusedtools
intheHRprofessional'stoolkit.

Giventheprominentrolethatjobmodelingplaysinthedevelopmentofvirtuallyallapplicationsaffectinganorganization'shumancapital,itisnotsurprisingthat
individualswhospecializeinthisareaofresearchareenthusedbytheirwork.Unfortunately,jobmodelingexpertsarerarelycountedamongtheworld'sfunpeople.
Notoriouslyinsensitivetosubtleshiftsinmood,theseindividualspersistindiscussingthevirtuesofgooditemwritingproceduresandrepresentativesamplingplanslong
aftertheinterestinpolitecompanyhaswaned.

Thus,althoughsomeimportantideasandtechniquesneedtobedescribedtounderstandaprocessthatisacriticalpartofmostHRsystems,thereaderprobably
expectsthatcoveringthismaterialwillnotbeagreatdealoffun.HenryDavidThoreauhadapointwhenheclaimedthatpeoplelearnmoreefficientlywhentheyenjoy
themselves.Ihavetakenhisdictumtoheartandhaveinterjectedsomehumorhereandtheretohelpkeepreaders'attentionasIpresentwhatIbelievetobesomeof
theleadingthoughtsandbestpracticesinthefieldofjobmodeling.

Whoarethereadersthisbookistargeting?Itwaswrittenwithseveralpotentialaudiencesinmind.ItshouldbeusefultoHRprofessionalsandmanagerswhowantto
learnmoreabouthowtoconductjobmodelingworktomaximizetheimpactofthepeoplerelatedapplicationsandsystemstheyaredevelopingintheirorganizations.
Consultantswhoworkwithorganizationstocreatethesekindsofapplicationsaretargetedaswell.Inaddition,itshouldprovebeneficialinteaching.Bothstudentsand
scholarsshouldprofitfromthepracticeorienteddesignofthebook,whichmaybeusedasasupplementaltextinavarietyofbusinessandappliedpsychologycourses
dealingwithpersonnelmanagementandthedevelopmentofspecificHRapplications(e.g.,testing,training,compensation,performancemanagement).

OverviewandContents

Thebookisdividedintothreesections.Chapters1and2comprisethefirstpart.Theyprovidesomehistoryforthepractice,definethebasictermsandconcepts,and
leadtoaframeworkforthinkingaboutSJMthatsummarizescrucialconceptsbyposingimportantquestionsanddecisionpointsintheprocess.

PartIIusesthemajorstepsofthejobmodelingprocesspresentedinchapter2astheorganizingstructureforthenextfivechaptersinshort,itdescribesthe
mechanicsofconductingSJMresearch.Thesestepsinthejobmodelingprocessrepresentaseriesofdecisionpointsthatguidethejobmodeler'sthinkingabout
subsequentdecisions.Chapter3providesastructureforunderstandinganorga

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nization'svision,competitivestrategy,andstrategicinitiatives.Thisinformationiskeybecauseitguidesthinkingaboutdesiredoutcomesfortheorganizationand
relevantHRapplications(e.g.,revenuebasedoutcomessuchasincreasingthepercentageofnewproductsales,tocostbasedoutcomessuchasreducingproject
budgetvariances).Italsohelpsframethetypesofindividualcompetenciesthatshouldbeconsideredcoreororganizationwidecompetencies.

Chapter4beginsbyfocusingontheapplication,ormixofapplications,ofinterest.DifferentHRapplications(e.g.,recruitingprograms,selectionsystems,performance
managementsystems)needtobesupportedbytheresultinginformationmodelsindifferentways,anddifferentmodelingapproachesaremoreorlessappropriate.
Furthermore,theHRapplicationstobedevelopedandsupportedalsodrivedecisionsaboutthetypeofinformation(e.g.,workactivities,competencies)thatneedsto
becollectedandthedegreeofdetailorprecisionrequiredofthedescriptorcontent.

Chapter5involvesdecisionsaboutthemostrelevanttargetpopulation(e.g.,management,clerical,hourlyretail)foraninterventiongiventheorganization'sstrategies
andtargetoutcomes.Thesedecisionsthenguidethinkingaboutexistingsourcesofinformationthatcanbeleveragedinbuildingthemodel.Thischapteralsocovers
interviewandfocusgroupprocedures,samplingrequirements,guidelinesforwritingdescriptorcontent,andproceduresusedtocreatearationallyderivedjobmodel.

Chapter6focusesonissuesthatflowdownfrompreviousdecisionsandinvolvestakingtherationallyderivedjobmodeltothenextphaseandbuildingitintoa
questionnaire.Again,thecumulativeweightofpreviousdecisionshelpsguidethinkingaboutspecificquestionstoaskaboutthedescriptorcontentinthequestionnaire
(e.g.,doweneeddataabouttheCurrentImportanceofworkactivities,theDifficultywithwhichcertaincompetenciesareacquired,orsomeothermixof
information?).Thischapteralsoprovidesguidanceinchoosingappropriatesubjectmatterexpertrespondentgroupsanddevelopingsamplingplans.

Chapter7addresseshowtheinformationcollectedinthepreviousstepisanalyzedanddisplayed.Ideasforevaluatingthequalityofthedataandoptionsformaking
variouswithinandacrossjobcomparisonsarepresented.Choicesatthispointintheprocessguidethecreationofdecisionrulesthatdeterminewhatdescriptor
contentisusedtoformtheempiricallybasedjobmodel.

PartIIIincludescapstonechapter8.Thischaptercoverstheprospectsandhopesforthefutureofjobmodeling.ItalsopresentsthechangingroleofHRinthe''brave
newworld"ofbusiness,theimpactofthesecondgenerationofcomputertechnologiesrumblingacrossthebusinessterrain,andtheassociatedinfluencesonjob
modelingpractice.

PartIIIalsoincludestwoappendixes.AppendixAprovidesasetofworkactivityandcompetencydescriptorsformanagementjobs.Thesecategoriesofcontent
illustratesomeoftheproductsofatypicalmodelingproject.Furthermore,thesetaxonomiesprovidefairlycomprehensiveexamplesoftwotypesof

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descriptorcontentandmaybeusedforjumpstartingjobmodelingworkinthisbroadoccupationalgroup.AppendixBoffersadetaileddiscussiononhowto
accomplishsomeofthemoretechnicalactivitiesinvolvedinmodeling.Specifically,databasedtechniquesforconsolidatingjobsandcreatingjobfamiliesare
presented.

Asweembarkonthisjourney,pleasebearinmindthatthegeneralprinciplesandguidelinespresentedinthefollowingpagesarejustthat.Eachorganizationandjob
modelingsituationoffersuniqueopportunitiesandobstacles.Asthepointpersonconductingthejobmodelingworkinaparticularcontext,youwillunderstandbetter
thananyoneelsewhattheoptionsandlimitsare.Thus,myhopeisthatyouwilladaptversussimplyadopttheideaspresentedhere.Ifsomethinginthisbookdoesnot
applytoagivensituation,donottrytopoundasquarepegintoaroundhole.Experimentandinnovate!Inthefinalanalysis,thejobmodelyoubuildmustbeyour
own,basedonyourownbestjudgment,understanding,andcreativity.

Acknowledgments

Thisisthereallyfunpartofwritingabook.Howoftendoesapersonhavethechancetoofferapublic"thankyou"tothepeoplewhohavebeeninstrumentalin
providinghelp,guidance,motivation,andinstructiononanundertaking?Notoftenenough!Iplantotakefulladvantageofmyopportunitynow.

Firstandforemost,Iwouldliketoacknowledgemymentor,ErichPrien.ErichhasbeenoneofmyteachersovertheyearsandforthisIamgrateful.FromhimIhave
developedastrongappreciationoforganizationalfunctioning,ofthemenandwomenwhostafforganizations,andoftheworktheyperform.Althoughheisreferenced
throughoutthisbook,Isuspectitisnotenoughtotrulyreflecttheimpacthehashadonmythinkingandtheideasrepresentedhere.

InadditiontoErich,fiveotherindividualsgraciouslyagreedtoreviewtheentireprepublicationversionofthebook:BobGuion,LeaettaHough,KevinMurphy,Juan
Sanchez,andAndyVinchuralltooktimefromverybusyworkandpersonalschedulestoprovidevaluablefeedback.Iamfortunatetobethebeneficiaryoftheirideas
andsupport.

Iamalsoindebtedtoanumberoffriendsandcolleagueswhoprovidedamorelimitedreviewofspecificchaptersorconceptsatvariousstagesofthebook'screation.
Itisapleasuretothankthem.Inalphabeticalorder,theyincludeDwainBoelter,SteveCronshaw,TomDohm,MarvDunnette,MaynardGoff,DaveHeine,Tom
Janz,SteveLammlein,KalLifson,DonnaNeumann,ElainePulakos,PeteRamstad,MarkSchmit,andElaineSloan.

Eachtheseindividualsmadeanumberofsuggestions,notallofwhichwereincludedinthefinaldraft.Althoughtheirinputresultedinanimprovedproduct,itshouldnot
implyagreementwithallthecontentofthebook.Ofcourse,Itakeresponsibilityforwhatissaidandanyerrors,somewhatinthespiritofSir

 Pagexv

ThomasMoore,whosaidtohisexecutioneronhiswayupthegallows,"Helpmeup.OnthewaydownIcanmanageformyself."

Furthermore,anumberoftheideasandtoolspresentedinthebookareextensionsoftheworkofmanywritersandresearchers.Ihavebenefitedfromtheireffortsand
havediligentlytriedtoacknowledgethehistoryoftheseideas.However,overthe8yearsIhavebeencollectingmaterialsandpreparingthemanuscript,itispossibleI
havemadesomeoversights.Totheextentthereareerrorsofomission,IapologizeandlookforwardtolearningaboutthemsothatImaymakecorrectionsinthe
secondeditionofthebook.

Next,IoweadebtofgratitudetoPersonnelDecisionsInternational(PDI),myemployerforthepast6years.MycolleaguesatPDIpossessanincredibleblendof
businesssavvyandtechnicalexpertise.AsIpushedthisprojecttowardcompletion,thiswonderfulgroupofprofessionalsprovedtobeaconstantsourceof
constructivecriticismandcorticalstimulation.

ThanksalsotoAnaMorelandKarenO'Grady,whotypedthemanuscriptanddidwonderfulworktranslatingmychickenscratchingandconvolutedillustrations,
recordedoneverythingfromnotepapertonapkins,intoreadabletextandexhibits.AndthankstoLaurieLippeandJohannahBomster,whoproofedthemanuscript
andtaughtmeathingortwoaboutgoodgrammaralongtheway.

Inaddition,thefolksatLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesprovedtobeterrificpublishingpartners.InparticularitwasapleasureworkingwithAnneDuffy,RobinMarks
Weisberg,JoePetrowski,andKathrynHoughtalingLacey.

Finally,mylovelywifeDeborahdeservesatremendous"thankyou."ShenotonlyproofedthefinaldraftofthemanuscriptbutdemonstratedincrediblepatiencewhileI
broughtthisprojecttoacloseDeb,Icanhelpremodelthekitchennow!

Author'sNote

Iranintoanunexpectedproblemwhilewritingthisbook.Namely,howtohandlethemaleorientedemphasisoftheEnglishlanguage.Myinitialstrategywastosimply
runawayfromtheproblem.However,thisledtosomeprettycomplexandcontortedsentencestructures.So,intheinterestofsmootherandmoreconcisewriting,I
eventuallysettledonusingthegenericmasculinepronounwhengeneralconceptsarediscussedand,inspecificexamples,drawingonbothmaleandfemaleexamples.
AlthoughIamnotsatisfiedwiththissolution,itwasthebestwayIcouldthinkoftohandlethisdilemma.

References
1
Plato.(1986).Therepublicandotherworks(B.Jowitt,Trans.).Buffalo:Prometheus.
2
Uhrbrock,R.S.(1922).Thehistoryofjobanalysis.Administration,3,164168.
3
Zerga,J.E.(1943).Jobanalysis,aresumeandbibliography.JournalofAppliedPsychology,27,249267.

 Pagexvi

4Sanchez,J.I.(1994).Fromdocumentationtoinnovation:Reshapingjobanalysistomeetemergingbusinessneeds.HumanResourceManagementReview,4(1),
5174.
5
Cronshaw,S.F.(1997).Jobanalysis:Changingnatureofwork.CanadianPsychology,39,513.
6
McLagan,P.A.(1990).Flexiblejobmodels:AproductivitystrategyfortheInformationAge.InJ.P.Campbell&R.J.Campbell&Associates(Eds.),
Productivityinorganizations(pp.369387).SanFrancisco:JosseyBass.
7
Howard,A.(Ed.).(1995).Thechangingnatureofwork.SanFrancisco:JosseyBass.
8 Bridges,W.(1994).Jobshift.Reading,MA:AddisonWesley.
9
Arnowitz,S.,&DiFazio,W.(1994).Thejoblessfuture.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.
10
Rifkin,J.(1995).Theendofwork:Thedeclineofthegloballaborforceandthedawnofthepostmarketera.NewYork:Putnam.

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I
THEBASICSOFSTRATEGICJOBMODELING

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Chapter1
IntroductiontoStrategicJobModeling
itisnotwhatthe[informedman]believesthatdistinguisheshim,buthowandwhyhebelievesit.
BertrandRussell

ItisstillpossibletofindpeoplewhobelieveEarthisflat.Totheflatearther,theEarthisformedintheshapeofadisk,withtheNorthPoleatthecenterandtheSouth
Poleringingtheouteredge.Thesearenotfoolishpeoplewhoareintentonbelievingsillythings.TheyfeeltheEarthisflatonthebasisofsoundevidence.1 For
example,flateartherspointoutthattheoppositesideoflargelakescanbeseenthroughbinocularstherefore,Earth'ssurfacemustbeflat.Also,theysayEarthcannot
bearotatingglobebecausewhenpeoplejumpupintheairfor1secondtheywillnotcomedownmilesaway.

Mostofuswouldagreethattheflatearthershavemadethewrongobservationsanddrawnthewrongconclusionsiftheyareinterestedinthetruth.Individualswho
workinorwithorganizationsmustavoidsimilartrapsoffaultyobservation.Iffaultyoruncriticallyexaminedinformationformsthebasisofabelief,allsubsequent
decisionsbasedonthatinformationwillbeflawed.Atoolavailabletothoseworkingwiththehumansideoforganizationsisstrategicjobmodeling(SJM),whichcan
beusedtocollectinformationaboutpeopleandjobsandguideeffortstoselect,build,ormodifythecomponentsofahumanresource(HR)systemdesignedto
achieveanorganizationallyrelevantoutcome.Theresultofusingthistoolisaricherandmoreaccuratesetofinformationforguidingdecisionsthatultimatelyhavereal
organizationalconsequences.Todrivethispointhome,itisbecomingincreasinglyclearthatcompaniesthatusesoundHRdatatoguidedecisionsaremorelikelyto
showhigherreturnsonequity,assets,andinvestments,inadditiontoincreasedstockappreciationanddividendspershare.2 ,3 ,4

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Thepriorclaimdeservessomeclarification.AlthoughthereisagrowingbodyofevidencetosuggestalinkbetweenorganizationperformanceandindividualHR
applicationssuchascompensation,5 training,6 ,7 selection,8 andsoon,thisisonlypartofthepicture.Evidenceisalsoaccumulatingthatsuggeststhefinancialimpactof
HRisnotjustadditive,butthatthewholesystemisgreaterthanthesumofitsparts(i.e.,organizationimpact>compensationpayoff+trainingpayoff+selection
payoff).Inotherwords,HRsystemsachievestatusasatrulyuniquesourceofcompetitiveadvantagewhenthespecificapplicationshaveahighdegreeofhorizontal
andverticalfit.9 ,10,11,12HorizontalfitmeansthatthevariousapplicationsoftheHRsystemareintegratedandcomplementary.Verticalfitmeansthespecific
applicationsintheHRsystemandtheoverarchingHRplanarecongruentwiththeorganization'svisionandbusinessstrategy.Whenthesehorizontalandvertical
alignmentsoccur,positiverelationsarefoundwithorganizationsuccessfactorssuchasfinancialstrength,technologicalprogress,marketbreadth,quality,resource
levels,orproductinnovation.13,14,15,16Althoughthetruerangeoftheseeconomicimpactsarestillbeinginvestigated,earlyworksuggeststhatanintegratedHR
systemcanraisetheorganization'smarketvalueby$15,000to$45,000peremployee17,18,19andcanimpacttheprobabilityofsurvivalforanewfirmby22%.20

WheredoesjobmodelingfitintothepictureofanimpactfulandintegratedHRsystem?AqualityHRsystemisnotsomethingthatcanbeboughtlikearefrigerator.It
hastobemade.Downbeneaththesurface,workingtopiecetogetherthevariousapplicationsoftheHRsystemtoachievehorizontalfitandestablishlinkageswiththe
organization'sstrategicobjectivesandinitiativestoachieveverticalfit,isthejobmodelingengine.ThisengineisworkingatthecoreofanintegratedHRsystemtobuild
theinformationplatformthatsupportstheapplicationsandguidesHRdecisionsforcreatingandsustainingorganizationalperformanceandcompetitiveadvantage.

AdefinitionofSJM,mightbeusefulatthispoint.Strategicjobmodelingis:Thesourceofcertainty,thefountofclarity,andtheoriginofallthatisgood.

Justkidding!WhileIdonotnecessarilythinktheaboveisuntrue,amorewidelyaccepteddefinitionfollows.
StrategicJobModeling:Anongoingsetoforganizationalactivitiesthatinvolveusingmethodologicallysoundresearchprocedurestosystematicallyinvestigate,study,verify,
display,andapplyalltherelevantinformationaboutajob,jobtrack,setofjobsinavaluechain,andsoforth,andtherelevantpersonrequirementsforeitheraspecificapplication
oranentirearrayofapplicationscomprisinganHRsystem.

Thedefinitionjustgivenissomewhatlacking,however,becauseitdoesnotconveythefunandchallengeinherentinthework.Agoodjobmodelershouldbepart
detectiveandpuzzlesolver,partwriter,andpartcoach.Thinkaboutit.Asadetective,themodelerisinsearchofamissingsuspect.Thetargetoftheinvestigationisa
strategicdescriptionoftherequisitecomponentsofsuccessforajob,jobgroup,orwhatever.Weknowoursuspectexists,butwedonotyetknow

 Page5

hisappearance.Ourmissionistodiscoverthefacts.Next,wemustpiecethefactstogethersotheymakesenseandthenputthemdownonpaperinawaythat
communicatestherichnessoftheinformationcontainedintheresults.Finally,weoftenneedtocoachothersintheorganizationonhowbesttoleveragetheinformation
broadlyacrossthesystemtomanagehumancapitalanddevelopstrategicallyalignedHRapplications.Tomythinkingatleast,thismoreelaboratedescriptionfits
prettywell.

Youhaveprobablydeducedatthispointthattheresultsofamodelingeffortareseldomviewedasanendproduct.Instead,theyprovideanintermediateproductused
toselect(ordevelopormodify)aselectionsystem,amultiraterfeedbackinstrument,anassessmentcenter,andsoon.Hence,althoughSJMmaynot,byitself,result
inausablesystem,thefitbetweentheapplicationsthataredevelopedandanorganization'sneedswillbenobetterthanthequalityofinformationproducedbythis
essentialfirststep.

Asanillustration,whenbuildingahouse,oneobviouslywantstostartwithasolidfoundation.Similarly,whenbuildingatrainingprogram,performanceappraisal
system,orassessmentcenter,onewouldbewelladvisedtorejectlooseearthandsandinfavorofrockandmortar.Thatis,itisimportanttohaveasolidinformation
baseofdescriptivedataforthejobstargetedbytheintervention.Animportantconceptembeddedintheprevioussentenceisthereferencetoadirectlinkamongan
organization'sneeds,therecommendedapplicationorapplications,andthetypeofinformationcollectedinjobmodeling.Infact,differentapplicationsrequiredifferent
proceduresformanaging,analyzing,anddisplayingthejobmodelinginformation.Inotherwords,thetypeofinformationcollectedandthewayitisanalyzedcanbe
differentindifferentsituations(i.e.,whensupportingdifferentapplications).

Havingsaidthis,itshouldbenotedthat,overthepastfewyears,therehasbeenamarkedincreaseinthedevelopmentandpromotionofofftheshelfproductsfor
analyzingjobs.Aprimarysellingpointoftheseproductsisthat"onesizefitsall."21However,theseinstrumentshavemetwithmixedsuccessatbest.Mumfordand
Peterson,intheirworktocreateareplacementfortheDepartmentofLabor'sDictionaryofOccupationalTitles(DOT),madenobonesaboutthefactthatthereis
noonesetofdescriptorsthatprovidesafullycomprehensivedescriptionofpeople'sactivitiesinanoccupation.22Similarviewshavebeenexpressedbyanumberof
otherresearchers.23,24Theseviewsbringtotheforefrontaninherentlytroublingquestion:Doreadymadeandfixedmodelingproductsyieldinformationthatisuseful
toguidethedevelopmentofsubsequentapplications?

Whilethinkingaboutthisquestion,alsoconsiderwhether:

onepreemploymenttest(e.g.,atestofmechanicalaptitude)predictsjobperformanceequallywellinalljobsregardlessofcontent(e.g.,aircraftmechanic,vice
presidentofmarketing,orbakeryroutesalesperson)

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oneofftheshelftrainingprogramisequallyusefultoallemployeesinalljobsacrossallorganizations(i.e.,regardlessofworkfunctionsorwhethertheindividuals
targetedfortrainingaregoodperformersorpoorperformers)and

onepayscaleisequallysuitedtoallclassesofjobsacrossallorganizationsandacrossdifferentpartsofthecountry(e.g.,fromNewYorkCitytoBaldKnob,
Arkansas).

Theobviousanswertothesequestionsisno.BynowitshouldbeclearthatItakeissue(ithasbeensaidthatnothinggetstheadrenalinesquirtingliketakingalittle
issue)withtheonesizefitsallconcept.Infact,thisbookispredicatedontheideathatnosingleprepackagedjobanalysissystemwithafixedsetofcontentprovides
alloftheinformationneededforalljobsinallorganizationsorallpossibleHRapplications.

LegalEnvironment

ThereisyetanotherreasonforpayingcloseattentiontothequalityofjobinformationthatisusedtodevelopvariousHRapplications.Thelegalenvironmentinwhich
businessesoperate(collectivelyviewedastheexorcistoftheHRworldbecauseitscaresthedeviloutofeverybody)hasbecomeacriticalissuetobeconsidered.A
varietyoflawspassedsincethe1960s,includingTitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964,25TheEqualPayActof1963,26andtheAgeDiscriminationActof
1967,27haveincreasedtheimportanceofclear,logicallyderivedjobinformationasavitalpartofestablishingthejobrelatednessofvariousHRpractices.Ofcourse,
theCivilRightsActof199128andtheAmericansWithDisabilityAct29createdanewseriesoftwistsandturnsalongwhatwasalreadyadifficulttofollowpath.

Althoughnoneofthesestatutesspecificallylegislatesjobanalysis,agencyguidelinesbasedonsomeofthesestatutesdorequireasystematicanalysisofjobsandwork
toestablishthejobrelatednessofresultingprocedures.30ThemostdefinitivestatementoftheseguidelinesisembodiedintheUniformGuidelinesonEmployee
SelectionProcedures31(hereinaftertheUniformGuidelines).Theseadministrativeguidelinesclearlyestablishjobanalysisasaprerequisitefordemonstratingthat
employmentpracticesarejobrelated.Inpart,theseguidelinesstate:
Thereshouldbeareviewofinformationtodeterminemeasuresofworkbehavior(s)orperformancethatarerelevanttothejoborgroupofjobsinquestion.Thesemeasuresor
criteriaarerelevanttotheextentthattheyrepresentcriticalorimportantjobduties,workbehaviorsorworkoutcomesasdevelopedfromthereviewofjobinformation.32

Furthermore,theUniformGuidelinesstate:

 Page7

Thereshouldbeajobanalysiswhichincludesananalysisoftheimportantworkbehavior(s)requiredforsuccessfulperformanceandtheirrelativeimportanceand,ifthebehavior
resultsinworkproduct(s),ananalysisoftheworkproduct(s).Anyjobanalysisshouldfocusontheworkbehaviorsandtasksassociatedwiththem.Ifworkbehavior(s)arenot
observable,thejobanalysisshouldidentifyandanalyzethoseaspectsofthebehavior(s)thatcanbeobservedandtheobservedworkproducts.Theworkbehavior(s)selectedfor
measurementshouldbecriticalworkbehavior(s)and/orimportantbehaviorsconstitutingmostofthejob.33

Thebeliefthataccuratelycapturedjobinformationshouldprecedemosthumanresourcemanagement(HRM)practiceisalsofirmlyexpressedintheStandardsfor
EducationalandPsychologicalTesting34andthePrinciplesfortheValidationandUseofSelectionProcedures.35Hence,asvariousfederalandprofessional
guidelinesindicate,theimportanceofjobmodelinginformationforsupportingvariousHRMpracticesiswellestablished.Infact,inlightofrecentlegislation,qualityjob
informationappearstobebecomingmoreimportant.36,37,38,39

AntecedentsofSJM

Asnotedinthepreface,systematicproceduresforidentifyinganddescribingworkfunctionsandworkerrequirementshavebeenconsideredimportantworkactivities
sincethetimeoftheearlyGreeks40andcertainlythroughtheMiddleAges.41Formaldescriptionsofpracticestartedappearingaroundtheturnofthe20thcentury,
andtheprominenceoftheworkgrewwiththesuccessoftimeandmotionexpertsandefficiencyengineerslikeFrederickTaylor42andFrankandLillianGilbreth.43
Thus,bytheeveofWorldWarI,whentheUnitedStateswouldbefacedwiththemonumentalchallengeofmobilizinghundredsofthousandsofciviliansformilitary
jobs,theimportanceofjobanalysiswasclearlyrecognizedasanapproachforgatheringfactsaboutjobs.44

OneofthemajorjobanalysisrelatedproductsofthewaryearswastheIndexofOccupations,whichwastheprogenitoroftheDOT,publishedsince1939bythe
U.S.DepartmentofLabor.TheIndexofOccupationshaditsbeginningsinasurveyconductedbyWalterBingham,apsychologistwhostartedthefirstDepartment
ofAppliedPsychologyatCarnegieTechin1915.Bingham'sworkfocusedondeterminingwhatcivilianoccupationsgaveexperienceofvaluetodifferentjobsin
variousbranchesofmilitaryservice.ThisledtothecreationoftheTablesofOccupationalNeedsin1918,whichoutlinedthemanpowerneedsandspecificskill
requirementsofdifferentmilitaryunits.AlvinDodd,wholaterbecamepresidentoftheAmericanManagementAssociation,followedwithasecondedition,which
detailedthejobrequirements(i.e.,physical,educational,intellectual,andleadershipneeds)ofeveryArmyorganization.45

AfterWorldWarI,thepracticeofjobanalysisbumpedalongthroughafallowperiod.Whatismostinterestingaboutthistimeisthatsolittleofconse

 Page8

quencewasbuiltonsofirmandsolidafoundation(anobservationthat,tosomeextent,stillappliestoday).OnenotableexceptionwastheworkoftheOccupational
ResearchProgram(ORP)oftheU.S.EmploymentServiceheadedupbyCarrollShartle,whichwaschargedwithdevelopingadictionaryofjobsandamethodfor
analyzingjobrequirements.ThefirstinstallmentoftheDOTwasathreevolumesetpreparedbytheJobAnalysisandInformationSectionoftheDivisionofStandards
andResearch(thejobanalysisworkunitoftheORP)andwaspublishedin1939.46TheDOTquicklybecameanindispensablepartoftheU.S.recruitingand
classificationeffortduringWorldWarIIandwasreferredtoinnewspapersatthetimeas''thebookthatwenttowar."47

Inthe30yearssubsequenttoWorldWarII,mostoftheindividualswhocontributedthoughtleadershiptothefieldofjobanalysiswerelinked,inonewayoranother,
totheORP.Tobeginwith,therewasCarrollShartle,wholedtheORPatonepointandlaterworkedwithJohnHemphillatOhioState,whereEdFleishmanwasa
graduatestudent.ErnestPrimoff,SidneyFine,ErnestMcCormick,andJayOtiswereallmembersoftheORPstaff.Thelattermemberofthisquartetlatertaughtat
CaseWesternReservewhereErichPrienwasagraduatestudent.Ofthejobanalysisbraintrustoperatingfromthelate1940stotheearly1970s,onlyJohnFlanagan
andRayChristalwereinnowaylinkedtothethinkingthatevolvedattheORP,althoughbothwereinfluencedbytheirworkandinvolvementwiththemilitary.

AlthoughIpersonallyfindthehistoryanddevelopmentofthespecificjobanalysisapproachesfascinatingstuff,Isuspectthisisnotawidelyheldview.Therefore,Iwill
notdelveintothetopichere.Forthosewhoareinterested,GatewoodandFeildprovideniceoverviews,48andthecontributingauthorstoGael'shandbookonjob
analysisprovidemoredetailedreviewsformanyofthespecificapproaches.49

Idowanttomentionthatthepracticeofjobanalysisgotabitofashotinthearmafterthewarastheusefulnessofthemethodfordevelopingselectiontestswas
recognized.50,51Asnotedearlierinthischapter,theemphasishasbroadenedwellbeyondjusttestdevelopmenttothepointwherejobanalysisproceduresunderlie
thedevelopmentofmostHRinterventions.52,53Concurrentwiththebroaderemphasisthathasemerged,therehasbeenaproliferationofjobanalysisapproaches.
Themyriadofapproachesthathaveevolveddifferalongawiderangeofvariablesandaspects,althoughinthebroadesttermsthevariationisprimarilyintermsof
focusandmethoddifferences.

FocusDifferencesacrossApproaches

Onewayinwhichconventionaljobanalysisapproachesdifferfromoneanotherconcernsthefocusoftheanalysis.Inotherwords,whattypeofinformationistargeted
andcollected?Whattypeofdescriptivevariablesareusedtocharacterizetheworkinquestion?

 Page9

Ononehand,workerorientedapproachestargetindividualdifferences,focusonrequisitejobincumbentcharacteristics,andmaybethoughtofascompetencybased.
TheworksofMcCormick,Jeanneret,andMecham54Primoff55andFleishmanandReilly56areinthiscamp.Ontheotherhand,workorientedapproachestarget
jobactivitiesoroutcomes,focusonjobcharacteristics,andaretypicallyworkactivitybased.Christal'sworkattheU.S.AirForceHumanResourceLaboratory,57
Fine'sFunctionalJobAnalysis,58andHemphill's59workwiththeExecutivePositionDescriptionQuestionnaire(EPDQ)areallexamplesofthisorientation.

Upuntilabout1970,thedifferentapproachesfocusedprimarilyonasingletypeofinformation.60However,multimethodapproacheshavebeguntoemerge.Examples
ofmultifocusorhybridapproachesincludePrien'sMultiDomainJobAnalysis61andLopez'sworkwithhisThresholdTraitAnalysis.62Becausetheworkerand
workorientedfociareindependent,itispossibletocreateatableinwhicheachcanbehighorlow(intermsofemphasis)independentoftheother.Figure1.1
providesabasisforcomparingsomeofthemoreprominentapproachesonthefocusdimension.

Fig.1.1.
Focusclassificationgrid.

 Page10

MethodDifferencesacrossApproaches

Asecondwaythatconventionaljobanalysisapproachesdifferconcernsthemethodoftheanalysis.Inotherwords,whatproceduresareusedtocollectandanalyze
theneededdescriptorinformation?Rationalapproachesrelyoninterviews,focusgroups,andobservationtocollectinformationthatisthendeductivelyinterpretedto
createdescriptionsofthetargetworkdomain.Sayles'observationandinterviewbasedinvestigationsofmanagementwork63andFlanagan'seffortstogather
retrospectiveaccountsofbehavioralepisodesfrommanagers64areexamples.

Empiricalapproachesrelyongatheringdata,primarilyfromquestionnaires,andusequantitativemethodsinconcertwithqualitativeprocedurestoguidethecreationof
informationdisplaysthatdescribethetargetdomain.Hemphill'sworkwiththeEPDQisanexample.65

Similartotheblendingofworkerandworkorientedapproacheswehaveseenonthefocussideofthehouseinthepast25years,multimethodhybridshavecropped
uponthemethodside.ExamplesofthemethodblendsincludetheworksofFineandWiley,66Primoff,67andPrien,Goldstein,andMacey.68

Therationalandempiricalbasedmethodsarealsoindependent,makingitpossibletocreateanother22table.TheclassificationgridinFig.1.2takesthe

Fig.1.2.
Methodclassificationgrid.

 Page11

sameprominentapproachesnotedinthefocusbasedgridofFig.1.1andreclassifiesthemonthebasisofmethodsimilarity.

Takentogether,thefocusandmethoddimensionsprovideabasisforcomparingandcontrastingthedifferentjobanalysisapproaches,asTable1.1illustrates(where
thenumbersintheclassificationcolumnreferbacktoFigs.1.1and1.2).Althoughtypologiesareimportantasawaytofacilitateunderstanding,thisisonlyone
reasonfordoingsohere.Theotheristomakethepointthatthejobmodelingapproachproposedinthisbookisanongoingprocessthatshiftsemphasesalongthese
keydistinguishingdimensionsaccordingtothedemandsandconstraintsofthesituation.

TABLE1.1
ProminentJobAnalysisApproachesandAssociatedFocus/MethodClassifications
Reference Approach Classification
Flanagan(1954) CriticalIncidentTechnique F3,M1
Hemphill(1960) ExecutivePositionDescriptionQuestionnaire F3,M3
Sayles(1964) AnthropologicalMethod F1,M1
Baehr(1967) WorkElementsInventory F3,M3
Borgen,Weiss,Tinsley,Dawis,& MinnesotaJobDescriptionQuestionnaire F1,M3
Lofquist(1968)
Fine&Wiley(1971) FunctionalJobAnalysis F3,M2
McCormick,Jeanneret,&Mecham PositionAnalysisQuestionnaire F1,M3
(1972)
Primoff(1975) JobElementMethod F1,M2
Drauden&Peterson(1974) DomainSampling F2,M2
Christal(1974) CODAPTaskInventory F3,M2
Lopez,Kesselman,&Lopez(1981) ThresholdTraitsAnalysis F2,M3*
Cunningham,Boese,Neeb,&Pass OccupationalAnalysisInventory F2,M3
(1983)
Prien,Goldstein,&Macey(1987) MultidomainJobAnalysis F2,M2
Gael(1990) WorkPerformanceSurveySystem F3,M2
Fleishman&Reilly(1992) AbilityRequirementsScales F1,M3
Note.Thirtythreetraitsarefixedandbuiltintoquestionnairesifaconcurrenttaskanalysisisbuiltintotheprocedure,
interviewsorfocusgroupscanbeemployed.
F=Focus,M=Method.

 Page12

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Mumford,M.D.,&Peterson,N.G.(1995).Introduction.InN.G.Peterson,M.D.Mumford,W.C.Borman,P.R.Jeanneret,&E.A.Fleishman(Eds.),
Developmentofprototypeoccupationalinformationnetworkcontentmodel(Vol.1,pp.1.11.16).Utah:UtahDepartmentofEmploymentSecurity(Contract
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Ash,R.A.,Levine,E.L.,&Sistrunk,F.(1983).Theroleofjobsandjobbasedmethodsinpersonnelandhumanresourcemanagement.InK.M.Rowland&G.
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TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964(Pub.L.880352),asamended,42U.S.C.2000eet.seq.
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U.S.DepartmentofLabor.(1971).EqualpayforequalworkundertheFairLaborStandardsAct.Washington,DC:Author.
27
AgeDiscriminationinEmploymentActof1967(Pub.L.90202)(ADEA),asamended,29U.S.C.621et.seq.
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Sparks,C.P.(1988).Legalbasisforjobanalysis.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.1,pp.3747).
NewYork:Wiley.
31EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission,CivilServiceCommission,DepartmentofLabor,&DepartmentofJustice.(1978).Uniformguidelinesonemployee
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32 Ibid,p.38300.
33
Ibid,p.38302.
34
AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.(1985).Standardsforeducationalandpsychologicaltesting,Washington,DC:Author.
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SocietyforIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology.(1987).Principlesforthevalidationanduseofpersonnelselectionprocedures(3rded.).CollegePark,
MD:Author.
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Kleiman,L.S.,&Faley,R.H.(1985).Theimlicationsofprofessionalandlegalguidelinesforcourtdecisionsinvolvingcriterionrelatedvalidity:Areviewand
analysis.PersonnelPsychology,38,803831.
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LozadaLarsen,S.R.(1992).TheAmericansWithDisabilitiesAct:Usingjobanalysistomeetnewchallenges.PresentationattheIPMAAssessmentCouncil
Conference,Baltimore,MD.
38 Sanchez,J.I.,&Fraser,S.L.(1992).Onthechoiceofscalesfortaskanalysis.JournalofAppliedPsychology,77,545553.

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Werner,J.M.,&Bolino,M.C.(1997).ExplainingU.S.CourtsofAppealsdecisionsinvolvingperformanceappraisal:Accuracy,fairness,andvalidation.
PersonnelPsychology,50,124.
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Plato.(1986).Therepublicandotherworks(B.Jowitt,Trans.).Buffalo:Prometheus.
41
Descartes,R.(1960).Discourseonmethodsandmeditations(L.J.Lafleur,Trans).Indianapolis,IN:TheLiberalArtsPress.
42
Taylor,F.W.(1911).Theprinciplesofscientificmanagement.NewYork:Harper.
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Gilbreth,F.B.,&Gilbreth,L.E.(1919).Motionstudyforthehandicapped.NewYork:E.P.Dutton.
44
Primoff,E.S.,&Fine,S.A.(1988).Ahistoryofjobanalysis.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.1,pp.
1429).NewYork:Wiley.
45
Ferguson,L.W.(1963).Psychologyandthearmy:Classificationofpersonnel.NewYork:TheHeritageofIndustrialPsychology.
46
Ibid.
47
Primoff,E.S.,&Fine,S.A.(1988).Ahistoryofjobanalysis.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.1,pp.
1429).NewYork:Wiley.
48
Gatewood,R.D.,&Feild,H.S.(1994).Humanresourceselection.FortWorth,TX:TheDrydenPress.
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Gael,S.(1988).Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.2).NewYork:Wiley.
50
Flanagan,J.C.(1954).Thecriticalincidenttechnique.PsychologicalBulletin,51,327358.
51
Super,D.E.(1947).Thevalidityofstandardandcustombuiltinventoriesinapilotselectionprogram.EducationandPsychologicalMeasurement,7,735744.
52
Butler,S.K.,&Harvey,R.J.(1988).Acomparisonofholisticversusdecomposedratingofpositionanalysisquestionnaireworkdimensions.Personnel
Psychology,41,761777.
53
Levine,E.L.(1983).Everythingyouwantedtoknowaboutjobanalysis.Tampa,FL:MarinerPublishing.
54McCormick,E.J.,Jeanneret,P.R.,&Mecham,R.M.(1972).AstudyofjobcharacteristicsandjobdimensionsasbasedonthePositionAnalysisQuestionnaire
(PAQ).JournalofAppliedPsychology,56,347368.
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Primoff,E.S.(1975).Howtoprepareandconductjobelementexaminations(U.S.CivilServiceCommission,TechnicalStudy751).Washington,DC:U.S.
GovernmentPrintingOffice.
56
Fleishman,E.A.,&Reilly,M.E.(1992).Handbookofhumanabilities.PaloAlto,CA:ConsultingPsychologistsPress.
57
Christal,R.E.(1974).TheUnitedStatesAirForceoccupationalresearchproject.SelectedDocumentsinPsychology,4(61),166.
58
Fine,S.A.,&Wiley,W.W.(1971).Anintroductiontofunctionaljobanalysis:Ascalingofselectedtasksfromthesocialwelfarefield.Kalamazoo,MI:W.
E.UpjohnInstituteforEmploymentResearch.
59
Hemphill,J.K.(1960).Dimensionsofexecutivepositions.(ResearchMonographyNo.98).Columbus,OH:OhioStateUniversity,BureauofBusinessResearch.
60
Prien,E.P.,&Ronan,W.W.(1971).Jobanalysis:Areviewofresearchfindings.PersonnelPsychology,24,371396.

 Page15

61
Prien,E.P.,Goldstein,I.L.,&Macey,W.H.(1987).Multidomainjobanalysis:Proceduresandapplications.TrainingandDevelopmentJournal,41,6872.
62 Lopez,F.M.,Kesselman,G.A.,&Lopez,F.E.(1981).Anempiricaltestoftraitorientedjobanalysistechnique.PersonnelPsychology,34,479502.
63
Sayles,L.(1964).Managerialbehavior.NewYork:McGrawHill.
64
Flanagan,J.C.(1954).Thecriticalincidenttechnique.PsychologicalBulletin,51,327358.
65
Hemphill,J.K.(1960).Dimensionsofexecutivepositions(ResearchMonographyNo.98).Columbus,OH:OhioStateUniversity,BureauofBusinessResearch.
66
Fine,S.A.,&Wiley,W.W.(1971).Anintroductiontofunctionaljobanalysis:Ascalingofselectedtasksfromthesocialwelfarefield.Kalamazoo,MI:W.
E.UpjohnInstituteforEmploymentResearch.
67
Primoff,E.S.(1975).Howtoprepareandconductjobelementexaminations(U.S.CivilServiceCommission,TechnicalStudy751).Washington,DC:U.S.
GovernmentPrintingOffice.
68
Prien,E.P.,Goldstein,I.L.,&Macey,W.H.(1987).Multidomainjobanalysis:Proceduresandapplications.TrainingandDevelopmentJournal,41,6872.

 Page16

Chapter2
TheLanguageofStrategicJobModeling
Zounds!Iwasneversobethump'dwithwords.
WilliamShakespeare'sKingJohn

Plainspeechisacuriousandnearlyextincttonguethatfewpeopleuseanymore.Particularlysusceptibletothemaladyofobtusediscoursearetechnicalexperts,inany
field,whoseverbalabilitieshavebeendistortedtosuchanextentthatonemaywonderifitwouldeverbepossibleforthemtospeaklikenormalpeopleagain.Injob
modeling,theresulthasbeenconfusioninterminology,whichhascreatedsomebasicmuddlesthatcouldhavebeenavoidediftermshadsimplybeendefinedalongthe
way.Imakeanhonesteffortheretodefinemytermsandminimizetheuseofaspecialistdialect.Withthisinmind,thereareafewbasictermsandconceptsthat
shouldbecoveredbeforegoingfurther.Figure2.1providesanillustrationoftheconceptualbuildingblocksinthefield,andTable2.1providesalistofbriefdefinitions
foreachofthesekeyterms.

Thebuildingblocksare,tothispoint,simplyconceptsintheabstract.WecanbeginputtingafinerpointonthingsonceweputtheHRfunctionintocontext.Inshort,
mostHRinterventionsinvolvemakingdecisionsaboutpeoplebasedonknowingsomethingabouttheworkbeing(ortobe)performed.Hence,inthesimplestterms,
thereisapeoplecomponentandaworkcomponentintheHRequation.ElaborationonthejobdescriptionandsituationdescriptionvariablesdepictedinFig.2.1can
befoundinthenextthreesectionsofthischapter.

ThePeopleSideoftheEquation

Foralongtime,IusedtheacronymKSAOtorefertothepersonrelatedcapabilitiesanindividualbroughttoajoborrole(i.e.,knowledge,skills,abilities,

 Page17

Fig.2.1.
Hierarchyofstrategicjobmodelingbuildingblocks.

andothercharacteristics).However,beyondthelittleclubofpsychologistsandbehavioralscientistswhoworkextensivelyintheareasofemployeeselection,testing,
andrelatedpersonnelresearch,thistermwasnotbroadlyusedormeaningful.Forexample,virtuallyeveryclientIeverworkedwithrefusedtousethetermwhen
communicatingaboutourworkinsidehisorherorganization.

Thenforseveralyears,IfollowedErichPrien'sleadandtriedtousethetermjobskillasagenericreplacementforKSAO.However,thisphraseneverreallyseemed
tocapturethefullmeaningofpersonrelatedcapabilitiesthatwereanintegralpartofmanymodelingefforts.

Thenseveralyearsago,theideaofcompetenciesexplodedonthebusinessandHRMworld.Competencieshavebeendefinedinvariousways.Fleishman,
Wetrogan,Uhlman,andMarshallMiesnotedthatthetermoftenreferstoamixtureofknowledge,skills,abilities,motivation,beliefs,values,andinterests.1 Spencer,
McClelland,andSpencerspecificallystatedthatcompetenciescanbemotives,traits,selfconcepts,attitudesorvalues,contentknowledge,orcognitiveorbehavior
skillsanyindividualcharacteristicthatcanbereliablymeasuredorcountedandthatcanbeshowntodifferentiatesuperiorfromaverage

 Page18

TABLE2.1
BasicTerms

WORLDOFWORK
JobCategory Agroupingofjobsaccordingtobroadoccupationalclassorgenericjobtitle(e.g.,managerial,
supervisory,administrative,sales).Thisgroupingisprimarilybasedonjoblevelandmightoccur
withinoracrossjobfamilies.
JobFamily Agroupingofjobsaccordingtoorganizationalfunctionorworkprocess(e.g.,marketing,finance,
HR).
JobTrack Agroupingofjobsrepresentingalogicalhierarchythatmaycutacrossjobcategories(e.g.,
administrativetosupervisorytomanagerial),althoughusuallyoccurswithinasinglejobfamily.
JobGroup Asmallclusterofjobswithinajobcategoryorjobfamilythatrepresentsafairlyhomogeneous
subset,althoughthedifferencesfromotherjobgroupsinajobcategoryorjobfamilyaredistinctor
importantenoughtowarrantbreakingoutthejobclusterasaseparategroup.
Job Arelativelyhomogenousgroupingofindividualpositionsbasedonsimilarityinactivities
performed,competenciesrequired,andgoalsoroutcomesaccomplished.Despitewhatonemight
readinthepopularHRpress,thejobconceptdoesnotthwartorganizationalflexibilityorcrush
individualinitiative,anditisnotresponsibleforallevilintheworldofworktoday.Itismerelya
contrivancethatexistsatthepleasureofanorganizationand,whenproperlystructured,helps
clarifyorganizationalgoals.
Position Agroupingofworkresponsibilitiesoractivitiesthatareperformedbyoneperson.Thereareas
manypositionsinanorganizationasthereareemployees.

WORKACTIVITYDOMAIN:Workactivitiesaretasksthatdescribetheworkperformed.Theyareoutcomeorientedinthat
theyareperformedforthepurposeofleadingtotheaccomplishmentofsomeobjectiverequiredforjobperformance.
WorkActivity Agroupingofsimilaractivitydimensionsordutyareasintoabroadkeyresultsarea(e.g.,thekey
Factor resultsareaofsupervisoryactivitiescansubsumeseveraldimensionleveltaskcategoriesorduty
areas,suchassuperviseoperationsandsuperviseemployees).
WorkActivity Agroupingofsimilaractivityitemsintoafairlybroaddutyorareaofresponsibility.
Dimension
WorkActivityItem Astatementthatdescribesadiscreteworkactivitythatconstitutesawholeunitofworkthatisa
necessarycomponentintheperformanceofajob.
WorkActivity Thesmallestunitorlevelofstatementdetailintowhichworkcanbedividedwithoutanalyzing
Element separatemotionsandmovements.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page19

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE2.1(continued)
COMPETENCYDOMAIN:Competenciesareindividualcapabilities.Theyrepresentthesurfacestructureormostobservable
andoccupationallyrelevantdescriptionoftheKSAO(knowledge,skill,ability,andotherpersonalcharacteristics)
characterizationofindividualdifferences.
CompetencyFactor Agroupingofsimilarcompetencydimensionsintoabroadsetofoccupationallyrelevant
individualdifferencecapabilities(e.g.,communication,interpersonal,leadershipeachofwhich
subsumeanumberofmorespecificcompetencydimensions).
Competency Agroupingofsimilarcompetencyitemsintoafairlydistinct
Dimension subsetofrealtedindividualdifferencecategories(e.g.,providedirectionorinfluenceothers
eachofwhichsubsumeanumberofmorespecificcompetencyitems).
CompetencyItem Astatementthatdescribesadistinctindividualdifferenceskill,knowledge,orwillingness
capability(seelaterdiscussionformoredetail).
Competency Thesmallestunitintowhichindividualdifferencecapabilities
Element canbedividedwithoutmakingreferencetothespecifictestorscale(s)usedtomeasurethe
targetedknowledge,skills,abilities,orothercharacteristics.

WORKCONTEXTDOMAIN:Jobcontextvariablesareabroadmixofjobcharacteristicsthathelpdefinetheworkplace(e.g.,job
security,collegiality,opportunitiesfordevelopment,workenvironment,workstress).Thesevariablesindirectlyimpactwork
activitiesperformedandultimatelythecompetenciesthatarerequiredinaparticularjoborfamilyofjobsintheorganization.
WorkContext Agroupingofsimilarworkcontextdimensionsintoabroad
Factor setofworkcharacteristics(e.g.,workbenefits,workitself,workconditions,organizational
structure).
WorkContextDimension Agroupingofsimilarworkcontextitemsintoafairlydistinctsubsetofworkcharacteristicareas
(e.g.,workvariety,creativity,coachingormentoring,toolsandequipmentthesefour
dimensionssubsumeanumberofmorespecificitemsand,asawhole,rolluptodefinethefactor
workitself).
WorkContextItem Agroupingofworkcontextelementstoformdistinctworkcharacteristicdescriptors(e.g.,
''Extenttowhichemployeesperformmanydifferentworkactivitiesthroughouttheday"isone
statementdefiningtheworkvarietydimension).
WorkContextElement Thesmallestormostdetailedworkcharacteristicdescriptor.Althoughjobcontextitemsare
generalizableenoughtoapplyacrossorganizationsandworklevelsandfunctions,jobcontext
elementsaresodetailedtheycaptureuniquecharacteristicsofaparticularorganization,level,or
function.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE2.1(continued)
S TRATEGICCONTEXTDOMAIN:Strategiccontextvariablesarethearrayofcharacteristicsthatdefinetheenvironmentin
whichabusinessoperates,describethecollectiveaspirationsforthefuture,anddetailthegameplanfromthecurrent
situationtotheenvisionedfuturestate.
OrganizationalContext Agroupingofsimilarstrategiccontextdimensionsintoabroadsetoforganization
Factor characteristics(e.g.,macroenvironmentandmicroenvironment).
OrganizationalContext Agroupingofsimilarstrategiccontextelementsintoafairlydistinctsubsetoforganization
Dimension contextareas(e.g.,social,economic,political/legal,andtechnologicalthesefourdimensions
subsumeanumberofmorespecificdescriptoritemsand,asawhole,rolluptodefinethefactor
macroenvironment.
OrganizationalContext Thesmallestormostdetailedstrategiccontextdescriptor(e.g.,"Extenttowhichtherearemajor
Item movementsinanindustrysector"isoneitemleveldescriptorfortheeconomicdimensioninthe
macroenvironmentfactor).

performers.2 Finally,Boyatzisdefinedcompetencysimplyasanyunderlyingcharacteristicofanindividualthatiscausallyrelatedtoeffectiveorsuperiorperformance.3

Infact,competencyhasbecomesomethingofaHumptyDumptywordthathasnomeaningbeyondtheparticulardefinitionofthepersonwithwhomoneis
speaking.4 Everyonehasadifferentdefinition.Well,Ihaveone,too.WhatIhavedoneinrecentyearsisappropriatethetermcompetencyandnaildownadefinition
thatIcanlivewithandstilltalktomyclientswithouthavingtousedifferentvocabulary.Itreallyisnotjustaboutsemantics,however.Tomythinking,atleast,
competenciesrepresentanextgenerationconcept.

ThedefinitionsofcompetenciestendtobemorebehavioralandostensiblylinkedtomeaningfulorganizationalactivitiesandoutcomesthantheirKSAOcounterparts.
Inaddition,thereoftenisalevelofproficiencyimpliedbythedescriptionofacompetency,althoughIshyawayfromthiscommonfeaturebecauseIprefernotto
comminglecompetencieswithperformancestandards.Finally,competenciesseemtofacilitatetheinclusionofpersonalityrelatedaspectsinthepersonsideofthe
modelsthatarecreatedthisseldomseemedtohappenwithKSAOs,wherethe"O"wastypicallyconsideredtobeacatchallthatwastackedonasanafterthought.

Forpurposeshere,competenciesaredefinedasmeasurable,occupationallyrelevant,andbehaviorallybasedcharacteristicsorcapabilitiesofpeople.Inthisrespect,
competenciescanbethoughtofasreflectingtheevolutionofKSAOs

 Page21

todescriptorsthathavebecomemorespecific,behavioral,anduseful.5 Thesecapabilitiescanbebrokenintotwobroadtypes:

1.CandoCompetencies.Theseindividualcapabilitiestapintothebasicabilitytoperformaworkactivity.Candocompetenciesincludethefollowing:

Skills:Individualcapabilitiesthathavebeendevelopedasaresultofeducation,training,orexperiencesthatunderlieanindividual'scapacitytoperformawork
activity.

Knowledge:Individualunderstandingofideasandconceptsthathaveemergedasaresultofeducation,training,orexperienceandthatserveasaplatformfor
performingaworkactivity.

2.WilldoCompetencies.Thefocushereisonpersonalityandattitudinalcharacteristicsthattapintoanindividual'swillingnesstoperformaworkactivityanaspect
ofpeoplethathasbeenoverlookedinconventionaljobanalysisapproaches.6 ,7 Willdocompetenciesmaybewrittenaswillingnessto(e.g.,"Willingnesstopersistin
thefaceofobstaclesordifficulties").

Somepeopleperformcertainworkactivitiesbetterthanothers,anditisthedegreeofpossessionofspecificcompetencies(skill,knowledge,andpersonalitybased)
thatexplainsdifferentlevelsoftaskperformance.Competenciesmaybethoughtofasbeingcomposedofthreebroadclassesofindividualcharacteristics:abilities,
traits,andinterests/values/motivations.Thesethreeclassesofindividualdifferencecharacteristicsconstitutethedeepstructureorfoundationonwhich
education/trainingandexperienceopportunitiesarelaidtheseopportunitiesconstitutethemiddlestructureorbricksandmortarthatrestonthefoundation.
Competencies,then,constitutetheoccupationallyrelevantsurfacestructure,whichisthecapstonetothePeoplePyramid.ThismodelisillustratedinFig.2.2.8

StartingatthetopofthePeoplePyramid,competenciescanbedefinedinvaryingdegreesofspecificity,andthisvariationimpactstheextenttowhichtheyare
generalizableacrossjobsandorganizations.Moreonthistopicisfoundinchapter4,buttwoexamplesillustratethepoint.

Example1
(VeryGeneralizable) Skillinpersuadingothers.
Example2 Skillinpersuadingpotentialcustomerstoconsiderthebenefitsofa
(SomewhatGeneralizable) financialproductorservice.

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Fig.2.2.
Peoplepyramid.

Theformaleducationalortrainingopportunitiesrepresentedinthepyramidcanbeeithergeneralortargeted.Theseopportunitiesaredesignedtobuildonbasic
abilities,interests,andsoforthandenhancetheacquisitionofoccupationallyrelevantknowledgeorskills.Aseminarentitled"StrategicDecisions:Seminarfor
AnalyzingtheNewWorldCompetition"wouldbeanexampleofaformaltrainingopportunity.

However,experienceiseitherinformalexposuretotheideasandconceptsortheopportunitytoobserveorpracticetheworkactivitiesrelatedtoaparticular
competencyovertime.Servingonataskforcedesignedtoevaluatecompetitivetechnologiesandidentifyingopportunitiesforstrategicalliancesisanexampleofajob
relatedexperience.

Atthebaseofthepyramid,abilitiesmaybethoughtofasbasiccharacteristicsoraptitudesofindividualsthatconstitutethepresentpowerofanindividualtoperforma
fairlyhomogeneoussetofrelatedworkactivities.Abilitiesarerelativelystableoverlongperiodsoftime,althoughtheycanbedevelopedovertimeasaresultof
education,training,orexperience.Thedegreetowhichanindividualpossessessomeabilities,suchasmathematicalreasoning,isrelativelyfixed,whereasother
abilities,suchasoralexpression,aremoreresponsivetoexposuretosituations.

ThenextblockinthePeoplePyramidreferstotraits.Traitsarebasiccharacteristicsofindividualsthatareprimarilydispositionalorpersonalitylikeinnature.Traits
aresimilartoabilitiesinthattheyarerelativelystableoverlongperiodsoftime,probablyevenmoresothanabilities.Initiative,definedasthewillingnesstoselfstart
andtakeonresponsibilitiesandchallenges,isanexampleofatrait.

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Finally,interests,values,andmotivationsareafairlybroadcollectionofindividualdifferencecharacteristicsthatcanbebestunderstoodaspersonalpreferences.
Interests,values,andmotivationsaremuchlessstableovertimethaneitherabilitiesortraitstherefore,theyaremorelikelytobeinfluencedbysituationalevents.
Nevertheless,theyareanimportantcomponentinthemodelbecauseitisnotenoughforpeopletobeabletodotheworktheymustalsobewillingtodothework.
Workvariety,definedasapreferenceformultipleandvariedworkactivities,isanexample.

TheWorkSideoftheEquation

Asinthepeoplesideoftheequation,theWorkPyramidinFig.2.3iscappedoffwithacompetencyblock.Thesecompetenciesarethesamecompetenciesdefined
previouslyaspartofthepeoplesideofthejobmodelingequation.Assuch,theyareoccupationallyrelevantcapabilitiesthatunderlieanindividual'scapacityto
performaworkactivityorsetofrelatedworkactivities.However,thereisonesmalldifference.Thedifferenceisoneofperspective:Thecompetenciesreferredto
herearethoserequiredbythejobversusthosepossessedoravailableonthepartofanindividual.

Ratherthanreiteratethecharacteristicsthatcomprisecompetencies,thefocushereistodescribetheunderlyingdriversthatunderscorecertaincompetenciesasbeing
eithermoreorlessimportantinagivencontext.AsFig.2.3

Fig.2.3.
Workpyramid.

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illustrates,workactivitiesandworkcontextdeterminecompetencyrequirements,andtheorganization'svision,strategicobjectives,andinitiativesformthebasisforthe
workcontextandassociatedworkactivities.

Aftercompetencies,thenextbuildingblockintheWorkPyramidinvolvesworkactivities.Activitiesarethecompensabletasksperformedaspartofajob.The
activityisgoalorientedinthatitisdesignedtoleadtosomeoutcomeortheaccomplishmentofsomeobjective,whichisrequired(tosomeextent)forfulljob
performance.Aswithcompetencies,activitiescanbedefinedinvaryingdegreesofspecificity.Thelevelofspecificitythenmakesthemmoreorlessgeneralizable
acrossdifferentjobsandorganizations.

Example1
(VeryGeneralizable) Planningactivities.
Example2 Developa5yearbusinessplanfortheresearchand
(NotVeryGeneralizable) developmentunittoguideprojectexpenditureallocations
byassimilatinginformationaboutproductreadiness,
customerneeds,internalresourcerequirements,expected
annualizedreturnoninvestment,andsoon.

Thenextbuildingblockinvolvesworkcontextvariables.Theseareabroadmixofworkroleorjobcharacteristicsthathelpdefinetheworkplace.These
characteristicscanbebrokendownintofourbroadcategories:workbenefitsofeitheranintrinsicorextrinsicnature(e.g.,compensation,jobsecurity,jobmobility,
collegiality,recognition,developmentopportunities),theworkitself(whichincludesworkvariety,opportunitiesforcreativity,coachingormentoringpossibilities,tools
andequipmentusedtocompletework),workconditions(e.g.,theworkenvironment,travelrequirements,timeflexibility,autonomy,structure,levelofworkstress),
andorganizationalstructure(e.g.,organizationsize,hierarchy,degreeofcentralization,levelofperformancetracking).Thesevariablesareimportantforunderstanding
thecontextinwhichworktakesplacetheyindirectlyimpactworkactivitiesperformedandultimatelythecompetenciesrequiredinaparticularrole,job,orclassof
jobsinanorganization.Forexample,collegialityisajobcontextvariableandmightbedefinedastheextenttowhichjobincumbentsinteractwithothersandfeela
partofateam.

Theorganization'svisionincludestwotypesofinformation:theorganization'smissionandtheorganization'scorevaluesorbeliefs.Managementcanbemoreorless
specificinarticulatingthisinformation.Althoughonceitisarticu

 Page25

lated,itcanshedlightonthefundamentalideasaroundwhichthebusinessisbuiltandguidethefirm'soverallbehavior.Thisinformationnaturallyleadstoquestions
abouttheorganization'scompetitivestrategyandstrategicinitiatives,whichelaboratesonandprovidesanoperationaldefinitionforthelanguageofthevisionand
values/beliefsstatements.Moreonthisisfoundinchapter3.

PerformanceStandards

Tothispoint,thechapterhasdiscussedviewingthepeoplesideofthejobmodelingenterpriseasaconstellationofknowledge,skills,abilities,traits,interests,values,
motivations,education/training,andexperiencecomponentsthatgiverisetocompetenciesavailable.Ontheothersideoftheequation,wehavetheorganization's
vision,competitivestrategy,strategicinitiatives,workcontext,andindividualworkactivitiesallinteractingtogiverisetocompetenciesrequired.Thisprocessis
illustratedinFig.2.4,inwhichthemodelspresentedinFigs.2.2and2.3havebeenrotatedandnowappeartogether.Here,thepeoplesideoftheequationandthe
worksideoftheequationarenowbuildingtowardeachother.

Fig.2.4.
Howthepersonandthejobinteracttocreate
thedomainofjobperformance.

 Page26

Figure2.5simplyextendsthisillustrationalittlefurtherbyshowingtheoverlapbetweencompetencies"A"vailableandcompetencies"R"equired.Thedegreeofoverlap
betweencompetenciesavailableandcompetenciesrequiredhasperformanceimplicationsforthepersonperformingthework.Iftheavailablecompetenciesareless
thantherequiredcompetencies,theperformanceimplicationsarenegative.Tothedegreetheymatch,therearepositiveimplications.

Inshort,performancestandardsrepresentthevalueladenaspectoftheworkdomainthatresultsfromtheintersectionofpersoncapabilities(which,accordingtoour
model,includeknowledgeandmotivationdifferences)andjobrequirements.Atafairlydetailedlevelofspecificity(seeExample2),thesestatementsrepresentcritical
incidentsofeffectiveorineffectivebehaviorinamannersimilartotheideasproposedbyFlanagan,9 althoughFlanagan'sapproachclearlyexcludesincidentsthat
involveanymentionoftraitsorjudgmentalinferences.

Fig.2.5.
Comparingcompetenciesavailableto
competenciesrequired.

 Page27

Example1 Demonstrateshighlyeffectivethinkingcapability.
(MostGeneralizable)
Example2 Demonstrateshighlyeffectivestrategicthinking
(SomewhatGeneralizable) capabilitybyexplicitlyarticulatinghowproposals,plans,
anddaytodaydecisionsandissuesrelatetobroader
strategicissues.

AtthelevelofspecificityinExample2,wherethereisclarificationaboutwhatanindividualdoesthatmakesthebehavioreithereffectiveorineffectiveandhowthe
behaviorimpactsjobperformance,wehavewhatistraditionallyconceivedasacriticalincident.Inshort,performancestandardsarevaluebasedexamplesof
behaviorthatarecriticalindeterminingwhetherperformanceisgood,average,orpoor.

AModelforSJM

Havingcoveredsomeofthebasicconceptsandterms,itisnowtimetopresentamodelforSJM.Unfortunately,heuristicmodelsareseldomprettythings.Theyare
oftenunwieldy,complex,andsomehowlackinginaestheticappeal.Nevertheless,theremustbeareasonfortheirpopularity.So,withoutfritteringawaytoomuchtime
discussingthevalueofheuristicmodelsortheories,letusassumefromtheirpopularitythattheyareagoodthingandmoveon.

Anenduringsourceofconfusionintraditionaljobanalysisresearchhasbeenthefailuretospecifyclearlytheobjectivesofone'sparticularenterprise.Tounderscore
thisissue,letmerecountabitofconversationbetweenAliceandtheCheshireCatfromLewisCarroll'sAliceinWonderland:
Alice:"Wouldyoutellme,please,whichwayIoughttogofromhere?"

CheshireCat:"Thatdependsagooddealonwhereyouwanttogetto."

Withreferencetothisquotation,letmeofferupforyourconsiderationtheCheshireModelofSJMinFig.2.6.Thisexhibitisarepresentationofthekeyquestionsand
decisionpointsinfluencingthetypicaljobmodelingeffort.Asaheuristicaid,itmightbeusefultothinkofeachstepinthemodelasafilterthroughwhichinformation
mustpasstoreachdecisionsand,subsequently,thenextsetofdecisionpointsinthemodel.Thesefiltershavethecapacitytodramaticallyaltertheperspective,
configuration,andultimatelytheutilityofthemodelingresults.

 Page28

Fig.2.6.
Cheshiremodelofstrategicjobmodeling.

 Page29

 Page30

AnotherwaytoconceptualizetheCheshireModelisasaseriesoffivesetsofquestionsthat,whenanswered,tellyouwhereyouneedtogointermsofthenextstepin
buildingarelevantinformationpath.Oneoftheimportantfeaturesofthemodelisthatitrequiresclearthinkingupfrontabouttheorganizationalopportunitiesor
obstaclesthatprecipitatetheneedforjobmodeling.Inthisway,themodelhelpsclarifyacriterionforsuccessforthesubsequentapplicationsandprovidesaclear
pathforcyclingbacktoevaluatesuccessandeconomicimpact.Actually,eachofthequestionsinthemodelisakeyquestionanddecisionpoint.Thequestionsthat
comprisetheCheshireModelarepresented

 Page31

TABLE2.2
KeyQuestionsinJobMarketing
TheQuestions ForMoreInformation
Whatistheorganization'svisionandcompetitivestrategy,andwhatarethe Seechapter3
correspondingstrategicinitiatives?Withinthiscontext,whatarethedesiredbusiness
outcomes?
Whathumanresourceapplication(s)arerequiredtoachievethedesiredoutcome? Seechapter4
Giventhoseapplications,whichjobmodelingapproachismostappropriate,whattype
ofinformationneedstobebuiltintotheinformationplatform,andwhatdegreeofdetail
orprecisionisrequiredinthedescriptorcontent?
Whoisthetargetpopulation?Giventhescopeofthetargetedpopulation,howis Seechapter5
existingdescriptiveinformationleveraged?Howisadditionalinformationcollectedand
integratedtoclosethegapsandcreatearationallyderivedjobmodel?
Iftheresearchcontextandtargetapplicationsrequirefollowingupontherationally Seechapter6
derivedmodelandcollectingdatausingajobmodelingquestionnaire,thenwhich
questionsareasked?Ofwhom?Howmanyrespondentsareneeded?
Howshouldtheresultsfromjobmodelingquestionnairesbeanalyzed,andhow Seechapter7
shouldtheresultsbedisplayed?Whatkindsofdecisionrulesshouldbeappliedtothe
dataforguidingthefinalcomponentsoftheempiricallybasedjobmodel?

inTable2.2.Withsomeslightconsolidation,whereSteps3,4,and5areconsideredtogether,theyserveastheorganizingstructureforthenextfivechaptersinthe
book.

Thespecificquestionsareofferedinasequentialseriesthatmakesthemostsenseformostapplications.However,bynature,thequestionsareinterrelatedasaresult
ofthefluidnatureofthistypeofwork.ThisisparticularlytrueforSteps2and3,whicharenotonlyinteractive,butprobablymoreconcurrentversustrulysequential
setsofdownstreamdecisionsflowingfromStep1.Therealsomaybesomevariabilityinthesequenceofdecisionsattributabletothemodelingcontext.Nevertheless,
themodelinTable2.2isusefulforconceptualizingthesequenceofdecisionpointsinvolvedinmostjobmodelingprojects.Hadenoughbackground?Okay,thenroll
upyoursleeves,spitonyourpalms,turnthepage,andlet'sgettowork.

 Page32

References
1
Fleishman,E.A.,Wetrogan,L.I.,Uhlman,C.E.,&MarshallMies,J.C.(1995).Abilities.InN.G.Peterson,M.D.Mumford,W.C.Borman,P.R.Jeanneret,&
E.A.Fleishman(Eds.),Developmentofprototypeoccupationalinformationnetworkcontentmodel(Vol.1,pp.10.110.39).Utah:UtahDepartmentof
EmploymentSecurity(ContractNo.94542).
2
Spencer,L.M.,McClelland,D.C.,&Spencer,S.(1994).Competencyassessmentmethods:Historyandstateoftheart.Boston:HayMcBerResearchPress.
3
Boyatzis,R.E.(1982).Thecompetentmanager:Amodelforeffectiveperformance.NewYork:WileyInterscience.
4
Zemke,R.(1982).Jobcompetencies:Cantheyhelpyoudesignbettertraining?Training,19,2831.
5
Barrett,R.S.(1996).Fairemploymentstrategiesinhumanresourcemanagement.Westport,CT:QuorumBooks.
6
Guion,R.M.(1998).Assessment,measurementandpredictionforpersonneldecisions.Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.
7
Raymark,P.H.,Schmit,M.J.,&Guion,R.M.(1997).Identifyingpotentiallyusefulpersonalityconstructsforemployeeselection.JournalofAppliedPsychology,
50,723736.
8
ThisconceptualizationbenefitedfrominputfromElaineSloan.
9
Flanagan,J.C.(1954).Thecriticalincidenttechnique.PsychologicalBulletin,51,327358.

 Page33

II
THEPRACTICEOFSTRATEGICJOBMODELING

 Page35

Chapter3
WhatIstheOrganization'sVisionandCompetitiveStrategy?
Ifindthegreatthinginthisworldisnotsomuchwherewestand,asinwhatdirectionwearemoving.
OliverWendellHolmes

Anorganization'svisionandcompetitivestrategyisthebattleplanformovingintothefutureandachievingitsgoals.Itisthebannerpointingthewayforeveryonewho
needstoknowwhattheorganizationisallaboutandwhereitintendstogo.Itisthemarchingordersforthesubsumedbusinessunits,divisions,departments,functional
areas,teams,andindividualstofollowastheymaneuveronthebattlefieldofbusiness.

Thesestatementsaremadewithsomereservationbecausemanypeopleareoffendedbymilitarymetaphors.However,oneneedonlyreadthedailypaperorpopular
newsprintmagazinestogetafeelforhowthecaptainsofbusinessandindustrythinkabouttheirwork:
ChristopherPettit,whoservedasacaptaininVietnam,isengagedinanotheruphillconflictaspresidentofLehmanBrothers.
ShawnTully,Fortunearticle

Yamahaotsubuso!(''AnnihilateandsquashYamaha!").
Honda'slocalbattlecry

Thewarisn'toverbutwe'vedefinitelylandedonthebeaches.
RobertLutz,vicechairman,Chrysler

 Page36

D'Avenisuggeststhatthiskillorbekilledattitudeistheresultofstrategicmaneuveringamongincreasinglyglobalandinnovativecombatants.Itisjustpartofthenew
realitycreatedbyhypercompetition.1 Animplicationofthisnewrealityisthat,withoutacarefullycraftedvisionandsubsequentsetofcompetitivestrategiesand
initiatives,anorganizationrunstheriskofbecomingavictimofthemarketplaceinsteadofavictor.2 ,3

Beforeyoustopreadingandlookatthecovertomakesurethisisabookonjobmodelingandnotoneonstrategicplanning,IshouldletyouknowwhereIamgoing
withallofthis.Althoughitistheresponsibilityofmanagementtomarshaltheresourcestoachievethevisionandstrategy,itisHR'sjobtoguideandsupportthe
acquisition,maintenance,development,andapplicationofthehumancapital.Therefore,itfollowsthatthevariousHRinterventionsmustbeinalignmentwiththevision
andcompetitivestrategyoftheorganization.Thebetterthefitbetweenthesevariables,themorecloutthespecificHRinitiativeswillhaveandthemorepowerful
strategyexecutionislikelytobe.

Strategicjobmodelingfocusesonthisverticalalignmentintwoimportantways.First,thereisanefforttoidentifythemostrelevantandimpactfulinterventions.
Second,thereisaconcertedefforttoensurethatHRinterventionsaredesignedaroundthecontent(e.g.,workactivities,competencies,performancestandards)
requiredforindividualemployeesuccessoverthelonghaul.Manypotentialcustomerseitherinternalorexternalaresimplynotclearaboutwhattheywant(which
doesnotmeantheyarenotfrequentlyinaheadlongrushtofindsomeonewhowillgiveittothem).Inthesesituations,workingtounderstandthebusinesscontextand
environmentcanbeilluminating.Inthesecases,thecustomerwilllikelyfeelasifsomeoneinadarktunnelhashandedthemaflashlight.

Inotherinstances,acustomerwillhaveaspecificrequestinmind,suchas"Weneedtobuildaselectionsystemforhourlyretailemployees"or"Weneedtomakesure
ouremployeeperformancemeasurementsystemisalignedwiththebusinessgoals,andwewanttousetheresultstodriveindividualdevelopmentplanning."Onceyou
startprobingintotheorganization'svisionandbusinessstrategy,youmaygetsomepushbackalongthelinesof,"WaitaminuteIalreadytoldyouwhatweneed.
Whatmakesyouthinkweneedtorevisitourdecision?"Ofcourse,yourcustomermightbequitecorrect,particularlyiftheexpressedneedisclearlyarticulatedand
couchedinanunderstandingofthedesiredoutcomesthatlinkbacktobroaderbusinessgoals.However,eveninthesesituations,itisoftenworthwhiletodevelopa
deeperunderstandingoftheorganization'sbroadervisionandbusinessstrategy.Ataminimum,itisarelativelypainlesswaytoconfirmthattheproposedintervention
(s)willsucceedindoingwhatisneeded(aprocessonhowtoactuallydothisispresentedinchap.4).Attheotherextreme,itmightuncovercluesyoucanuseto
consultwithyourcustomeraboutdevelopingthemostappropriatesetofinterventions.

 Page37

Infact,perhapsthemostusefulthingastrategicjobmodelercandoisdevelophisorherownunderstandingandframeworkforthinkingaboutthecustomers'
problems.Thismeansnotonlylisteningtoandprobingaroundthepresentedproblem,butalsoworkingtounderstandtheunderlyingissuesanddevelopingworking
hypothesesaboutwhatisimportantandrelevantinagivencontext.Customerswhocomplainabouttheadditionaldiagnosiscanactuallybecomemoreloyaloncethey
understandtheyareworkingwithsomeonewhoistryingtomaximizethefitbetweenneedsanddeliverables.Customerswanttodealwithpeoplewhowillworkto
understandtheirbusiness,understandtheirneeds,andcanpartnerwiththemtoaddvaluebeyondrespondingwithstockanswerstocomplexbusinessproblems.With
thisinmind,partoftheintentofthischapteristoprovideabroadframeworkforbuildingbusinesscontextandstrategyinformationintothejobmodeler'sthinkingfor
thepurposeofidentifyingthetypeofHRinterventionsthatarelikelytobemostrelevantandhavethegreatestimpact.

Asnotedearlier,thereisasecondreasonforpayingattentiontoverticalalignmentissues.Understandinganorganization'scompetitivestrategycangivethejob
modelerapreviewofthetypesofcompetenciesthatarelikelytomaximizeorganizationalfitanddifferentiatesuccessfulfrompoorperformersoverthelongterm.A
relatedissueinvolvestheidentificationofthecriticalconstellationsofcompetencies(i.e.,jobgroupsorjobfamilies)withintheorganizationthosesetsof
competenciesthataredirectlylinkedtotheoverallperformanceandsuccessofthecompany(aprocessonhowtodothisispresentedinchap.5).

Theenvironmentinwhichorganizationsoperatehaslongbeenrecognizedasplayinganimportantroleinthewaypeoplearesupervised,coworkerstreatoneanother,
decisionsgetmade,andsoon.4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ToparaphraseSchneider,workroles,jobrequirements,andorganizationsdonotexistindependently.10Forexample,in
additiontothejobspecificknowledgeandskillsrequiredtoperformeffectivelyasaproductionmanager,individualswhoarejudgedtobetrulysuccessfulinacost
drivenorganizationmightbecharacterizedsomewhatdifferentlyfromthosewhoarestarperformersinaspeeddrivenorganization.Basedonthebusiness
characteristicscommonlyfoundinthefirsttypeoforganization,wemightexpecttofindstarperformerswhoaretaskoriented,direct,andtoughwhendealingwith
employees,customers,andvendors.Thebusinesscharacteristicsfoundinthesecondtypeoforganizationmightleadthejobmodelertoexpectcompetencies
associatedwithcreativity,innovation,andawillingnesstoacceptsomeriskaskeyindividualdifferentiators.Ofcourse,subsequentstepsinthejobmodelingprocess
aredesignedtoidentifyanddescribetherelevantcompetenciesindetail.However,thisupfrontanalysisallowsthejobmodelertostartgatheringclues,identifying
gapsininformation,andtestinghypothesessooner.

 Page38

Furthermore,inbusiness,changemaybetheonlyconstant.AnyefforttomodeljobsintheworldofworkwithoutconsideringthiscomponentwouldbelikeEinstein
endeavoringtoexplainrelativitywithouthisconversionconstant:c.Comeonyouremember:e=mc2,whereEinsteinproposed,toeveryone'sdismay,thatenergy(e)
andmass(m)arejusttwodifferentwaysoflookingatthesamething.Asyoumayrecall,edoesnotquiteequalmbyitselfinfact,justalittlebitofmassequalsa
wholelotofenergy.Thekeytounderstandingtherelationshipbetweenthetwoisc.

Similarly,forthoseofusengagedinmodelingendeavors,thekeytounderstandingtherelationshipbetweenthejoboftodayandthejoboftomorrowisc,althoughfor
usthisimpliesanassessmentoftheexpecteddegreeofchange.Iftherewerenochangesinthebusinessenvironment,themodelsbuilttodaywouldequalthemodels
requiredforsuccess3,5,and10yearsout.However,thisisanuntenableassumption.11AsFig.3.1illustrates,jobsdochangeandthesechangesimpactthework
activitiesperformed,thecompetenciesrequired,theperformancestandardsexpected,andsoforth.Thus,asecondreasonforexaminingverticalalignmentistogain
someclarityaroundexpectedchangeinanefforttobuildthinkingaboutfuturejobrequirementsintotheequationandestablishtherelevanceofthedifferenttypesof
competenciesbuiltintothemodel.

Tojumprightintoadiscussionofvisionandstrategywithoutfirstexaminingsomeoftheimportantantecedentswouldbepremature.Figure3.2illustratesthemajor
typesofinformationthatformthebasisfortheframeworkpresentedinthischaptertheyaredividedintothreeprimarysegments.

1.NOW:anenvironmentalscanofwheretheorganizationcurrentlysits.Everyjourneystartswithadeterminationofone'sstartingpoint.Whetherfigurativelygoing
fromAtoBorconcretelyfromMinneapolistoDallas,itisnotpossibletochartacoursetoaparticulardestinationbeforeunderstanding

Fig.3.1.
Changingjobworkactivitiesovertime.

 Page39

Fig.3.2.
Businessvisionandstrategy:Thebigpicture.

whereoneisstartingfrom.Inbusinessandindustry,wherethejourneymightbemovingfromNumber2toNumber1inthecarrentalbusiness,thisassessmentofthe
startingpointincludesunderstandingthemacroenvironment,microenvironment,andorganizationalenvironment.

2.WOW:anarticulationoftheorganization'sdestinationitsaspirationsandgoals.Thesearetheblueskypossibilitiesbasedonwhatisknownaboutthebusiness
environmenttodayandspeculationsaboutthefuturefilteredthroughalensofwhatisconsideredvaluable,worthwhile,andreasonablyattainable.

3.HOW:thegameplanformovingfromNOWtoWOW.Individualswhocarefullyfollowalogicalpathwillgofartherthanthosewhomoverapidlyinthewrong
direction.Thesameistruefororganizations.Foranorganization,thismeansthinkingthroughthecompetitivestrategy,strategicinitiatives,andfunctionalinitiativesthat
leadtotheloftyheightscapturedinthevision.

TheNOW,WOW,andHOWsegmentseachhaveanumberofcomponentsandsubcomponentsthatneedtobeunderstoodaspartoftheprocess.These
componentsandsubcomponentsarespelledoutinthebusinessstrategymapinFig.3.3,whichisafinergraineddescriptionofthebusinessstrategyprocess.The

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Fig.3.3.
Businessstrategymap.

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goalistopresentasufficientlycomprehensiveframeworkfororganizingthebroadmixofpotentialinputinformationthatmaybegeneratedinawiderangeofmodeling
contexts.ItisnotbeingsuggestedthateveryjobmodelingsituationrequiresanindepthinvestigationanddocumentationofallthestrategiccomponentsnotedinFig.
3.3ordescribedoverthenextfewpages.Onedoesnotwanttosinkthemodelingprojectattheoutsetbyattemptingtocollecteveryscrapofconceivablyuseful
information.Instead,considerthistaxonomyassomethingakintoacrateofpotentialprovisions,andthendoalifeboatanalysisandthrowoverboardeverythingyou
donotneed.

Furthermore,onemightdisagreewiththisconceptualizationofthevariablesthathelpshapebusinessstrategyoronemightprefertousetheapproachofaparticular
theorist.Thatisfine.Itisnotallthatimportantthateverythinggetsslottedinattherightplace.Whatisimportantisidentifyingandunderstandingtherelevantvariables
sothatonecanusetheinformationtoguidefuturechoicesrelatedtothejobmodelingeffort.Withthisinmind,abriefdiscussionofeachofthepotentialcomponents
ofthebusinessstrategyprocessisworthwhile.

Now

Macroenvironment

Itisusefultothinkofanorganizationasoperatinginalarger,generalbusinessenvironmentthatextendsbeyondtheboundsoftheorganization'sparticularindustry.
Thisisthemacroenvironment,whichhasbeendescribedashugeandponderouswheremuchofwhatisusefultoknowisburiedundersomethingheavy.12For
example,themacroenvironmentincludeseventssuchasdemographicshifts,movementtowardanintegratedglobaleconomy,adventofInternettechnology,and
changesingovernment,allofwhichhaveimplicationsforawidebandoforganizationsandtheirrespectivestrategies.Understandably,thelineofsightbetweenthese
eventsandrealworldimpactsonaspecificorganizationinaparticularindustrycanbedifficulttofollow.Nevertheless,thelinksexistandareimportanttoconsider.As
Fig.3.3indicates,themacroenvironmentconsistsoffourbroadsubcomponents:socialenvironment,economicenvironment,politicalenvironment,andtechnological
environment.

SocialEnvironment:Thissubcomponentconsistsofdemographicsandsocialvalues,includingpopulationsize,agestructure,ethnicmix,incomelevels,educationand
skillmix,politicalvalues,andsocietalvaluesingeneral.Forexample,whateffectistheincreasingfervoroftheantismokingmovementlikelytohaveonthetobacco
industry,particularlyintheharshglareoftrialsliketheStateofMinnesotaandBlueCrossandBlue

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Shieldvs.PhilipMorris,Inc.etal.,whichareattractinginternationalmediaattention?

EconomicEnvironment:Thisreferstothenatureanddirectionoftheeconomyinwhichanorganizationoperates.Thereisawiderangeofvariablesofinterestinthis
segment,includingmajormovementsinanindustrysector,worldeconomyandinvestmentmarkets,grossdomesticproduct,interestrates,inflation,producerprices,
consumerprices,housingstarts,andindustrialinvestment.Forexample,emboldenedbyaskyrocketingstockmarketandgreaterparticipationbyinstitutional
investors,today'scapitalmarketsarefriendlytowardentrepreneurialstartupsinsoftware,communications,medicaldevices,electronics,andbiotech.Leadingventure
capitalistslamentthattheyhavemoremoneyandinterestedinvestorsthantheydoinvestmentopportunities.13

Political/LegalEnvironment:Thissubcomponentincludesthemajorinstitutionsofgovernment,suchastheexecutivebranch,thelegislatures,thejudiciary,and
regulatoryagencies,aswellasinformalarenasinwhichpoliticalactivityoccurs,suchascommunityrelationsandthemedia.Forexample,societalconcernsoverthe
negativeenvironmentalimpactsofcommercialandmanufacturingactivitieshaveledtoasharpincreaseinenvironmentalregulationsthroughouttheworldatmultilateral,
regional,national,subnational,andmunicipallevels.14

TechnologicalEnvironment:Thisinvolvesbothhowknowledgeisacquiredandhowitispracticallyapplied.Thetechnologicalenvironmentcanbesegmentedinto
threeclasses:

Research:Basicresearchthatseekstouncoverprinciplesandrelationshipsunderlyingknowledge(i.e.,discoveryandinvention).

Development:Thisreferstotheutilizationofknowledgeinsomeprototypeform(i.e.,innovation).

Operations:Operationsreferstoputtingknowledgetopracticaluseinawaythatcanbeadoptedbyothers(i.e.,deployment).

Forexample,researchinbiotechnologyoffersthepotentialtorevolutionizethefoodindustry.Enhancednutritionalprofilesforexistingfoods,thecreationofentirely
newproducts,andnewflavorsrepresentjustsomeinitialpossibilitiesandyoucanbetthebigfoodcompaniesoftheworldarepayingattention.

MacroenvironmentalchangeaffectsalloftheotherelementsofthestrategicmanagementprocessoutlinedinFig.3.3.Withoutsomeunderstandingofhowthefuture
mightplayoutinthesocial,economic,political,andtechnologicalenvironments,anorganizationwillbeillpreparedforadaptingandsurvivinginthefuture.Atthispoint
Icansensetheclicksofmanymindssnappingshut.

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Thispredictingthefuturestuffisjustalittlemuchforsomeofyoutotake.Well,takeheart.Iamoneofyou!Althoughoccasionallyinterestingtothinkabout,Ialso
believeitispointlesstotryandmakebusinessdecisionstodaybasedonpredictionsofwhatwillhappen50yearsfromnowinthesocial,economic,political,or
technologicalenvironments.However,toparaphrasePeterDrucker,itispossibleandfruitfultoprepareforthefuturethathasalreadyhappened.15Inotherwords,
thereareeventstakingplacetodaythatwillcontinuetoplayoutandhaveanimpactforthenext10yearsorso.Forthejobmodelerintentonbuildingastrategicfocus
intohiswork,understandingthefutureoftodayisthebestwaytogetaheadsuponthebroadexternalfactorsthatarelikelytoimpactthebusiness.Theseforces,in
turn,willimpactthebusinessstrategiesthataffectthefunctionalstrategiesandsubsequentlyplayoutinchangesintheconfigurationofworkactivitiesandrequisite
competencies.

Thecommercialbankingindustryprovidesanicecaseexample.WithrespecttoquestionsabouttheappropriatetypeofHRintervention,considerrecent
developmentsinthepolitical/legalarena,wherederegulationhasremovedmanyofthebarriersbetweencommercialandinvestmentbanks.Asaconsequence,
investmentproductsandmutualfundsareaboomingpartofthebusinessmixforcommercialbanks,andtrainingprogramsfocusingonproductknowledgeand
specializedsalesarebothprevalentandrelevant.Soareselectionprogramsthatemphasizethenewcompetencies.

Withrespecttothetypeofcompetencieslikelytobeimportant,thinkabouttheshiftinbankingtowardautomationandelectronicservice(i.e.,technological
environment).Banksarestrivingtoremaincompetitivebystayingontheforefrontoftechnology,asillustratedbytheintroductionofautomatedbankingkiosksand
Internetbanking.Consequently,thesimpleordertakingjobsaredisappearingorbeingreengineered,suchthattheremainingfrontlinejobswillrequireespecially
stronginterpersonal,service,andsalescompetencies.

Microenvironment

Themicroenvironmentincludestherelevantmarketsandcompetitorsofaparticularorganization.Althoughwearestilltalkingabouttheworldoutsideofthe
organizationproper,thevariablesofinterestarenowmuchclosertohome.Infact,theyarejustoutsidetheorganization'sdoors.Whenbusinessstrategiststalkabout
industryanalysis,theyarereallytalkingaboutthemicroenvironment.Alongtheselines,PorterpresentedtheFiveForcesTheoryofIndustryStructure.16,17
AlthoughPorter'sprimaryfocusisonstrategyinindividualindustries,hisconceptsaredesignedtobeextendedtoorganizationsforthepurposeofdeveloping
customizedcompetitivestrategies.Thefiveforcesserveaspartofthebasisforthemicroenvironmentsegmentationpresentedhere(thelastfivesubcomponentsare
variationsofPorter'sfiveforces).Porter'sbooksarecornerstonesofstrategicthinkinggearedtowardhelpinganorganization'sse

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niormanagementteamdevelopstrategiesforsurvivalincompetitiveenvironments.However,heisnotknownforhisbrevity.Inthisway,Porterisfollowinginthe
footstepsofGeorgeSteiner,thestrategyguruofthepreviousdecade,whosethreevolume,800pageopusanchorsmanyamanager'sbookshelvesandwhose
thinkingalsocontributestotheconceptualizationofthemicroenvironmentpresentedhere.18

MarketSize:Describesthepotentialavailablemarketintermsofannualsalesorunmetneedandanswersthisquestion:"Isthemarketgrowingorshrinking?"

MarketScope:Describesthegeographicdispersionofthecurrentorpotentialmarket(i.e.,dispersionacrossglobal,national,regional,andlocalboundaries).

MarketMaturity:Describesthestageoftheproductlifecycleforthebulkofproductsorservicescompetinginthemarket.Forexample,isthemarketinthe
introduction,growth,mature,ordeclinephase?

NewCompetitors:Referstotheentrybarriersthatpreventaninfluxoffirmsintoanindustryarena(e.g.,proprietarylearningcurve,economiesofscale,government
policy,andcapitalrequirements).

CompetitiveRivalry:Describesthetypeanddegreeofrivalryinanindustry(e.g.,numberofcompetitors,competitorstrategies,andindustrygrowth).

ThreatofSubstitutes:Referstotheexistenceofpotentialsubstitutesthatperformthesamefunctionsastheproductsorservicesbeingtargetedforanalysisandisa
conditionthatcapstheamountofvalueanindustrycancreate(e.g.,buyerpropensityforsubstitutesandsupplierswitchingcosts).

CustomerPower:Characterizestheextenttowhichcustomerscansqueezeindustrymarginsbypressingcompetitorstoreducepricesorincreasethelevelofservice
offeredwithoutassociatedpriceadjustments(e.g.,concentrationofcustomers,presenceofbuyerinformation,pricesensitivity,anddegreeofbrandidentity).

SupplierPower:Theflipsideofthecointocustomerpower(e.g.,supplierconcentrationanddifferentiationofinputs).

TheimpactofmicroenvironmentvariablesclearlycascadesdowntotheremainingcomponentsofthestrategicmanagementprocessesillustratedinFig.3.3.Withouta
clearunderstandingofmarketsize,marketscope,marketmaturity,newcompetitors,competitiverivalry,thethreatofsubstitutes,customerpower,andsupplier
power,theorganizationisadriftinthetidelikeaboatloosefromitsmooringsintreacherouswaters.

Thestrategicjobmodelerneedstobecluedintowhatisgoingoninthisenvironmentaswell.Forexample,withreferencetoquestionsaboutrelevant

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typesofHRinterventions,considertheCompetitiveRivalryvariableinthetelecommunicationsindustry,wherelocaltelephone,cableTV,wireless,andlongdistance
telephoneprovidersareallinafrenziedcompetitivedashtogaingroundinagrowingmarket.Thisfreneticactivity(howmanysolicitationcallshaveyoureceivedat
homefromatelecommunicationsproviderinthepastweek?!)istheresultofrapidgrowthinnewmethodsoftransmissionandproductsandlegislationthatliftsmany
oftheregulationsthatrestricttelecommunicationscarriersfromoperatingincertainmarkets.Asaconsequence,manyoftheseorganizationshaveeverchangingwork
environmentswherepeople,workprocesses,andtechnologyarereconfiguredtoaggressivelypushforwardvariousprograminitiatives.Inthisenvironment,the
developmentofemployeeskillbanksdesignedtokeeptrackofthehumantalentportfolioandfacilitatetheallocationoftherighttechnicalskillstoimportantprojects
arebeingviewedasoneparticularlyrelevantformofHRintervention.

NowconsidertheMarketMaturityvariableandthequestionaboutthetypeofcompetenciesthatarelikelytobeimportant.Thecompetencymixforasalesmanager
whoworksforanorganizationthatcompetesinanemergingmarketwhererivalryisintenseandeveryoneishustlingformarketshare(e.g.,AT&T,theBabyBells,
MCI,GTE)islikelytobedifferentfromthatofasalesmanagerinanorganizationthatoperatesinadecliningmarketwithshrinkingshareandreducedresource
support(e.g.,mostdefensecontractorsand,toanextent,freighttrackrailroads).Thefirstroleislikelytoemphasizetheenergyanddriveforsuccessthatcharacterize
volumebasedsales,19whereastheemphasisinthelatterislikelytobecenteredontheinterpersonalcompetenciesthatmakeuplongtermrelationshipbasedsales.

OrganizationEnvironment

Theframeworkforexaminingtheorganizationenvironmentissimilartothestrengthsandweaknesses(SW)partofthereviewinthetraditionalSWOTanalysis(i.e.,
organizationalstrengths,weaknesses,opportunities,andthreats).Thepurposeofthisinternalanalysisistoseewhattheorganizationhastoworkwithasitbeingsto
positionitselftodealwiththeopportunitiesandthreatsidentifiedthroughtheanalysisoftheexternalenvironments.Specifically,ithelpsidentifywhatexistingstrengths
andweaknessesmightimpacttheorganization'svaluecreationcapabilities.

Despitetheinfiniterangeofpotentialstrengthsandweaknessesthatcouldcharacterizeaparticularorganization,theSWlandscapecanbebroadlydescribedwiththe
followingfivesubcomponents:

Human:Thepeopleportfolioandassociatednumbers,talents,andcharacteristics.Specifically,thehumansideoftheorganizationenvironmentincludes:

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Staffsizerelativetostaffingneeds.

Individualcompetencies,bothsoftandtechnical.

Leadershipfromtheworkteamanddepartmentlevelupthroughtheseniormanagementteam.Althoughleadershipiscertainlyanindividuallevelcompetency,it
isusuallyimportantenoughtowarrantbreakingitoutseparately.

Morale,intermsoftheteamspiritandlevelofemployeemotivation.

Commitment,whichisslightlydifferentfrommorale.Specificallyreferstotheextentindividualsintheorganizationshareacollectivestateofmindandresolve
concerningthearticulatedgoals.

Collaborationorcollegiality,whichreferstotheextenttowhichindividualsinteractsmoothlywithothersandfeelpartofateambothwithinandacrosswork
groups.

Technology:Thetechnologicalassetsavailabletotheorganization.Forexample:

Facilitiesandheavyequipment,whichincludesanevaluationoftheirnumber,size,capability,stateofrepair,andsafety.

Toolsandofficeequipment,includingcomputers,software,photocopiers,shredders,andsoforth.

Levelofinformationtechnologysupport.

Infrastructure:Thestructure,systems,anddecisionmakingstylesorprocessesthatcharacterizehowthingsgetdone.

Structure,inthiscontext,referstohowtheorganizationisorganizedinternally(intermsofsubdividedunitssuchasbusinesssectors,businessunits,and
departmentsandtheassociatedreportingrelationships)andhowitmapsontorelevantexternalentities(suchascustomers,suppliers,distributors,strategic
partners,andpublicorcommunitygroups)throughalliances,partnerships,andnetworks.Commonorganizationalstructuresincludeafunctionalorganization
structure,processorientedstructure,decentralizedbusiness/divisionstructure,strategicbusinessunitstructure,geographicstructure,andamatrixorganization
structure.

Systems,inthiscontext,refertohowinformationmovesthroughthestructure,howitismonitored,andhowitisusedbydecisionmakers.

Decisionmakingstylesandprocessesrefertotheproceduresusedtomakedecisions.Theseprocedurescouldrangefromlarge,formal,datadrivenmeetingsto
small,informal,viscerallyguidedgettogethers.

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Financial:Thedollarbasednumbersthatdrivebusinessdecisions,including:

Assetsavailable,whichincludecash,inventory,accountsreceivable,intellectualcapital,equipment,andstructures/buildings.

Liabilitiespending,whichincludebankdebt,accountspayable,taxesowed,wagesowed,andprepaidaccountsoradvancesfromcustomers.

Financingpractices,whichreferstohowtheorganizationcreatesoperatingcapital.

Pricesforproductsorfeesforservices(i.e.,onwhatpartofthepricecontinuumdoestheorganizationcompete?).

Compensation(payplusbenefits)levelsforemployees(i.e.,onwhatpartofthecompensationcontinuumdoestheorganizationcompeteforemployees?).

Contextual/Cultural:Thevariablesthatcomprisethecontextdimensionaremoredescriptivecharacteristicsthatcouldimpactthehumancapital(and,toalesser
extent,thetechnological,infrastructure,andfinancialassets)thantheyaretruesourcesofcompetitiveadvantageinandofthemselves.Thesevariablesarelistednext.
Adetaileddefinitionofeachappearsinchapter5.

Jobsecurity

Jobmobility

Recognition

Developmentopportunities

Workvariety

Creativity

Coaching/mentoring

Workenvironment/safety

Travel

Timeflexibility

Autonomy

Workstandards

Workstress

TherangeofHuman,Technology,Infrastructure,Financial,andContextual/Culturalvariablespresentedabovecomprisesthethirdandlaststageprecedingthe
visioningprocess.Insummary,theyarealsothekeyfactorstobeconsideredinadetailed,internalenvironmentanalysis,whichisnotwhatisbeingsuggested.
However,thereareimplicationsforthejobmodelingconsultant.Thus,whatisbeingsuggestedisahighlevelauditandassessmentofthesevariables.

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ThemeaningandpotentialmodelingimpactsoftheHumanvariablesareeasilygrasped,buttherearemeaningfulcluestobefoundinunderstandingtheothervariables
thatcharacterizethecurrentorganizationenvironment.Asanexample,considertheInfrastructureclassofvariables.WithrespecttothetypeofHRintervention,a
geographicorganizationstructure(e.g.,Deltaandmostotherlargeairlines)createsneedsforalargermanagementstaff,particularlygeneralmanagers.Asaresult,
interventionsinvolvingtraininganddevelopmentarelikelytoberelevant.

NowconsidertheFinancialclassofvariables.Withrespecttothetypeofcompetencieslikelytobeimportant,aretailorganizationthatdevotesalargepartofthe
budgettocompensatingemployeestendstoemphasizeadifferentmixofskillsinitssalesforce.ThisisevidentonenteringSaksFifthAvenueaftershoppingata
discountdepartmentstore.Infact,understandingwhereonthecompensationcontinuumtheorganizationcompetesforemployeesisfrequentlyacriticalpieceof
information.Thus,thefinalcomponentsofthemodelforajoborclassofjobsshouldbecriticallyexaminedintermsofwhatkindsofpeopletheorganizationcanhope
toattract,andkeep,giventhecompensationmodel.

Wow

Vision

Inpersonalitytheory,thereistheconceptofcardinaltraitsthosethatserveastheprimarydriversofbehaviorandthatsetoneindividualapartfromanotherandgive
oneaparticularidentity.Thesameconceptmaybeappliedtoorganizations.Theideahereisthatbehindeachorganizationisamixofsomesmallnumberofmotives
thatarefundamentaldriversaroundwhichthebusinessisbuiltandthatguidetheoverallbehaviorofthefirm.So,inonesense,thevisioncanbethoughtofasan
articulationoftheorganization'saspirationsforitsfuturebasedonunderlyingmotives.Forthemostpart,thesemotivescanbedividedintotwosegments:thoserelating
tothemissionandthoserelatingtothecorevalues.

Mission

Amissionisthestatedpurposeofanorganizationitaddressesthequestion:''Whydoweexist?"20Thereareanumberofcomponentstothisquestion,butinbroad
termsthefollowingfourprovideaniceorganizingstructure:

Aspirations:Involvesadescriptionoftheorganization'swishesandhopesforthefuture(e.g.,Wheredoestheorganizationwanttobein5,10,or15years?What
willthefuturevaluechainoftheindustrylooklike?Wherewilltheorganizationwanttofitin?).

Businesses:Includesadescriptionoftheorganization'scurrentcorebusinessesandcashcowsandanunderstandingofthehopesforfuturebusi

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nesses(e.g.,Whatbusinessesdoesitwanttogetinto,stayinasaprimaryplayer,stayinasasecondarybusiness,ordivest?Howshouldthebusinessesofthe
organizationbeinterrelated,ifatall?).

Position:Describesthemarketleadershipgoalsforspecificbusinesssegments(e.g.,Whatrankorlevelofleadershipistargetedformajorbusinesssegments?What
isthetimeframeforreachingthesegoals?).

Products:Describesthegoalsforspecificproduct/servicelines(e.g.,Whatisthemarketsharetargetforspecificproduct/servicelines?Whattypesofnewcustomers
aretargeted?Whichcompetitorswilltheorganizationtakemarketsharefrom?).

CoreValues

Beyondthedrivetoaccomplishthemission,whatistheorganizationmotivatedtoachieveforitsvariousconstituencies?Althoughnotanexhaustivelist,thefollowing
fivestakeholdergroupscoveralotofterritory:

Owners/Shareholders:Whatlevelofeconomicreturndoestheorganizationstrivefor?Whatfinancialreturnsaresoughtonspecificinvestments?Whatindicatorsbest
representtotalorganizationsuccess:dollarprofit?percentprofit?earningspershare?returnoninvestment?returnongrossassets?marketshare?

Employees:Whattypeofworkexperiencedoestheorganizationwanttoprovideforemployees?Aretheredramaticdifferencesacrosslevels?Whatkindof
financialreturndoesitwanttoprovideemployeesatalllevels?Doestheorganizationspendresourcestogrowitsownpeopleordoesitletthemtakecareof
themselvesandhirefromtheoutsidewhenthereisademandfortalent?Wheredoestheorganizationstandonemployeecompensationrelativetocompetitivefirms:
higher,equal,lower?Relevantexamplesofhoworganizationsexpressthevalueofemployeesinexistingvisionstatementsinclude"Treatingallteammemberswith
respect,""Communicatingopenlyandhonestlyamongteammembers,"and"Committedtomaintainingasafeworkenvironmentforallemployees."

Customers:Whatdegreeofcustomersatisfactionandvaluedoestheorganizationseektoprovideitscustomers?Howcantheorganizationhelpcustomersachieve
theirgoals?Relevantstatementsfromexistingvisionstatementsare"Completelycommittedtocustomersatisfaction"and"Driventobethehighestqualityproducerin
themarket."

Society:How,specifically,doestheorganizationdemonstrategoodcorporatecitizenship?Doesitsupportsocialprojectsthroughgiftsorothercontributions?Isthe
organizationacommunityleader,amiddleoftheroadcitizen,ordoesitseeitselfasfreeofcommunityobliga

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tions?Arelevantstatementfromoneorganization'svisionstatementis"Committedtoprotectingtheenvironment."

Government:Howdoestheorganizationcontributetothegoalsofspecificagencies?Whatkindsofcontributionsdoestheorganizationmaketogoodgovernment?

How

CompetitiveStrategy

Iftheorganization'svision,subsumedmission,andcorevaluesaremotives,thecompetitivestrategyisthearrayofmanifestbehaviors.Thesearetheorganization's
broadactionsdesignedtotakeadvantageoftheopportunitiesandprotectagainsttheidentifiedthreatsintheenvironment.Furthermore,thecompetitivestrategycan
beconceptualizedusingsomeoftheninecomponentslistednext.ThispartofthebusinessstrategyframeworkbuildsonPorter'sthreegenericstrategies,21introduces
someideasrelatedtoD'Aveni'sworkonhypercompetition,22andincorporatesthethinkingofseveralotherstrategists,includingSteiner23andHamelandPrahalad.24

Cost:Thefocusoftheorganizationisoncompetingontheplayingfieldofprice.Forexample,underlegendaryfounderSamWalton,WalMartexperienced
staggeringgrowthinthe1970sand1980s,withaclearcutstrategy:forgetthefrillsandsellbrandnamemerchandiseatlowprices.Thenofrillsphilosophypermeates
thecompany,asanyonewhohaseverbeentothecompanyheadquartersinBentonville,Arkansascanattest.NowoneoftheUnitedState'slargestretailers,the
companyisgoingglobal,butthefundamentalstrategyisunchanged.

Value:Thefocusisondevelopinginnovative,unique,valuableproductsorservicesthatothersinthemarketcannotoffer.Intelisahightechcompanythathashadto
surviveonthevalueofitsideasandinnovativesolutionsitdoessoonacontinuousbasisbecauseoftheincrediblepaceofchangeinamarketthatwillnotstandstill.
Notsurprisingly,Intelspendsanimpressive6%ofitstotalpayroll($160millionin1996),onitsinhouseuniversityandtraining.

Quality:Thefocusisonhighquality,defectfreeproduct.Forexample,whentheJapanesetargetedU.S.electronicsproducers,Motorolawasoneofthefewthat
notonlywithstoodthechallenge,butbeatthemattheirowngame.Thecompanylaunchedawidearrayofinitiativestoimproveproductqualitystartinginthelate
1970sduringthe1980s,ittripledsalesandprofitswhileotherU.S.basedmanufacturersofelectricalcomponentswerecavingintooverseascompetition.

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Service:Itconcernsthequalityfocusfortheservicesideofbusiness.Inthesecases,thefocusisonprovidingexcellentservice,whetherinsupportofaproduct
(e.g.,dealernetworks,technicalassistance,hotlines,educationaboutproductuse)orintermsofthelevelofcomfortorexpertiseassociatedwithaservice.For
example,beforeSeattlebasedspecialtyretailerNordstrom'sopenedtheirfirststoreontheeastcoastin1988,peopletravelingtothewestcoastusedtomakeita
pointtodropintooneoftheirstorestoseeifthestoriesweretrue.Famousforputtingcustomerservicefirst,Nordstromemployeesroutinelywenttheextramileto
givevisitorstothestoreadelightful"shoppingexperience."

Capacity:Thefocusisondeliveringaproductorserviceonalargescale.Forexample,considerCocaColaanditsstatedgoalofputtingaCokewithinarmsreach
ofanyone,anywhere.Thecompanyappearswellonitsway,giventhat80%ofthisbeverageandfoodservicegiant'sprofitscomefromoutsideNorthAmerica.
Citibankisanotherexamplebothintermsofbreadthofitsfinancialproductsandservicesandduetotheomnipresenceofitslocations.

Speed:Thefocusisonhowquicklyinnovativeproductsorservicescanbeintroducedtothecommercialmarketatonelevelandhowquicklygoodsandservices
canbedeliveredatanother.Forexample,theMinnesotaMiningandManufacturingcompanyfitshere(3MforthoseofyouwholiveoutsideMinnesota!).Froma
stumblingstartasaproducerofsandpaper,3Misnowaleaderinawiderangeofmarkets(e.g.,magneticstoragemedia,fluorochemicalproducts,reflectivesheeting)
andcommandsatremendousportfolioofproducts(estimatedtobemorethan50,000).Thisgettherefirstmentalityissupportedbythemanagementdecreethat
30%ofrevenuesmustcomefromnewproductseveryyear.

Distribution:Thefocusisonefficientanduniquewaysofgettingproductorservicetothecustomers.Forexample,considerthewarthatisbeingwagedin
bookselling.TraditionalbookstorechainsarelosinggroundtoupstartelectronicretailerAmazon.com.ThecompanyoperatesontheWeb,hasnophysicalstores,has
alimitedinventory,andyetoffersanelectroniclistof2.5milliontitlestoanyonewithaccesstoabrowser.CanVirtualMallorWebStreetbefarbehind?

Features:Thefocusisonofferinguniqueorcustomizablefeatures,options,orbenefitstousers("bellsandwhistles,"style,design,shapeandsize,flexibilitytomix
andmatchoptions).Forexample,TenFoldCorp.isa150employeecompanyinthebusinessofdevelopingsoftwarebasedbusinessapplicationsfororganizations
whoseneedsarenotmetbypackagedsoftware.TenFoldCorp.'sdesignersuseobjectbasedtoolsandcomponentstobuildcustomizedapplications,oftenusingthe
unusual

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businesstacticofresellingtechnologydevelopedwithothercustomers,withtheoriginalclientreceivingsomeformofroyalty.

Focus:Thisisahybridstrategythefocusisonsatisfyingtheneedsofaspecificcategoryofcustomersormarketniche.Forexample,EsteeLauderisinthetricky
businessofsellingsomethingthatitstargetedcustomerscan,ifyougetrightdowntoit,dowithout.YetEsteeLaudercosmeticsisa$3.6billioncompany,controlling
45%ofthemarketintheU.S.departmentstores.Thecompanyhasincreasedrevenue50%since1993inarelativelystagnantindustryby,inlargepart,knowingtheir
customers(i.e.,knowingwhattheywant,whentheywantit,howtheyliketobesoldto,andsoon).AnotherexampleistherockgrouptheGratefulDead,which
remainedaforceinthemusicbusinessfor30yearsandpulledin$95millionayearatitsheight.BuiltaroundthedistinctivevoiceandguitarworkofthelateJerry
Garcia,theDeadproducedanimprovisationalrockdancebeatthatnoteverybodyliked.However,thosethatdidlikeit,reallylikedit.Yearafteryear,thegroup
remainedtruetothenicheoffansthatlovedthemtheyneverchangedtheirmusicalstyleandtheystayedclosetotheircustomerbasebyplayingcountlessliveshows
everyyear.25

Ofcourse,mostcompetitivestrategiesinclude,insomedegree,allnineofthesecompetitiveorientations.Althoughitmightnotmakesensetoconsideranyoneofthese
strategiesasatimelessbasisofsuccessforanorganization,26atanyonetimeitisusuallypossibletofindtheonestrategythatismissioncritical.Itistheorganization's
raisond'tre.Itistheonemodeofbehaviorthatisstrategicallymostimportantandistheleadlocomotivethatpropelstheorganizationalongthevisiontrack.

Questionsthatcanshedlightontheorganization'scompetitivestrategyinclude:"Whatisthesourceoftheorganization'scompetitiveadvantage?""Whenevaluating
specificbusinessideasorinitiativesforfitwiththeorganization'sgoals,whatquestionsdotheseniormanagementteamuseastheultimatelitmustest?""Whatmajor
factorswillcontributetotheorganization'ssuccessoverthenext5years?""Howdocustomersviewtheorganizationintermsofthingsdonewellorpoorly?"
Responsestothesequestionsalllinkbacktocompetitivestrategy.Dependingonwhichoftheninecompetitivestrategiesismostimportanttoagivenorganization,the
decisionsthattheorganizationmakesabouthowtocompeteforitsshareofthefuturewillvarygreatly.Moreissaidonthislaterinthischapter.

StrategicInitiatives

Strategicinitiativesarethespecificwaysinwhichthegoalsidentifiedinthevisionaretobeattained.Inotherwords,thestrategicinitiativeselaborateonthebroad
goalsinthevisionandprovideanoperationaldefinition.Forexample,

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thereareanumberofwaystogainmarketshare,introducenewproductstothemarketplace,enteranewgeographicmarket,andsoon.Considerabroadgoalof
increasingmarketshareby20%inaparticularmarketovera3yearspan.Thiscouldbeaccomplishedbyincreasingtheutilizationofnewdistributionchannelsbya
givenpercentineachofthenext3years,addingasetnumberofnewproductstotheproductline,restructuringthesalesforcebyassigningsalesterritoriesand
institutinganewincentivesystem,andsoon.Ofcourse,thevariousinitiativescanvaryalonganumberofmeaningfuldimensions,includingtheextenttowhichthey
involverisk,thedegreeofcreativityinvolved,andsoforth.Forjobmodelingpurposes,simplybreakingtheinitiativesintoarevenuegeneratingandcostsavings
dichotomyoftenprovessufficient.

RevenueBased:Toplinedrivenstrategiesthatincludespecificinitiativessuchas:

Thirtypercentincreaseincustomersatisfactionindex.

Twentypercentincreaseinproposaltosaleshitrate.

Twentyfivepercentincreaseincustomercontacthours.

Twentyfivepercentincreaseinprofessionaltimeserviceutilizationrates.

Fiftypercentincreaseintheutilizationofnewdistributionchannels.

CostBased:Bottomlinedrivenstrategiesthatincludespecificinitiativessuchas:

Thirtythreepercentreductioninproductionleadtimes.

Sixtysixpercentreductionindefectivemachineparts.

Tenpercentreductioninhourlyworkforcewithoutsacrificingvolume.

Eightypercentreductioninthenumberofvendors.

Sixtysixpercentreductionininventorylevels.

Fiftypercentreductioninnewproductdevelopmentcosts.

Aninvestigationofstrategicinitiativesmightstartwithanoutlineofthekeychallengesfacingtheorganization.Followupquestionsmightinclude:"Whatrevenuebased,
toplineinitiativesareinplacetoaccomplishstrategicobjectives?""Arenewrevenuebasedinitiativesbeingconsidered?""Whatcostbased,bottomlineinitiativesare
inplacetoaccomplishtheobjectives?""Arenewcostbasedinitiativesunderconsideration?"

FunctionalInitiatives

Thecompetitivestrategyandstrategicinitiativesaretheupstreamelementsthatbecomemoreconcreteandactionableastheycoursethroughthespecificfunctions.
Whiletheframeworkforclassifyingtheeventualimpactsisrepre

 Page54

sentedinFig.3.3intermsoftraditionalfunctionalareas,suchanapproachneednotalwaysbethecase.Amunicipalgovernmentmightbeorganizedbypurpose
functions,suchaspolice,fire,healthservices,parksandrecreation,education,water,andstreets.Afactoryconfiguredaccordingtobusinessprocessesmightbe
organizedbyprocessfunctions,suchasfoundryandcastings,millingandgrinding,screwmachining,finishing,inspection,shipping,customerservice,andaccounting.
ThebottomlineisthatthelastcolumninFig.3.3shouldrepresentthechannelsofaccountability,orwayoflife,inthetargetorganization.ThecompletedcellsinFig.
3.3areforpurposesofillustrationonly.Togetherwiththeidentificationofthestrategicinitiativesdiscussedearlier,thisinformationisimportantforunderstandingand
definingthestrategicallydrivendesiredoutcomesorexpectationsoftheorganization.

PuttingthePiecesTogether

Howdoesonebegintobuildanunderstandingoftheorganization'sultimateobjectivesandfactorthisinformationintothejobmodelingeffort?Theformatforlinking
HRinterventionsandindividualcompetenciestotheorganization'svisionandstrategyislessimportantthanhavingasystematicprocess.Thatsaid,theframeworkset
outinFigs.3.2and3.3providesabroad,andthensomewhatmoredetailedstructureforcapturingthekeyinformationandmappingbusinessstrategy.Figure3.4
providesanappliedexampleofhowthisworks.TheFigurepresentsahighlevelbusinessmapforacompanyreferredtohereasEcologyPartnersInternational.To
disguisetheclient,theinformationreportedherehasbeenmodifiedandrecastinthefictitiouspollutioncontrolindustry.

Asasecondexample,Fig.3.5presentsthemoredetailedstructureforcapturingtheresultsofastrategicmappingforthesalesorganizationofaclientinthebanking
industry.Again,theresultshavebeenmodifiedandtheclientisreferredtohereusingthefictitiousnameofBankPartnersIncorporated(itshouldbenotedthatthis
mapdoesnotreflectthestrategyofBANKONEorFirstTennesseeBank,whoseprojectworkisreferredtobynameelsewhereinthisbook).

Wheredoestheindustrydescriptionandbusinessstrategyinformationforcompletingthesemapscomefrom?SourcesliketheEncyclopediaofCareersand
VocationalGuidance,27theOccupationalOutlookHandbook,28andspecificindustrysearchesinabusinesslibrarycanprovidebroadinformationaboutthe
relevantbusinessenvironmentandanorganization'sgeneralmarketplace.Closertohome,annualreports,businessmediasearches,Dun&Bradstreetreports,Value
Linecompanysurveys,publishedproductinformation,theorganization'shomepageontheInternet,andbookslikeHoover'sHandbookofAmericanBusiness29
andthecompanyfieldguideEverybody'sBusiness30canallbehelpful.

Additionally,itislikelythatawiderangeofdocumentsexistinternaltotheorganization,whichmayprovideadirectassessmentofkeyexternalvariablesanddetailed
examinationsofcurrentstrategy.Marketresearchreports,existing

 Page55

Fig.3.4.
BigpicturebusinessmapforEcologyPartnersInternational:
Componentsdivision(modelingworktargetingengineeringjobs).

 Page56

Fig.3.5.
DetailedbusinessmapforBankPartners,Inc.:Retail
banking(modelingworktargetingsalesjobs).

 Page57

strategicplansorotherproductsofinternalstrategyteamsortaskforces,recentassessmentsofpotentialbusinesspartnershipsorallianceproposals,departmentaudit
reports,andtheresultsofcustomerandemployeesurveysareallexcellentsources.

Keepinmindthattheremightbewidelyheldunwrittenmotivesandvaluesthatdonotendupinformaldocuments.Itmaybeinformativetoidentifythecloselyheld
valuesoftheorganization'sfoundersanddetermineiftheyarestillheldbytheseniormanagementteam.Itcanbeusefultoidentifyandcharacterizethekindof
examplesorstandardsthemembersoftheseniormanagementteamsetforotherstofollow.

Ofcourse,interviewswiththethoughtandvisionaryleadersoftheseniormanagementteam,keyrepresentativesfrominternalstrategygroupsorstrategictaskforces,
andsoforthcanproviderichdetail.Awordofcaution,besuretodoyourhomeworkfirst:Learnasmuchaspossibleabouttheorganization'smarketplace,key
competitors,andstrategiesbeforejumpingintobusinesscontextandstrategyinterviews.Theseindividualswillfindgoingoverthebasicstobefrustrating.Conducted
properly,theseinterviewsnotonlywillfillincriticalinformationgapsandprovideausefullongtermperspective,theyalsowillhaveatremendousrelationshipbuilding
quality.Alwaysbeonthelookoutforopportunitiestoidentifyanddevelopinternalpartnersandchampionsforyourproject.

Detailedideasandsuggestionsforconductingstrategicandcontentexpertinterviewsandfocusgroupsarepresentedinchapter5.Fornow,itisworthnotingthat
individualinterviewstypicallyarepreferredwhenworkingatthislevelintheorganization.However,smallfocusgroups(i.e.,threetofivepeople)canbeusefulwhen
differencesofopinionexistamongtheleadershipteamandtheyneedtocometocloseragreementabouttheircommonfate.Inbothcases,becarefulaboutintroducing
aspecifictheoryforunderstandingbusinessstrategythisearlyintheinformationgatheringprocess.Unlessthecustomerisfamiliarwiththespecifictheoryand
approach,doingsotendstoconstraindiscussionanddecreasethenumberandrichnessofcustomerinputs.

Also,whenelicitinginformation,useopenendedquestionstodiscoverfactsorclarifyissuesthatarenotclearcut,asisfrequentlythecaseatthisstageofthemodeling
process.Closedendedquestionsaremostappropriatewhentryingtoclassifyresponsesprecisely,whentheissuesareclear,orwhentheintervieweehasthought
aboutthetopicindetailbeforetheinterview.

Onewaytoconsolidateandbegintomakesenseoftheinformationfromtheexternalliteraturereview,and/orinternaldocumentreview,and/orstrategicinterviewsis
toreproducethekeyideason35indexcards.Thesecardsmaythenbeorganizedintopilescorrespondingtomacroenvironmentalstuff,microenvironmentalstuff,
andsoon.Identifythethemesthatrepeatedlypopupandinvestigatemajordifferencesofopinionwithadditionalinterviewsifnecessary.

 Page58

OncethemajorideashavebeencapturedandcategorizedintotheappropriateNOW,WOW,andHOWcategories(orsubcategories),itmayproveinformativeto
visuallydisplaytheinterdependenceamongthevariablesbycreatingabusinessandstrategyweb.Figure3.6illustratessuchaweb,wherethe35cardsaretapedto
thewallandcoloredyarnisusedtodepictcriticallinkages(oryoucangeta36inchwideroleofbrownwrappingpaperfrommostofficesupplywarehouses,tape
hugesectionstoawall,andusecoloredmarkerstolistthevariablesanddrawthelinkages).Thisanalysiscanalsohelprevealthoseclustersofjobsintheorganization
thatarehypercriticalintermsofachievingthevisionandstrategicgoals.Ofcourse,unlessthejobmodelingworkisbuildingonpreviouswork,theactivityand
competencydimensionslistedinthefinaltwocolumnswillonlybebroadlabelsthatlogicallymakesensegiventheparticularmixoftargetedjobs.

Itwouldbemisleadingnottomentionthatthevisionandstrategyjuggernauthastakensomehitsinthepastfewyears.Mintzberghasevenwrittentheequivalentofan
obituaryforthedisciplinecalledTheRiseandFallofStrategicPlanning.31IsuspectMintzbergwasdeliberatelyoverstatingthecasetodrawattentiontohispoint
thatstrategicplanningfrequentlyseparatesthinkingfromdoing.Forexample,thestrategistsintheorganizationoftenlackthedetailedbusinessandtechnicalknowledge
requiredtomakegoodbusinessdecisions.Atthesametime,thetypicalfrontlineemployeeswhohavethetechnicalandfunctionalknowledgeandtheintimate
understandingofcustomercareaboutsaretooremovedfromthestrategyprocesstohaveanyrealimpact.Thesearewonderfulpointsthathighlightsomeofthesoft
spotsintypicalstrategydevelopmentefforts.

Althoughthepracticeofbusinessstrategydevelopmentiscurrentlyhavingsomeofitsflawsexaminedunderamicroscope,IagreewithMicklethwaitandWooldridge
thatreportsofitsdemiseareexaggerated.32Infact,HamelandPrahalad'srecentcontribution,CompetingfortheFuture,33maybethemostimportantbook
impactingstrategytocomealonginadecade.Acentralthesisofthebookisthatthetrulyimportantformofcompetitionisthefighttocreateandthendominate
emergingopportunities.Asnotedearlierinthechapter,thedecisionstheorganizationmakesabouthowtocompeteforitsshareofthefuturewillvarygreatly.

Forexample,eachofthecompetitivestrategiesdiscussedpreviouslyunderHOWcanleadtheorganizationinadifferentdirectionandalteritsbusinesscharacteristic
profile.Similarly,eachofthesecompetitivestrategiesisimplementedandsupportedindifferentwaysthroughouttheorganization.AllofthisleadsustoTable3.1,
whichillustratessomepotentialeffectseachcompetitivestrategymayhaveonthebusinessandthemanagementofhumanresources.Itshouldbemadeclearthat,
althoughmanyofthebusinessandhumanresourceimpactsnotedinTable3.1arebasedonadistillationoftheresearchandobservationsreportedinoutletslikethe
SloanManagement

 Page59

Fig.3.6.
Businesscontextandstrategyweb.

 Page60

TABLE3.1
CompetitiveStrategy:BusinessCharacteristicsandHRImpacts

CostDrivenOrganization
(Focusisoncompetingontheplayingfieldofprice.)

PotentialBusinessCharacteristics PotentialHRImpacts

Vigorouspursuitofproduction/deliveryefficiencies.
Tightcontrolovercostofinputsinparticular(e.g.,
materialsandresources)andclosemanagementof
overheadingeneral.
MinimalexpendituresinR&D,marketing,service,sales,
andtraining.
Emphasisonlargeaccounts,bothintermsof
procurementofinputsfromvendorsanddeliveryof
productsorservicestocustomers.Economicsofscaleis
key.
Useoflowcostdistributionsystem.
Redesignworktoallowforeaseinproduct/service
manufacture/delivery.Creativeuseofparttimeworkers
andflexschedules.
Minimalentrylevelselectionrequirementsfor
large/unskilled(inrelativeterms)laborforce,beyond
basicskillsandreliabilityanddependability.
Selectandtrainstrongsupervisorstomonitorand
coachalarge/lowwagelaborforce.
Performanceappraisalandincentivesystemslinkedto
meetingproduction/deliverytargetsandimproving
processes.
Jobdescription,classification,anddesignto
capture/articulateclearorganizationstructureandwork
group/individualresponsibilities.

ValueDrivenOrganization
(Focusisondevelopingunique,valuabletechnologiesthatothersinthemarketcannotoffer.)

PotentialBusinessCharacteristics PotentialHRImpacts

Laserbeamfocusondevelopingbestinclass
capabilitiesinselectedactivitiesandknowledgeareas.
Promotereputationfortechnologicalleadershipand
capitalizeonbrandimage.
Emphasizeproductengineeringorserviceintegration.
Maintainanactivebasicresearchcontingent.
Partnerwithindustryleaders,universities,or
independentresearchorganizationstopooltechnical
resourcesformutualbenefit.
Selectiontoolstoidentifyhighcaliberscientistsand
professionalswithnecessarycreativeflairtocomplement
technicalskills
Jobevaluationandcompensationprogramsdesignedto
motivateandensuretheretentionofscientistsand
professionalswithhighlysoughtafterskills.
Skillsassessmentandtrainingintechnicalareasto
combatknowledgedecrementsinscientificand
professionalfields.
Simulationsand/orassessmentstoaidscientistsin
movingsuccessfullyfromthetechnicaltracktothe
managementtrack(i.e.,creatingmanagementleadersfrom
technicalstars).
Individualdevelopmentassessmenttoidentify
marketingandsalespersonnelsuitedtoworkingin
complexvaluebasedorganizationvs.marketing/selling
simplyonprice.

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE3.1(continued)

QualityDrivenOrganization
(Focusisonhighquality,defectfreeproductorservice.)

PotentialBusinessCharacteristics PotentialHRImpacts

Aggressivepursuitofinformationoncustomer
careabouts,includingtheinvolvementofcustomersin
product/servicedesign.
Seriouseffortstoinstillacontinuousimprovement
orientationandadeliberateongoingimprovementagenda
throughouttheorganization.
Processconsultingonqualitymanagementand
continuousimprovementprograms,suchasMotorola's
SixSigma,EmersonElectric'sBestCostAnalysis,Xerox's
SystematicBenchmarking,andvariousprocessmapping
techniques.

Strictmonitoringoffranchisee,subcontractor,and
supplierscreeningrequirements,performancestandards,
andconsistencymetrics.
Investmentinpeopleandknowledgecommunities.
SomewhatmoreliberalexpendituresinR&D,marketing,
service,sales,andtraining.
Organizationdevelopmentworkdiagnosinglearning
disabilitiesandcreatingalearningorganization.
Simulationsdesignedtoevaluateandprovidefeedback
onteamwork.
Trainingprogramsemphasizingcollaborationand
teamworkskillsandstatisticalqualitycontroltechniques.
Surveysandfocusgroupswithcustomerstoidentify
needsandsolicitperformancefeedback.

ServiceDrivenOrganization
(Focusisonprovidingexcellentservice,whetherinsupportofaproductorinterms
ofthelevelofcomfortorexpertiseassociatedwithaservice.)

PotentialBusinessCharacteristics PotentialHRImpacts

Avalueoninvestmentsinpeopleasmuchas,ifnot
morethan,investmentsinmachines/technology.
Closemonitoringofmultiplemetricstrackingservice
responsiveness.
Relationshiporientedintermsofcultivatinggoodwork
relationsamongassociatestodealingswithpartners,
franchisees,subcontractors,andsuppliers.
CreativeinvolvementofR&Dandmanufacturing
groupsinaftersalessupport.
Increasedcustomerserviceandsalesrankstoincrease
contactwithcustomers.
Recruiting,training,andretentionissuesareequally
importantforfrontlineemployeesandmanagers.
Selectfrontlinelaborforcewithstronginterpersonal
skills.
Trainingprogramsdesignedtohoneservicerelated
skills,indoctrinatenewassociates,anddrivehomethe
companyvisionstatement.
Trainingseminarsonproductknowledgeandcustomer
relationsandservice.
Compensationlinkedtoperformanceforemployeesat
everylevel,notjustthoseatthetop,withclearlystated
standardsrelatingtointerpersonalattitudeandimage.

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE3.1(continued)

CapacityDrivenOrganization
(Focusisondeliveringaproductorserviceonalargescale.)

PotentialBusinessCharacteristics PotentialHRImpacts

Aggressivelymanageproductionefficiencytoeliminate
wasteorduplicationofefforttoincreasespeedand
output.
Continuouslymonitorstatusandprogressagainst
plans/objectivesatalllevelsofproductdevelopmentor
servicedelivery.
Closeattentiontodetailandtroubleshootingactivities.
Emphasisonlargeaccounts,bothingaininginputfrom
vendorsanddeliveringproductsorservicesto
customers.
Frequentlyslowtorespondtonewtechnologies
becauseofhighcapitalinvestment(inboththingsand
people)supportingcurrentstreamlinedprocedures.
Attentiontodetailandasenseofurgencyaretwo
competenciesthatarepredominantinmanyjobgroups
throughouttheorganization.
Trainingprogramsforimpartingtheplanningand
delegatingskillsneededbyprojectleaders.
Empowermenttrainingforsupervisorsandteamleads,
designedtogetassociatestomanagetheirown
responsibilities.
Processconsultingaroundreengineeringwork.

SpeedDrivenOrganization
(Focusisonhowquicklyanewproductorservicecanbedelivered.)

PotentialBusinessCharacteristics PotentialHRImpacts

Willingnesstoacceptrisksassociatedwithdelivering
product/servicetomarketaheadofcompetitors.
Emphasizeanalysisofmarkettrendstogaininsight.
Aggressivemanagementofnewproductdevelopment
cycles.
Engageinjointventurestospeedentryandsharerisks
associatedwithnewmarkets.
Identifyandcreategeographicalandtechnology
partnershipstoaugmentorganizationalcapabilities.
Recruitandselectassociateswithstrongteamwork
skills.
Performanceappraisalandincentivesystemslinkedto
measuresofteamworkandcontinuouslearning.
Jobredesignworktoidentifyoverlappingactivitiesand
eliminatetimeconsumingpractices.
Employeeskillsbankstofacilitatetheallocationofthe
righttechnicalskillstotherightprojects.
Coachingeffortstargetingentrylevelmanagersto
createinfluentialandstrongprojectleaders.

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE3.1(continued)

DistributionDrivenOrganization
(Focusisongettingproductsorservicestothecustomersinefficientanduniqueways.)

PotentialBusinessCharacteristics PotentialHRImpacts

Manageventuresandalliancestoaugmentdistribution
network.
Aggressiveandextensivereviewsofproductorservice
flows.
Quickresponsecapabilitiesatthepointofcontactwith
thecustomer.
Efficientsystemsforcapturingpointofsaledataand
usingtheinformationtodrivereplenishmenteffortsand
pricing.
Recruitandselectassociateswithastrongwork
efficiencyorientationandgoodplanningandteamwork
skills.
Oftenmorereceptivetouniquewaysofautomating
standardHRpractices(e.g.,usinginstorescanningor
otherdigitaltechnologiestoscorepreemploymenttests).
Reengineeringworkprocessesandworkflowsis''in,"
andsoisanopennesstointerventionslikejob
design/redesign.

FeaturesDrivenOrganization
(Focusisonuniquefeatures/options/benefitstousers
["bellsandwhistles,"style,design,shapeandsize,flexibilitytomixandmatchoptions].)

PotentialBusinessCharacteristics PotentialHRImpacts

Aggressivepursuitofinformationoncustomer
careaboutsalwaysonthelookoutforwhatismissing
fromcurrentmarketofferings.
Everchangingworkenvironmentinwhichpeople,
processes,andtechnologyreconfiguretogivecustomers
whattheywant.
Strongcontinuousimprovementorientationthroughout
theorganization.
Aggressivepursuitofcompetitiveintelligenceabout
productplansandserviceenhancements.
Similartothequalitydrivenorganizationinthatthere
aresomewhatmoreliberalfundsoutedtoR&D,
marketing,sales,andtraining.
Recruitingandselectionprogramsdesignedtoscreen
intotheorganizationpeoplewhoarebright,creative,
adaptable,willingtotakeeducatedrisks,andcapableof
listening.
Performanceappraisalandcompensationsystemsfocus
onrewardingingenuityandtheidentificationofstrategic
opportunities.
Employeeskillsbankstokeeptrackofthehumantalent
portfolioandfacilitatetheallocationoftherighttechnical
skillstotherightprojects.

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 Page64

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE3.1(continued)

FocusDrivenOrganization
(Focusisonsatisfyingparticularneedsofaspecificmarketniche.)

PotentialBusinessCharacteristics PotentialHRImpacts

Strongmarketingfunctionandanemphasisonmarket
researchdatadetailingmicromarketproclivities.
Riskaversewithlaserbeamfocusoncustomer
careabouts.
Intensemanagementofmodificationsof
product/serviceofferings,product/serviceline
extensions,andtechnicalservicestoneedsofprofiled
customers.
Activeinvolvementoftargetedcustomergroupin
product/servicedevelopment.
Moresothanothercompetitivestrategytypes,the
focusdrivenstrategyoftenhasatwinengineandwill
alsoexhibitthebusinesscharacteristicsofthe
complimentstrategy.
Strongcustomerorientationandlisteningskill
emphasizedthroughoutallHRprograms.
Individualcoachingforassociatesworkingwith
customersonencouragingandlisteningtofeedback.
Conductingfocusgroupswiththeorganization'sfront
linepeopledefinecustomerbase,customer's
expectationsandrequirementsfordoingbusiness.
Performanceappraisalandincentiveprogramslinkedto
themeasurementandrewardofexcellentcustomer
service.

Review,HarvardBusinessReview,andtheAcademyofManagementJournal,justasmanyderivefrompersonalexperiencesandthoseofcolleagues.Inany
event,thesepotentialimpactsshouldbethoughtofaswellreasonedlikelihoodsversusresearchbasedfacts.

Insummary,thepurposeofthissectionhasnotbeentoprescribealgorithmslinkingspecificmacroenvironmentvariablestospecificmicroenvironmentvariablesandon
downtospecificHRinterventionsandcompetencyrequirements.Thiswouldhavebeenakintocreatingadetailedroadmapshowingallpossibleinterconnections
betweendifferentstartingpointsanddestinations.Instead,theapproachhasbeentoprovideacompass,introducesomekeyreferencepointsinthebusinessstrategy
terrain,andletyouchartyourowncourse.Thisapproachshouldprovemoreusefulandsatisfying.

 Page65

ProjectManagementTips

PerhapsthebesttipIcanofferforStep1oftheCheshireStrategicJobModelingProcessistoknowyourlimitations.Thetypicaljobmodelerisnotinapositionto
consultwithorganizationsaboutwhatbusinessestobein,advisethemaboutbusinessentryorexitstrategies,orrecommendcompetitiveposturesforproductlines.If
aleadershipteamquestionswhatbusinesstoleaveorenter,orwhatpositiontoseekwithinamarketplace,thequestionsshouldbereferredbacktothekeyleadership
teammembers,aninternalstrategygroup,orsomeotherstrategyconsultingresource.

Next,beawarethattheroleoftheSJMconsultantshiftsoverthelifeoftheproject.Figure3.7isanefforttoillustratethispoint.Inthebeginningstagesofaproject,
suchasstrategydefinitionandmappingthebusinesscontext,themodelerwilllikelybeoperatingprimarilyasaprocessconsultant,followingasomewhatless
structuredapproachindealingwiththecustomerandgatheringinformationtoguidesubsequentchoices.Movingtowardtheendofaproject,themodelerwill
probablybemosteffectiveemployingmoreofatechnicalexpertorientation,followingamorestructuredprotocol,andofferingmoreconcreteinterpretationsof
informationtoguidesubsequentchoices.ManyHRpractitionersandconsultantsexcelinoneroleortheotherandoperateindeliverynichesthatallowthemto
leveragetheirstrengths.Incontrast,thejobmodelerhastobegoodatboth.

Finally,whenresearchingtheorganization'scompetitivestrategy,lookforwaysthestrategydriversmanifestthemselvesinindividualbehavior.Dependingonhowclear
theorganizationstrategyis,theemployeeswillhavedevelopedperceptionsaboutorganizationcareaboutsandstrategiesbasedonhundredsofworkexperiences.
Peopledoagoodjobofbasingtheirbehaviorontheperceptionstheyhaveofwhattheorganizationwantsthemtodo.Forexample,thecustomersandsupport
personnelajobmodelermeetsatthebeginningofaprojectrepresentanextensionoftheentireorganization.Thebehaviors,decisionmakingstyles,competency
levels,andsoforththatajobmodelerobservesattheoutsetwilllikelybemirroredelsewhereintheorganization.Althoughthisobservationisparticularlyrelevantfor
externalconsultants,italsoappliestointernalexpertswhoarebeingtappedtoconsultwithanunfamiliarbusinessunitoftheorganization.Stayvigilantandlearn!

 Page66

Fig.3.7.
Shiftinconsultingorientationovertimeinastrategicjobmodelingproject.

 Page67

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 Page69

Chapter4
WhatApplicationsareRequiredtoAchieveDesiredOutcomes?
humanresourcesinanorganization,likeamobile,isawebofinterconnectionsachangeinoneareathrowsadifferentpartoffbalance.
Unknown

Irecentlyhadthechancetogowatchmy5yearoldnephewplayasoccergame.Whataspectacle!Twelvegirlsandboysalldoingtheirownthing,runningveryfast,
oftenindifferentdirections,spinningaroundandtrippingovereachother,andsometimesjuststrikingoffalone.Thefactthattherewasagoaloneitherendofthefield
andasoccerballintheirmidstwasincidental.Whenthegamewasalmostover,Inoticedwhatappearedtobeahighschoolgametakingplaceonthefieldbehindus,
andthedifferenceinthegamewasamazing.Thesemoreadvancedplayers,althoughhavingnomoreenergyorfervorthantheiryoungercounterparts,movedacross
thefieldwithaninterrelatedintentandpurposethatwasfascinatingtowatch.

MaybeitwasjustthatIwasinthemiddleofwritingthischapteratthetime,butthesimilaritytodifferentlevelsofplayonthepartofdifferentHRMfunctionsstuck
withme.Toplaywiththebigkids,thissameinterrelatedintentandpurposeneedstodrivethevariousaspectsofHR.ThinkoftheHRfunctionasawheel,withthe
differentaspectsofHRrepresentingspokesofthewheel.TheideabehindFig.4.1isthatthesespokesdonotrepresentdiscretestepsasmuchastheydofairly
arbitraryslicesofanongoingprocess.Eachsliceoftheprocessrollsintothenextinaneverendingcyclicalfashion.Recruitingstrategiesimpactselectionsystems,
selectionsystemsultimatelyaffecttrainingprograms,trainingprogramsarelinkedinmanywaystoperformanceappraisalsystems,compensationandrewardsshould
belinkedtogoodperformance,andsoitgoesuntilitcomesbackaround.

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Fig.4.1.
Humanresourcemanagementprocesswheel.

 Page71

Inrelationtothewheel,theorganization'svision,strategies,andresultingstrategicjobmodelscanbevisualizedasanaxle.IfHRisgoingtobetrulyimpactful,these
corecomponentsmustbeconsideredasthewheelmovesalongtheaxleovertime(i.e.,wemustkeepthegoalinmind).

EachoftheslicesintheHRMwheelsubsumesavarietyofspecificapplications.Asampleofsomeoftheprimaryapplicationsthatmaybeutilizedinanorganizationas
partoftheefforttoachievespecificoutcomesappearsinTable4.1.Exactlywhichapplicationsarelikelytobemostimpactfulinaparticularsituationmaybenarrowed
downinacoupleofways.First,twoimportantconceptsneedtobeintroduced.

ValidityandRelevance

Everyoneknowswhatismeantbytheconceptofthetruth.Despitethisconceptualagreement,thingscangetconvolutedonceonegetsdowntothedetails.Reality
introducesnumerousforksintheroad.Asaresult,thetruthseldomrunsalonganicestraightpath."Sowhat!"yousay.Well,keepinmindthatallHRapplicationsare
designedtodosomething.Thatsomethingservesasthebasisforanexpectationabouttheanticipatedoutcomes.Forexample,apreemploymenttestisdesignedto
measureacompetencyandpredictaparticularperformanceoutcome.Totheextentthetestdeliversonthisexpectationitcanbeconsideredtotrulywork,andthe
inferencesaboutfutureperformancefromthetestscoresarevalid.Similarly,anindividualcoachingprogramcanbedesignedtomeasureanddevelopaspecificsetof
competenciesformembersofanexecutiveteam.Iftheprogramproducestheexpectedoutcome,itmaybethoughtofastrulyeffective.Therefore,validitycanbe
definedas"thebestapproximationtothetruthorfalsity"ofinferencesandpredictionsbasedonsomeapplication1 resultingfromtheextenttowhichtheapplication
producesthedesiredoutcome.Furthermore,althoughbeyondthescopeofthisdiscussion,itshouldatleastbementionedthatthereareanumberofwaysfortesting
hypothesesregardingapplicationoutcomerelationships.2 ,3

Thingsgetfuzzierstillwhendiscussingtheconceptofwhatisright.Howmanythingsaredefinitivelyandwithoutquestionrightorwrong?Inthelattercategory,things
likecannibalism,planecrashesofanykind,andbaseball'sdesignatedhitterrulecometomind.Incontrast,forparentstoloveandteachtheirchildrenmustsurely
alwaysberight.However,beyondafewthings,theanswerstomostquestionsaboutrightnessandwrongnessarevaluebasedanddependonwhoisasked.

Similarly,decisionsaboutvisionandcompetitivestrategyarethevaluebaseddecisionsofanorganization'sleadershipteam.Consequently,strategydevelopmenthas
beendescribedaskindoflikeclimbingamountain,whereindividualsareropedtogetherbysomecommongoalstheupwarddirectionisagreedon,butthereare
multiplepathsleadingtothetopanditislikelythereis

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TABLE4.1
HumanResourceManagementApplications*
HumanResourcePlanning
1.JobDesign/Redesign:Createorreconstitutejobsorworkrolesintermsofworkfunctionsandworkercapabilitiesthatare
bothpalatabletoindividualsandareinalignmentwiththeorganization'sstrategyandvision.10
2.WorkLoadAnalysis:Estimatethenumberofjobsandpeoplerequirementsneededtoaccomplishobjectivesresulting
fromtheorganization'svisionandstrategy,wherejobanalysisproceduresmightbeusedtocreateastructureforestimating
thehoursperweekrequiredforspecificworkactivities.11,12
Recruiting
3.JobDescriptions&MinimumQualifications:Summarizetheessentialworkcontentandworkercapabilitiesrequiredfor
fulljobperformanceinatargetjob,derivetheworkercapabilityrequirementsofajob,andspecifyhowtherequisite
capabilitiesmaybeacquired.13,14
4.RealisticJobPreview(RJP)Content:CreateRJPcards,videocontent,orothermaterialsthatpresentthebasicwork
contentandworkercapabilitiesinconjunctionwithjobopportunitiesandobstaclesforbothrecruitmentandselfselection
purposes.
Selection
5.InterviewSystem:Createbehaviorallybasedinterviewquestions,followupprobes,andevaluativeratingscalesfora
targetjob.15,16
6.ScoredApplicationBlank/Biodata:Developquestionsaboutverifiableaspectsofanindividual'sbackground,
education,training,andexperiences,allofwhichareweightedwithreferencetotherequirementsofthetargetjob.17
7.PaperandPencilTesting(UsingExistingMeasuresandFollowupValidation):Selectexistingtestsorscaleswith
knownpsychometricpropertiesandusetoscreennewhiresintotargetjob.18,19,20
8.PaperandPencilTesting(UsingExistingMeasuresandValidityGeneralization):Selectexistingtestsorscaleswith
extensiveantecedentvalidationresearchandknownpsychometricpropertiesandusetoscreennewhiresintotargetjob.
9.PaperandPencilTesting(UsingCustomBuiltMeasuresandFollowupValidation):Createatestorseriesofscales
fromscratch,beginningwiththedevelopmentofnewitemsthroughthecreationofuniquescoringkeys.21,22,23

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

Selection
10.Simulations/ContentOrientedTestConstruction:Developrealisticsamplesofproblemsfacedbyincumbentsinthe
targetjobandbuildintoaninteractivepreemploymenttestthatincludesanevaluativeratingschemewithbehavioral
anchors.24,25,26
11.IndividualAssessmentforSelection:Oneononeindividualorpsychologicalassessmentforscreeningcandidatesinto
keyjobs,wheretherelativeinfrequencyoftheselectionquestionmakesthedevelopmentofaconventionalselectionsystem
costprohibitive.27
Classification&Placement
12.JobClassification:Developjobfamiliesandsubsumedjobgroupsbasedonfunctionalactivitiesandhierarchyof
capabilitylevel.28,29,30
13.EmployeeSkillsBankandCorrespondingPersontoJob(orTeam)Matching:Developstructurefororganizingjobs,
createsystemformaintaininginformationonworkercapabilities,anddeviseproceduresformatchingindividualcapabilities
withjoborteamrequirements.
Training
14.TrainingNeedsAnalysis:Conductanauditofemployeecapabilitiestodeterminewhetheremployeesneedtrainingand
confirmtherelevanceofatrainingprogram.31,32,33
15.TrainingProgramDesign:Developtrainingcontentandproceduresdesignedtoenhanceindividualcapabilitiesthatare
(a)mostimportantforjobperformance,(b)mostdifficulttotrain,and(c)mostlikelytobeacquiredaftercomingtothetarget
job.34,35,36
PerformanceAppraisal
16.BARSAppraisalSystems:Createinstrumentsandproceduresforevaluatingemployeeperformanceofcurrentwork
contentusingbehaviorallyanchoredratingscales.37,38
Compensation
17.JobEvaluation:Designsystematicmethodofevaluatingthevalueorworthofajoborgroupofjobsinrelationtoother
jobsintheorganization.39,40

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE4.1(continued)
CareerManagement&CareerBuilding
18.360InstrumentsforDevelopment:Createormodify360instrumentsforindividualdevelopmentpurposes,and
developproceduresforcapturing,maintaining,andusingmultiperspectiveinformationforindividuals.
19.IndividualAssessmentforDevelopment:Individualorpsychologicalassessmenttoidentifystrengthsanddevelopment
needsforindividualdevelopmentplanning.
20.CareerLadders/SuccessionPlanning:Identifyfeederjobsforkeypositionsandcreate,intermsofplanning,aseriesof
steppingstonestomovepeoplethroughtheorganizationtoensurecontinuousstaffing.41
21.CareerPlanning:Developstructuretoguideindividualcareerchoicesthatmatchinterestsandcapabilitieswith
job/careerrequirements.42
22.Coaching:Developoneononecoachingprogramsdesignedtoleveragethestrengthsandshoreupdevelopmentneed
areasforanorganization'skeyteammembers.
OrganizationDevelopment
23.OrganizationalAnalysisandChange:Investigatehowtheattributesofaparticularorganizationaffectthebehaviorof
organizationmembersandimpactoverallorganizationeffectiveness.43,44,45
Note.Thereferencesnexttospecificapplicationsnotearticlesorbookchaptersthatoffersomedescriptionastohowjob
informationisusedtoguidethecreationofthatparticularapplication.

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Fig.4.2.
Differentpathstothesamefuturegoals.

nosinglerightpath.AsFig.4.2illustrates,theremaybemultiplepathsthatcouldbecraftedleadingtofuturebusinessgoals.Inotherwords,itisnotsimplyamatterof
onebeingtherightpathandtheotherwrong.

Incontrasttovalidity,relevanceaddressesthequestionofwhetherthesomethingproducedbytheinterventionfocusesontherightsetofstuffandhasameaningful
relationshiptothehigherorderaimsofanorganization'ssuccessandgoalattainment.Forexample,thepreemploymenttestingprogramusedintheindividualbanking
departmentofarecentclient,whichfocusedentirelyonbasicadministrativecompetencies,wasproducingadequatevalidities.Therefore,itcouldbeconstrued,in
truth,tobeworking,andtheresultinginferencesfromtestscorescouldbeconsideredvalid.However,tocompeteinanincreasinglyderegulatedandunprotected
marketwithaninfluxofnewcompetitors,thestrategyofthebankwasshiftingfromapassiveserviceorientationtoaproactivesalesorientation.Inturn,thefrontline
individualbankingjobswerebecomingmuchlessadministrativeinnatureandfocusedmoreonprospectingandsales.Inthiscase,thissametestingprogram,although
apparentlyworking,wasnotparticularlyrelevantwhenjuxtaposedwithanorganization'sdirectionandneeds,whichwere,outofnecessity,shiftingtomeetthefuture.

 Page76

Figure4.3presentsvalidityandrelevancewithinthecontextoftheSJMenterprise.Inthisrepresentation,amajordistinctionbetweenthesetwoideasisbasedonthe
chronologicalsequenceinwhichtheyareorganized.Validityexaminestheproximalrelationshipbetweenresultsandperformanceexpectationsassociatedwith
specificdownstreamapplications,andqualityjobmodelingdataincreasethelikelihoodofapositivepayoffwiththisimmediateobjective.Relevance,examinesthe
distalrelationshipbetweenresultsandtheorganizationneedsassociatedwithupstreamsuperordinategoals.Fromthisperspective,qualitySJMdataincreasethe
likelihoodofapositivepayoffassociatedwiththesebroaderultimateobjectives.

WheretoStart

Granted,thepriordiscussionwasabitabstract.However,itprovidessomecontextfortheconcretediscussionthatfollows.GiventherangeofpotentialHR
applicationsthatmightbedevelopedforanorganizationatanyonepointintime,apracticalquestionemerges:Wheretostart?Dependingonthesituation,therearea
numberofpotentialcustomerresponsestothisquestion:

Wethinkthisisourproblem.Whatdoyouthink?

Thisisourproblem.Whatisthesolution?

Thisisourproblemandthisisthesolutionwewant!4

Ofcourse,thethirdsituationdoesnotleavemuchroomfordiagnosis.Unlessyourcustomeriswillingtoengageinsomeassessmentofthesituation,youmaywindup
simplydeliveringthestatedsolution.Thisisunfortunatebecausethelinkagebetweenthestatedproblemandthestatedsolutionisoftentenuousatbesttheproductof
akneejerkreactionresultingfromacrisismanagementsituation.Anurgenttelephonecallfromaboss,aflurryofemailsaboutapreviouslyunnoticedhottopicor
volatileissue,anunplannedforactionitemresultingfromameeting,andthelikeoftenseemtobethedrivingforcebehindanexpressedneedtocreateaparticular
application.Giventhepaceofchangeinbusiness,theremustalwaysbeahighlyflexibleandadaptivecomponenttotheprocessofdeterminingHRpriorities.
However,therealsoneedstobesomebalance.Thecounterweightherewouldbesomeorganized,systematicwayofdeterminingwhatisvitalversusmerelyurgent.

Aninitial,highlevelperspectivemaybegainedbyidentifyingthecompetitivestrategyoftheorganizationandthenextrapolatingfromthesamplebusinessandHR
impactspresentedinFig.3.7.Usingthebusinessandstrategywebprocess,alsofromchapter3,isanothertechniqueforreducingthesizeoftheinferentialleaps
involvedinlinkingHRpracticestobusinessstrategies.

 Page77

Fig.4.3.
Linkingtheconceptsofvalidityandrelevancetothebusinesscontext.

 Page78

AsomewhatmoresystematicprocessfordeterminingHRprioritiesistoconsidereachpotentialapplicationintermsofthestrategicimpactcriterialistedhere:

Relevancetobusinessstrategiesandgoals(i.e.,thelinkageorleveloffitwithstrategiesandtheanticipatedcontributiontoachievinggoals).

Managementinterest(i.e.,theextenttowhichtheapplicationhascapturedtheimaginationoftheorganization'sdecisionmakersorthedegreetowhichthecollective
viewoftheapplicationisworthwhileanddoable).Unfortunately,therelevanceofanapplicationandthelevelofmanagementinterestareoftentwodistinctconcepts.

Availableresources(i.e.,theextenttowhichthemoneyand/orpeoplenecessarytobuildorredesigntheapplicationarereadilyavailable).

Organizationalreadiness(i.e.,thedegreetowhichtheorganization'speople[e.g.,leveloftraining,values,commitment],technology,andsystemsarereadytotackle
theissuesinvolvedinbuilding,orimplementingandsupporting,theenvisionedapplication).

Synergywithcurrentworkinprogress(i.e.,theextenttowhichtheapplicationmakespossible,ormakesbetter,otherimportantinterventions).

OnetechniqueforproactivelyestablishingprioritiesistostartbydevelopinganApplicationRelevanceMatrix(seeTable4.2).Thismatrixdisplaysashortlistof
potentiallyimportantapplicationsalongtheverticalaxisoftheexhibit.Theorganizations'identifiedstrategicinitiativesarelistedalongthehorizontalaxis.Inthiscase,
theresultingmatrixcrossessixapplicationsbyfourinitiativescreating24uniquecells.

ItthenbecomespossibletojudgethedegreeofrelevanceforeachofthelistedHRapplicationsforeachstrategicinitiative.Forexample,Ihaveusedthe5pointrating
scaleinFig.4.4tohelpidentifytherelativeimportanceofsomesubsetofpossibleHRapplicationsacrossanorganization'sspecifiedgoals(simplyinserttheword
relevanceintheblankspacesofthescale).Thecompletedmatrix,whichwouldhavenumbersfrom1to5ineachcell,providesavisualsummaryofhowapreviously
undifferentiatedbasketofpotentialapplicationslinkupwithbusinessstrategicplans.SummingthenumbersbyrowtogetanOverallRelevancevalueisanicewayto
arriveatarankorderedlistingofapplicationsbasedonstrategicrelevance.

However,asthepreviouscriteriasuggest,truestrategicimpactismultifacetedandnotfullycapturedusingonlytheperspectiveofrelevance.Considerdevelopinga
secondmatrixaStrategicApplicationMatrix,whichalsolistsapplicationsalongtheverticalaxis,butinthiscaseliststheothercriteriaimportantfordetermining
strategicimpact(seeTable4.3).SimplyentertheOverallRelevancevalueforeachapplicationfromTable4.2intheRelevancecolumnoftheStrategicApplication
Matrix.

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TABLE4.2
ApplicationRelevanceMatrix

Strategic
Initiatives
100%Increase BringFrontLine
inRevenue TeamMember6
20%Increasein 25%Increasein FromSelf Month
NewMoney Customer Service Turnoverto Overall
ShortListofPotentialApplications Generation ServiceRatings Offerings Below15% Relevance
1.360instrumentsfordevelopment
2.Careerladders/successionplanning
3.Jobevaluation/compensation
4.Interviewsystemforselection
5.Individualassessmentforselection
6.Trainingprogramdesign

 Page80

Fig.4.4.
Expressionsofamountratingscale.

ThevaluesfortheothercellsinthematrixmaybearrivedatbyapplyingtheExpressionsofAmountRatingScale(seeFig.4.4)tothecriteriainColumns2,3,4,and
5foreachapplication.Forexample,whatisthelevelofmanagementinterestin360instrumentsfordevelopment?Ifthejudgmentis''QuiteaBit,"thenentera"4"in
thefirstcellofColumn2.Similarly,towhatextentistheremoneyinthebudgettoconductthemodelingworkandcreate(orpurchase)andimplementa
multiperspectivefeedbacktoollikea360instrument?Iftheansweris"AModerateAmount,"thenentera"3"inthefirstcellofColumn3andsoon.

ThesefivecriterialistedacrossthetopofTable4.3,whentakentogether,helpdeterminetherelativestrategicimpactofeachapplicationunderconsideration.Itshould
benotedthatthistechniqueisnotlimitedtouseattheorganizationlevel.Infact,mostrecentlyItaughtthetechniquetoagroupofinternalHRconsultantswithan
automobilepartsmanufacturersotheycouldpartnerwithlinemanagersanddeveloptailoredStrategicApplicationMatricesforspecificbusinesssegments.In
summary,thisprocessoffersanapproachfordeterminingwheretofocusattentionandlimitedresources.

JobModelingMethods

Decisionsabouttheapplication(s)tobedevelopedaffectanumberofdecisionsabouthowtoproceedwiththemodelingwork.Thefirstdecisionofthistypeconcerns
thechoiceofjobmodelingmethod.Table4.4offerssomesuggestionsconcerningtheappropriatejobmodelingmethodfordifferentapplications.Be

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TABLE4.3
StrategicApplicationMatrix

StrategicImpactCriteria

Management Organizational Relative

ShortListofPotentialApplications Relevance Interest AvailableResources Readiness Synergy StrategicImpact
1.360instrumentsfordevelopment
2.Careerladders/successionplanning
3.Jobevaluation/compensation
4.Interviewsystemforselection
5.Individualassessmentforselection
6.Trainingprogramdesign

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TABLE4.4
AppropriateJobModelingMethodforDifferentApplications
Application RationalAnalysisUsingInterviews/Focus EmpiricalAnalysis
Groups
HumanResourcePlanning
1.Jobdesign/redesign *** **
2.Workloadanalysis ** **
Recruitment
3.Jobdescriptionandminimumqualifications ** **
4.Realisticjobpreviewcontent *** *
Selection
5.Interviewsystem ** **
6.Scoredapplicationblank/biodata ** **
7.Paperandpenciltesting(followupvalidation) ** ***
8.Paperandpenciltesting(validitygeneralization) * ***
9.Paperandpenciltesting(custombuilt) *** ***
10.Simulations/contentorientedtestconstruction *** ***
11.Individualassessmentforselection *** **
ClassificationPlacement
12.Jobclassification ** ***
13.Employeeskillsbank&matching ** ***

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

Training
14.Trainingneedsanalysis *** **
15.Trainingprogramdesign *** **
PerformanceAppraisal
16.BARSappraisalsystems ** **
Compensation
17.Jobevaluation ** ***
CareerManagement
18.360instrumentsfordevelopment ** **
19.Individualassessmentfordevelopment *** *
20.Careerladders/successionplanning ** **
21.Careerplanning ** **
22.Coaching *** *
OrganizationDevelopmentandChange
23.Organizationalanalysisandchange *** **
***=Essentialinformationformostapplicationsofthistype.
**=Importantinformationformanyapplicationsofthistype.
*=Nicetohavethisinformation,butnotessentialformostapplicationsofthistype.

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forewejumptothistable,abriefelaborationonthedifferentmethodsofjobmodelingintroducedinchapter2isinorder.

Differentmethodsforcollectingjobmodelinginformationaremoreorlessappropriateforcollectinginformationtosupportdifferent(oradifferentmixof)HR
applications.Thethreemethodsintroducedinchapter1rational,empirical,andcombinedrationalandempiricalrepresentfairlydistinctapproaches,eachwith
differentadvantagesanddisadvantages.Acaseexampleofeachmethodwillhighlightsomeofthemoreimportantsimilaritiesanddifferencesandadvantagesand
disadvantages.

RationalMethod

Inthisjobmodelingapproach,interviewsand/orfocusgroupsareusedtoinvestigatethemajoraspectsofajobandrationallycreatedescriptivecontent.Inother
words,interviewsorfocusgroupswithsubjectmatterexperts(jobincumbents,supervisors,organizationalvisionaries,orothercontentexperts)arerequiredto:(a)
gainacomprehensiveunderstandingoftheuniqueworkactivities,competencyrequirements,andotherelementsthatexistforajoborjobgroupinaparticular
organization(b)investigatetheimpactthatnewchallenges,technology,changesinbusinessstrategy,andsoon,arelikelytohaveontherequirementsforajoborjob
groupand(c)createcustomdescriptivecontentfordefiningthetargetjoborjobs.

Insummary,thisapproachrequiresthejobmodelertodeductivelyformulateaschemetoexplaintheworkinquestion.Thisapproachisparticularlyusefulforgaininga
detailedunderstandingofthebusinessstrategyandnewchallengesthatformthecontextforanewordramaticallychangingjob.

Someworkwithasemiconductormanufacturingcompanymakesagoodcaseinpoint.Theresultofajointventure,thisthirdentitycompanywasbuildinganew$500
millionfacilitytobuildstateoftheartmicrochips.However,thefacilityandtechnologywerenottheonlythingsnewandstateoftheart.Theconfigurationofthe
workfortheengineeringstaffandtechnicianswasalsounique,representingablendoftheworkstructuresandculturesfromthetwoparentorganizations.

Thisisexciting,butchallengingstuffwhenonegetstothepointofdesigningworkrolesandcreatingselectionspecificationstoguidestaffingeffortsforthesecriticaljob
groups.Giventhattherewerenojobincumbentstostudy,thatnoonepersonorgroupofpeoplehadthecompletepictureoftheenvisionedjobsintheirhead,and
thattheinferentialleapfromthemostsimilarconstellationsofjobgroupsfromtheparentcompaniesweretoogreattoputmuchfaithineffortstoextrapolateresearch
resultstargetingthosejobs,thedecisionwasmadetouseapurelyrationalapproachformodelingtheworktobeperformedandderivingtheinitialselection
specifications.

 Page85

Basedonacombinationofinterviewsandfocusgroupswiththemanagementteamandworkgroupteamleaderswhohadliterallyspentyearscraftingthevisionofthe
workplace,andwhowerenowresponsibleforlaunchingthebusiness,adetailedmodelcomposedofworkactivitiesandcompetencieswasdeductivelyderived.This
rationallybasedmetamodel,andthesubsumedmodelsforspecificjobclusters,nowservesastheplatformforseveralrecruitingandselectioninitiativesdesignedto
identifyandscreenengineeringstaffandtechnicianswiththecorrectmixofgeneralandtechnicalcompetencies.

Thechallengeforthesekindsofstudiesisthattheresultsarequalitativelybased.Thus,theyrequiretheenduseroftheinformationtoplaceagreatdealoffaithinthe
jobmodeler'sabilitytocaptureandconceptualizeinformationfromanotnecessarilygeneralizablesetofinputs.Also,thepurelyrationalapproachmakesitdifficultto
linkresultinginformationwithotherinformationsetsordatabasesandlimitsthekindsofanalysisthatmightbeconducted.Forexample,informationfromarational
basedapproachwouldnotreadilypermitacomparisonofhowthepossessionofcertaincompetenciesisrelatedtoperformanceoutcomesindifferentjobfamilies.
Theseconcernscanbebestansweredbyaggregatinginformationacrossotherdatabasesandrollingthisinformationuptosomegenerallevelofspecificitythatallows
comparisonsacrossoccupationalgroups.

EmpiricalMethod

Asecondapproachforconductingjobmodelingresearchinvolvesconductingsomeformofempiricalanalysisusingdatageneratedfromquestionnaireresults.This
approachusesafixedsetofdescriptorsbuiltintoaquestionnaireformat,whichisthenusedto:(a)obtaintheinputfromalargergroupofSMEs,(b)providean
empiricalbaseforevaluatingthepsychometricsoundnessofSMEjudgments,(c)checkforgroupdifferencesintheresults,(d)classifyjobs,and(e)collectdata,
quantifytheobtainedinformation,andbuildnecessarypapertraildocumentation.

ArecentprojectwithPETsMARTprovidesagoodillustration.Thispetserviceandsupplycompanyhasexperiencedtremendousgrowthoverthelastseveralyears,
growingfromfiveemployeesoperatingoutofagarageinPhoenixin1987tomorethan250storesthroughouttheUnitedStatesin1998.Althoughtheorganizationis
dynamicandbuiltaroundsomeuniqueoperatingconcepts,thecompositionofthestoreteamissimilartothatofmanyotherretailers.Hence,whenthecompany
decideditneededtoenhanceitsscreeningprocedureforentrylevelstoreassociates,itwasnotnecessarytostartatgroundzerotobuilddescriptivecontentforthe
entrylevelstoreassociatejob.

Instead,previousworkwithotherhourlyretailjobswasleveragedtobuildajobmodelingquestionnairecoveringthealreadywellunderstoodaspectsofwork,such
ashandlingandstockingsupplies,cleaningandmaintenance,cashregisteroperations,andreceivingandorderingsupplies.Thus,thejobmodelingquestionnairethat
wasbuiltwasa90%solutionbeforetheclientsawitthefirst

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timetoreviewitforcoverageandapplicabilitytoPETsMART.Withminorrevisions,theresultingquestionnairewasfinalizedandadministeredtoabroadsampleof
incumbentsandsupervisorstohelpidentifyandprioritizethespecificcompetenciesthatshouldbeemphasizedinthemultilayeredscreeningprocessthatisnowin
place.

Keepinmindthatcertainjobtargets(jobgroup,jobtrack,orjobsinavaluechain)andcertainorganizationsaremoreamenabletothisprocessthanothers.
Collectingpoorqualityorunreliablequantitativeinformationfromalargenumberofrespondentsisnosubstituteforcapturinghighqualityqualitativeinformation(i.e.,
detailed,comprehensive,andreliable)fromasmallernumberoftrueSMEs.

Keepinmind,too,thatdatamaybegeneratedfromothersourcesthanquestionnaires.Directobservationandvideotaping,workdiaries,electronicperformance
monitoring,andrecordsofactivityoutcomecombinationsaresomeofthepossibilities.However,Ihavefoundopportunitiestousethesemethodsfewandfar
between.Forthisreason,Ihavechosentofocusandelaborateonquestionnairemethodology.Nevertheless,opportunitiestodothingsdifferentlydocropup,sodo
notputblinderson.

CombinedRationalandEmpiricalMethods

Thetwotacticsforcollectingjobmodelinginformationdescribedearlierarenotmutuallyexclusive.Althoughthesetwoapproachescanbeusedsingly,inmanycasesit
makessensetousethemincombination.Thus,athirdapproachtoconductingjobmodelingresearchinvolvescombiningtherationalandempiricalapproaches.The
combinedapproachinvolvesmethodologycomposedofthreebroadsteps:

First,interviewsand/orfocusgroupsareusedtoidentifyandcreateacomprehensivesetofdescriptorsforcoveringthejobcontentdomainbeingstudied.Thisstep
istheequivalenttotherationalapproachtojobmodeling,althoughinthiscasetheresultingmodelisonlyaninitialsolution.

Second,theinitialsolutionofdescriptivecontentisbuiltintoaquestionnaireandadministeredinsurveyformattoasampleofexperts,withdirectionstorateeach
statementwithregardtoCurrentImportance,LevelofMastery,DifficultytoLearn,orsomeothercharacteristic.Thus,thecombinedapproachextendsthe
thinkingoftherationalapproachtothepointofcollectingquantitativeinformationandempiricallyinvestigatingjudgmentsaboutjobrequirements.

Finally,adatareductiontechniqueisusedtoaggregatesetsofrelatedstatementstocomposemoreprecisedescriptionsofworkactivities,competencies,or
whatever.Thismoreprecisesetofstatementsisthenusedasasetofbuildingblocksforcreatingafinaljobmodel.

 Page87

Recentworkwithamajorfinancialservicesorganizationprovidesthebasisforanoperationalexample.Thiscompanyprovidesconsumerloanproductsthrougha
networkofmorethan2,200branches.Acoupleofyearsago,theywereinterestedinperformingjobmodelingworktoaccomplishavarietyofobjectives.Oneofthe
primaryobjectiveswastoformalizeitsunderstandingofthekeycompetenciesneededbyindividualsinthebranchofficesgiventhestrategicobjectivesofthe
company.Asawhole,thecompanywasbecomingmoresalesfocused,individualofficeswereexpectedtofunctionmoreautonomously,andapromotefromwithin
emphasiswasemerging.Allofthisimpactedthecompetencyrequirementsofentryleveljobs.Furthermore,therewaspressureforthedifferentbusinesssubsidiaries
toincorporateacommonsetofoperatingpreceptsanddrivetowardcommonperformancemetricsacrosstheoperatingorganizations.

Thesefactorsallpointedtowardtheneedtoemployacombinedrationalandempiricalapproachtojobmodeling.Noonegroupofindividualsinanyoneplaceinthe
organizationhadalltheinformationfromallthedifferentperspectivesrequiredtoaccomplishthebroadobjectivesoftheproject.Consequently,aseriesofinterviews,
focusgroups,andfeedbacksessionswereconductedacrossthecountryastheinitialjobmodelwasbuilt.Thenaquestionnairewasbuiltbasedonthisinputand
administeredtoanevenlargersetofSMEs.Clearlythecombinedapproachallowsonetotakeadvantageofthebestofbothapproaches.However,therearecost
andtimeimplicationsthatneedtobeconsidered.

WhichMethodIsBest?

Thediscussionofwhichmethodworksbestissomethingofaturningpointinthebook.Table4.4isthefirstofaseriesofguidelinetypetablesthatarepresentedover
thenextseveralchapters.Althoughthehopeisthatthesetableswillprovideusefulsuggestions,itisatthisjuncturethatIamremindedofayounggradeschoolstudent
who,whenaskedtowriteareportonSocratesovertheweekend,turnedinhispaperonMondaywithjusttwosentencesonit:
Socrateswasamanwhotraveledalotandgavepeoplegoodadvice.Theymadehimdrinkpoison.

Alittlebriefperhaps,asfarasovertheweekendreportsgo,butitishardtoquibblewiththefactthatthebasichighlightsarethere.Withthispieceofhistoryinmind,I
wanttobeclearthatwhatfollowsisnotaprescriptionforconductingjobmodelingresearch.

Inotherwords,Iamnotadvocatingtheequivalentofapaintbynumbersapproachtojobmodeling.ThispointissoimportantthatIamnotabovebegging:please,
Please,PLEASE,PLEASEdonotviewinformationinTable4.4(orthesubsequenttableswithsimilarguidelines)asconcreteadviceorasetoffixeddecisionrules.
Rather,thinkofthemasnonstrictguidelinestobeconsideredinthemixoftheuniquecomplexitiesassociatedwithaparticularjobmodelingsituation.

 Page88

Thatcaveatbehindus,theinformationinTable4.4isbasedonaresearchstudyinvestigatingthethinkingof12jobmodelingexpertstoidentifyandweightthe
importantvariablestheyusewhenplanningforamodelingproject.5 Elevenoftheexpertshavedoctoratesinindustrialorganizationalpsychology,andallhavea
numberofyearsofexperiencecollectingjobmodelinginformationtocreateawiderangeofHRapplications.Thesecontentexpertsrespondedtoaseriesof
questionnairesdesignedtocapturetheirthinkingaboutbestpracticesinjobmodelingresearch.Theyrepresentmorethan200yearsofjobmodelingexperience,and
theiraccumulatedjudgmentsserveasabasisforseveralofthetablesinthebook.Forexample,inTable4.4,ourexpertsindicatedwhichjobmodelingmethodother
thingsbeingequalistypicallybestsuitedforcapturinginformationforeachofawiderangeofpossibleHRapplications.Inmanycases,acombinedapproachis
recommended.

However,becausetherationalandempiricalapproachescanbeindependent,wecancreateatableinwhichitispossibletobeeitherhigh,medium,orlowonone
axisindependentoftheother.Figure4.5recaststheinformationfromTable4.4andcategorizesthevarioushumancapitalmanagementapplicationsintothe
appropriatecellsoftheresulting33table(wherethreestarsinTable4.4equalahighneedinFig.4.5,andsoon).

Thus,Table4.4andFig.4.5presentsomeideasforpreferredmethodsusedtosupportdifferentapplications,otherthingsbeingequal.However,whenwasproject
workeverthatsimple?Thingsareneverequal.The13jobmodelingresearchimpactvariablesdescribedastheBaker'sDozeninTable4.5offersomeadditional
precisiontothesegeneralguidelines.Hereare13variablesthatcouldimpactdecisionsaboutthemethodthatmightworkbestforcollectingtheinformationoneneeds
tosupportaparticularapplicationinaparticularsituation.ThearrayofquestionsinTables4.6and4.7,whicharebasedontheBaker'sDozenimpactvariables,can
bethoughtofassituationassessmentworksheets.Theseworksheetsenableonetoevaluatetheextenttowhichsomeimportantundercurrentsareswirlingaroundina
givenjobmodelingsituation.IdentifyingpotentiallytrickywatersandusingtheinformationtoguideadjustmentstothesuggestedcourseofactionofferedinTable4.4is
thewholepurposeoftheseworksheets.

Forexample,ajobmodelingeffortmightbeundertakentosupportthedevelopmentofapaperandpenciltestingprocedure(withfollowupvalidation)usedtoscreen
entrylevelmanagementandsalesassociatesintoabank.Onthesurface,Table4.4indicatesthat,forthedevelopmentofthistypeofHRintervention(No.7inthe
table),theempiricalanalysismethodisessentialanditmaybeimportanttouseinterviewsorfocusgroupstocollectinitialinformation(i.e.,threestarsintheEmpirical
AnalysiscolumnandtwostarsfortheRationalAnalysiscolumn).However,ifoneknowsmoreaboutthebusinesssituationandthejobmodelingresearchsetting,itis
possibletogetanevenbetterfeelforapreferredmethod.

 Page89

Fig.4.5.
A33tableofjobmodelingsupportedinterventions.

Tohelpdrivethispointhome,takeafewmomentstoreviewthefictionalcasestudypresentedinFig.4.6.Thentakeafewmoreminutestocompletetherational
methodandempiricalmethodworksheetsinTables4.6and4.7,respectively.Althoughyourassessmentofthesituationmightbeslightlydifferent,theresultsofmy
assessmentofthesituationappearinFig.4.7.Asyoucansee,theimpactvariablesdescribeduptothispointcanserveasthebasisforasituationprofiletohelpguide
thinkingaboutthepreferredmodelingmethod.In

 Page90

thiscase,acombinedrationalandempiricalapproachmakesthemostsense.Anytimetheaverageoftheimpactvariablesforeithertherationalorempiricalmethod
arecloseto3,onemightconsiderbumpinguptherecommendationsregardingtheappropriatejobmodelingmethodfordifferentapplicationsinTable4.4byonestar.
Similarly,whentheimpactvariableassessmentsuggestsone

BANKPARTNERS,INC.

OrganizationOverview

BankPartners,Inc.isaninternationalcompanyprovidingindividualbankservicesandconsumerloanproductsthrougha
branchnetworkconsistingof1,600branchofficesnationwide.Thecompanyhasexperiencedtremendousgrowthinthepast5
yearsprimarilythroughacquisitionofsmaller,regionalbasedbankswithexperiencedmanagementandservicerepresentative
(i.e.,sales)staffs.Althoughtheexpansioneffortsareslowingdown,thecompanyisbracingforsignificantindustrychange,
primarilyintheformofchangingregulationsthatwilldramaticallyincreasethenumberofcompetitorsandcomplicatethe
consumerloanprocess.However,thechangeisnotunexpected,andeveryoneincludedinBPI'sseniormanagementteamhasa
fairlyclearideaofwhatloomsonthehorizon.

TypicalBranch

Althougheachofthe1,600brancheshasabranchmanager,assistantmanager,andawidearrayofservicerepresentativejobs,
therereallyisnotypicalbranch.Becauseoftherapidacquisitiongrowthandtherunandgunmentalityofthecompany,there
hasbeenlittleefforttoassimilateandstandardizethevariousjobs,products,andservicesacrossthesystem.Infact,itislikely
thatjobincumbentswiththesamejobtitleperformdifferentfunctionsdependingonthesizeofthebranchandwhetheritserves
anurbanorrurallocation,althoughitisuncleartowhatextentthesedifferencesexistbecausetherehasbeennoconcerted
efforttodocumentwhodoeswhatwhere.

BusinessNeed

Theservicerepresentativejobiscentralforthecontinuedsuccessofthecompanyfortwomainreasons.First,these3,400
representativesholdtheprimarysalesandrevenuegeneratingroleinthebranchsystem.Second,thepositionistheentrypoint
onthemanagementtrackinthecompany,whichhasastrongpromotefromwithinpolicy.However,therehasbeenamarked
increaseinturnoverinthisjoboverthepastcoupleofyears,mostofitwithinthefirst6monthsonthejobandmostofit
involuntaryduetoperformancerelatedproblems.Thecompanyhasneverusedformaltestingprocedurestoscreennewhires
before,andtherankandfileinthisdecentralizedorganizationarefairlysuspiciousofnewideasandinitiativesintroducedbythe
folksatcorporate.However,theseniormanagementteamhasdecidedthatsomethingneedstobedone.

ServiceRepresentativeJob

Theservicerepresentativejobwasoriginallyaserviceandpassive/responsivesalesjob,whichisincreasinglybecomingamore
proactivesalesorientedjobinwhichthereisadefiniteemphasisonpushingcertainservicesandloanproducts.Job
incumbentsoperateindependentlytoidentifyandqualifypotentialcustomers,generateloanapplications,andmakecollection
callsonoverdueaccounts.Actually,anumberofdifferenttitlesmakeuptheservicerepresentativejob(ServiceRepI,Service
RepII,SeniorServiceRep).Thejobhasafreneticpaceeverydayisdifferent,andeachServiceRephashisorhermonthly
performanceevaluatedbyasupervisorusingawiderangeofobjectivesalesperformancemeasures.

Assumptions

Forthesakeofthiscasestudy,assumethat(a)thesomethingthatneedstogetdoneisthedevelopmentofapaperandpencil
testingprocedure(withfollowupvalidation)forscreeningnewservicerepresentatives,that(b)thelegalenvironmentisfairly
contentious,and(c)astheconsultant,youhavehadsomepreviousexperienceconductingjobmodelingworkwiththisjob
group.

Fig.4.6.
Casestudy.

 Page91

TABLE4.5
Baker'sDozen:JobModelingResearchImpactVariables
RationalImpactVariables
EnvisionedChangesintheOrganizationAffectingtheJobOverNext3Years.Asaresultofchangesinthework
process,theintroductionofnewtechnologytotheworkplace,jobredesignefforts,orotherchanges,willtherebe
correspondingchangestojobrequirements?
ExistenceofJobDescriptionInformationforTitlesinJobGroup.Aretherequirementsofthetargetjob(s)alreadywell
understood?Istheredetaileddescriptiveinformationwithintheorganizationorinthepublishedliteraturethatprovidesa
richunderstandingofworkactivitiesandrequiredcompetencies?
BreadthofExpertiseandDepthofKnowledgeofSMEsAboutTitlesinJobGroup.DotheSMEs(whetherincumbentsor
supervisors)haveacomprehensiveunderstandingofthecomponentsofthejob(i.e.,importantactivitiesand/orstrategic
competenciesand/orworkenvironment)beinginvestigated?
ExtenttoWhichResultsofWorkAreObservable.Aretheoutputsorresultsofworkobservableorareworkproducts
primarilyunobservableandhardtodefine?
ExtenttoWhichWorkContentisRelativelyFixed/RoutineversusDynamic.Areworkactivitiesfixedordothetasksand
competenciesneededtosuccessfullyperformthejobchangefromdaytodayandweektoweekinresponsetoshifting
demandsofthejob?
ExtenttoWhichItisImportanttoCreateBuyinonthePartofEndUsersoftheTargetApplication.Willtheresulting
HRapplicationbeingconstructedbeacceptedandused,noquestionsasked?Orisitnecessarytoallowmultiple
constituentstohaveinputtohelpfosterinternalacceptance?
ExtenttoWhichtheJobModelingTeamHasExperienceWorkingWiththeTargetJobs.Dotheprojectleaderand
othersconductingmajorportionsofthejobmodelingworkhavethebenefitofhavingworkedwithsimilarjobsinother
organizations,andaretheyfamiliarwiththemajorworkactivities,workproductsoroutcomes,andterminology?

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page92

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE4.5(continued)
EmpiricalImpactVariables
NumberofIncumbentsinTargetJob(s).Istheapplicationbeingdesignedforajoborjobgroupwithseveralincumbents
orthousands?
NumberofWorkLocations.Arealltheincumbentsinthejob(s)targetedbytheinterventioninonelocation,arethey
spreadoutacrossdozens,oraretheyspreadoutacrosshundredsoreventhousandsoflocations?
NumberofDifferentWorkFunctions,GradeLevels,orBusinessUnitsInvolved.Doestheplannedapplicationinvolve
jobsthatcutacrossorganizationbusinessunits,workfunctions,orgradelevels?
ExtenttoWhichWorkContentisExpectedtobetheSameinaJoborJobTitleAcrossLocations/BusinessUnits.Isa
customerservicerepjobinaruralbranchofthebankthesameasaCSRjobinalargemetropolitanbranch?IsaCSRjobin
ConsumerBranchOperationsthesameasajobwiththesametitleinCommercialLendingOperations?
NumberofSpecificJobTitlesIncludedinScopeofProposedApplication.Ifaprojecttargetsthecustomerservicerep
job,isthistheonlyjobtitlethatexistsordoesthetargetreallyincludeCSRI,CSRII,CSRIII,AssociateCSR,SeniorCSR,etc.?
ExtenttoWhichResultingHRApplicationisExpectedtoBeFreefromLegalorUnionReview.Isthetarget
applicationbeingbuiltinalitigiousenvironmentordoyouexpecttheresultingprogramtobefreefromlegalscrutiny?
Similarly,istheapplicationbeingconstructedwithinacontentiousunionenvironment?


1.EnvisionedChangesinthe
OrganizationAffectingtheJob
OverNext3Years
2.ExistenceofJobDescription
InformationforTitlesinJob
Group
3.BreadthofExpertiseandDepth Veryfew,ifany,SMEsreallyhavea
ofKnowledgeofSMEsAbout
TitlesinJobGroup
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Page93
TABLE4.6
RationalMethodImpactVariables
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
* * ***
Noanticipatedchangesintheorganizationthatare Mightbesomechangesinthe Greatchangesintheorganization
likelytoimpactjobrequirementsintargetgroup organizationtoimpactjob areplannedthatwillimpactjob
(e.g.,introductionofnewtechnologyorjob requirementsintargetgroup(e.g., requirementsintargetgroup.
redesignefforts). introductionofnewtechnologyor
jobredesignefforts).
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
* ** ***
Thereisagreatdealofhighqualityanduptodate Thereissomefairlyhighquality Thereisnodescriptive
descriptiveinformationintheorganizationand andreasonablycurrent informationintheorganizationor
publishedliterature. descriptiveinformationinthe publishedliterature,orthe
organizationandpublished informationthatexistsisofpoor
literature. qualityand/oroldandof
questionablevalue.
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
* ** ***
SomeSMEshaveafairlybroad ManySMEshavebothgreat
comprehensiveunderstandingofthecomponents andfairlydeepunderstandingof breadthanddepthof
ofthejobsbeinginvestigated. thecomponentsofthejobsbeing understandingofthecomponents
investigated. ofthejobsbeinginvestigated.

 Page94

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE4.6(continued)

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

* ** ***

4.ExtenttoWhichResultsof Theoutputsorresultsofworkareobservableand Theoutputsofworkareamixof Theoutputsorresultsofworkare

WorkAreObservable
clearlyunderstood. observableandunobservable notobservableandarehardto
componentssomeresultsmaybe define.
clearlydefinedandothersare
moredifficulttoclearlydescribe.
1 1.5 2 2.5 3

* ** ***

5.ExtenttoWhichWorkContent Workactivitiesandrequiredcompetenciesare Workactivitiesandrequired Workactivitiesandrequired

IsRelativelyFixed/Routinevs. fixedanddonotchangeovertimeoracross competenciesaresomewhatfixed, competenciesarenotfixedand
Dynamic projects. andthereisafairamountof changeagreatdealovertimeand
changetothecompositionof acrossprojects.
workovertimeandacross
projects.

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

* ** ***

6.ExtenttoWhichitIsImportant NotimportantenduserswillusetheresultingHR Somewhatimportantendusers Criticallyimportantunlessthe

toCreateBuyinonPartofEnd application,noquestionsasked. willlikelyusetheresultingHR jobmodelingteamcreatesbuyin
Users application. andbuildseducationinaspartof
theproject,theresultingHR
applicationwillnotbeused.

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

* ** ***

7.ExtenttoWhichtheJob Jobmodelingteamhasconductedworkwithsome Jobmodelingteamhasconducted Jobmodelingteamhasconducted

ModelingTeamHasExperience jobsonnumerousoccasionsandcanleverage someworkwiththesejobsand noworkwiththesejobsand
WorkingWiththeTargetJobs significantarchivalinformation. canleveragesomearchival cannotleverageanyarchival
information. information.

 Page95

TABLE4.7
EmpiricalMethodImpactVariables

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

* ** ***

1.NumberofIncumbentsintheTargetJobs Few Some Many

(N=1to5) (N=50to250) (N=500+)

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

* ** ***

Few Some Many

2.NumberofWorkLocations Incumbentsinthetargetjobare Incumbentsinthetargetjobare Incumbentsinthetargetjobare

allinoneortwolocations. spreadoutacrossdozensof spreadoutacrosshundredsof
locations. locations.

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

* ** ***

One Several Many

3.NumberofDifferentWorkFunctions,Grade Thejobmodelingworkisfocused Thejobmodelingworktargetsa Thejobmodelingworktargetsa

Levels,orBusinessUnitsInvolved onasingleworkfunction,ina limitedrangeofworkfunctionsor widerangeofworkfunctions,
singlegradelevel,inonebusiness gradelevelsorbusinessunits. gradelevels,andbusinessunits.
unit.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page96

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE4.7(continued)

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

* ** ***

4.ExtenttoWhichWorkContentis Thesameexpectnovariationinjob Expectsomevariationinjob Notthesameexpectgreat

ExpectedtobetheSameinaJobor contentacrosslocations/business contentacross variationinjobcontent
JobTitleAcrossLocations/Business units. locations/businessunits. acrosslocations/business
Units units.

1 1.5 2 2.5 3
* ** ***
5.NumberofSpecificJobTitles
IncludedinScopeofProposed One Several Many
Intervention

(N=1) (N=2 (N=
10) 11+)

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

* ** ***

GreatExtent SomeExtent NotFree

6.ExtenttoWhichResultingHuman Veryunlikelyresultingapplication Fairlyunlikelyresulting Verylikelytheresulting

ResourceInterventionisExpectedto wouldevercomeunderlegalor applicationwouldever applicationwould
beFreeFromLegalorUnionReview unionscrutiny. comeunderlegalorunion eventuallycomeunderlegal
scrutiny. orunionscrutiny.

 Page97

Fig.4.7.
Situationprofileforcasestudy.

 Page98

methodoveranotherincontradictiontotherecommendationsinTable4.4,thenitmightmakesensetothinkstronglyaboutusingbothmethods.

Apracticalquestionthatcouldprovetohavecontrollinginfluenceoverthejobmodelingapproach(butisnotlistedaspartofthesituationalassessmentscoping
questionsbecauseitisnotdirectlyrelatedtothequalityofthesolution)isorganizationreceptivitytooneapproachoranother.Forexample,insupportofanother
initiative,relevantgroupsofemployeesmayhaveparticipatedinanumberoffocusgroupsoverthepast6months.Inthiscontext,proposingmoreinterviewsand
focusgroupsaspartofthejobmodelingenterprisemightbeatoughselland,fromapracticalstandpoint,theoptiontoconductnumerousfocusgroupsessionssimply
isnotinthecards.Concernssuchastheseshouldnotdrivedecisionsaboutmethodology,butitisalsounwisetoproceedasiftheydidnotexist.

TypeofInformationRequired

Torepeatapointmadebefore,choicesmadeearlierinthemodelingprocessguideandconstrainlaterchoices.Forexample,decisionsconcerningthecustomer's
desiredoutcomes,whichcascadedownfromtheorganization'svisionandcompetitivestrategy,drivedecisionsaboutparticularinterventions.Choicesabouttarget
interventions,inturn,guidedecisionsaboutthetypeofinformationrequiredforbuildingorsupportingaparticularintervention.

Asoutlinedinchapter2,therearetwobroadclassesofinformationtypes:jobdescriptionandsituationdescription.Jobdescriptionvariablesincludethework
activitiesthatcompriseajobandthecompetenciesrequiredtoperformrequisiteactivities.Situationdescriptionvariablescanbeexpressedintermsofthe
organizationalvisionandstrategythatserveasaplatformforthejob,andtheworkcontextinwhichapersoncarriesouthisorherjob,whichcouldhaveimplications
forhowthejobisdesignedinthelongterm.Althoughthereareothertypesofdatathatcanbeusedtocharacterizejobs,suchasperformancestandardsorrelevant
workexperience,thesefourclassesofinformation,usedsinglyorincombination,areappropriatefordevelopingmostapplicationsthatimpactanorganization'shuman
capital.

Oncetheapplicationorsystemofapplicationsforwhichinformationisbeinggeneratedisclearlyarticulated,decisionsaboutthetypeofjobmodelinginformation
requiredwilllogicallyfollow.Withoutthisgroundingtothecustomer'sdesiredoutcomesandtheHRapplicationsneededtoachievethem,itbecomesvirtually
impossibletodevelopaclearplanforcapturingthenecessaryinformation,andthingscanquicklybecomeconfusing.Withrespecttospecificapplications,then,
differenttypesofinformationcouldbeessential,frequentlyimportant,simplynicetohaveoroccasionallyuseful,orcompletelyunnecessary.Table4.8offerssome
guidanceastothetypeofinformationthatshouldbeconsideredgristforthejobmodelingmillforourcoresetof23HRapplications.

 Page99

TABLE4.8
TypeofInformationandLevelofDetailRequiredforDifferentInterventions
LevelofDetail

Application LOWSDS MEDIUM HIGHSDS

030 SDS3190 91+
HumanResourcePlanning
1.Jobdesign/redesign WorkActivity ***

Competency ***
Str.Context ***
WorkContext ***

2.Workloadanalysis WorkActivity ***

Competency **
Str.Context ***
WorkContext ***
Recruitment
3.Jobdescription&minimumqualifications WorkActivity ***
Competency ***
Str.Context *
WorkContext ***
4.Realisticjobpreviewcontent WorkActivity ***
Competency ***
Str.Context **
WorkContext ***
Selection
5.Interviewsystem WorkActivity **
Competency ***
Str.Context *
WorkContext ***
6.Scoredapplicationblank/biodata WorkActivity **
Competency ***
Str.Context *
WorkContext **
7.Paperandpenciltesting(followupvalidation) WorkActivity **
Competency ***
Str.Context *
WorkContext **

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page100

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE4.8(continued)
8.Paperandpenciltesting(validationgeneralization) WorkActivity **
Competency ***
Str.Context *
WorkContext **
9.Paperandpenciltesting(custombuilt) WorkActivity ***
Competency ***
Str.Context *
WorkContext ***
10.Simulations/contentorientedtestconstruction WorkActivity ***

Competency ***
Str.Context **
WorkContext **

11.Individualassessmentforselection WorkActivity ***

Competency ***
Str.Context **
WorkContext ***
Classification/Placement
12.Jobclassification WorkActivity ***
Competency ***
Str.Context *
WorkContext *
13.Employeeskillsbank&matching WorkActivity ***
Competency ***

Str.Context *
WorkContext **
Training
14.Trainingneedsanalysis WorkActivity ***
Competency ***
Str.Context *
WorkContext **

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page101

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE4.8(continued)
15.Trainingprogramdesign WorkActivity ***
Competency ***

Str.Context *
WorkContext **
PerformanceAppraisal
16.BARSappraisalsystems1 WorkActivity ***
Competency **
Str.Context *
WorkContext **
Compensation
17.Jobevaluation1 WorkActivity ***

Competency ***
Str.Context **
WorkContext ***
CareerManagement
18.360instrumentsfordevelopment WorkActivity *
Competency ***
Str.Context **
WorkContext **
19.Individualassessmentfordevelopment WorkActivity **
Competency ***
Str.Context **
WorkContext **
20.Careerladders/successionplanning WorkActivity ***
Competency ***
Str.Context **
WorkContext **
21.Careerplanning WorkActivity **
Competency ***
Str.Context **
WorkContext **

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page102

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE4.8(continued)
22.Coaching WorkActivity **
Competency ***
Str.Context **
WorkContext **
OrganizationDevelopment&Change
23.Organizationalanalysis&change WorkActivity *
Competency **
Str.Context ***
WorkContext ***

***=Essentialinformationformostapplicationsofthistype.
**=Importantinformationformanyapplicationsofthistype.
*=Nicetohavethisinformation,butnotessentialformostapplicationsofthistype.
Blank=Unnecessaryinformationformostapplicationsofthistype.
1=Typicallyeitherworkactivitycontentorcompetencycontentisusedtobuildthisintervention,butnotboth.

DetailofInformationRequired

Anicemetaphorforthinkingaboutjobmodelingisphotographyanartforminwhichthecreationofanimagecanbelikenedtodevelopingaclearpictureofthe
requisiteworkactivities,competencies,andsoonrequiredtosuccessfullyperformatargetjob.Forexample,inFig.4.8A,thepictureofimportantworkactivitiesand
informationaboutrequisitecompetenciesisvague,leavingthedooropenformisinterpretationaboutwhatisrequiredtosuccessfullyperforminajoborsetofjobs.As
themodelingeffortmovesthroughFig.4.8Band4.8C,theclarityimprovesandthepictureofwhatistrulycriticaljobinformationbecomessharperandmoredistinct.
Concurrently,theusefulnessofthemodelinginformationbecomessharperandmorevaluable.

However,injobmodeling,therearedefinitecostsassociatedwithincreasingtheresolutionandaddingdetailtothepicture.Furthermore,thesamelevelofdetailisnot
requiredforalltypesofinformationortosupportallpossibleHRapplications.Despitethisgenerallyacceptedbelief,therearenospecificrulestoguidepracticeother
thanthatasetofdescriptorstatementsshouldcontaininformationpertinentfortheintendedapplicationandinadegreeofdetailthatprovesusefulfortheintended
purpose.

 Page103

Fig.4.8.
Theimageresolutionissueinjobmodeling.

 Page104

Forexample,anactivitystatementthatreads''Typesmaterialforusebyothers"mightbesufficientlydetailedtodrivecertainapplications,suchasthecreationof
contentforrecruitingmaterials.However,forotherapplications,thereaderofthisstatement(whoisofvitalinteresttoajobmodelerbecauseheorshewillbemaking
inferencesfromorbeprovidingjudgmentsabouteachofthesestatementslateroninthejobmodelingprocess)isleftwonderingabout,amongotherthings,how
materialistyped(fromdictationorhardcopy),whatistyped(straighttextorcharts,graphs,andnumbers),andwhatequipmentisused(electrictypewriterora
personalcomputerusingaspecificwordprocessingpackage).

Thereversecanalsooccur,inwhichthelevelofdetailiscarriedtounrealisticextremes.Forexample,intheareaofjobmodelingtosupportthedevelopmentof
selectiontools,frequentmisinterpretationoftheUniformGuidelines6 hasledtothecreationofhuge,leviathanlikeinventoriesofdescriptorsthatgowellbeyondthe
pointofdiminishingreturnsforcreatingbetterinstruments.7

Althoughthelevelofdetailissueispertinenttosomedegreeforallfourtypesofdescriptorinformationnotedpreviouslyinthischapter,itisofsupremeimportancefor
thejobdescriptionofclassinformation(i.e.,workactivityandcompetencydomains).Forthisreason,thetextandexamplesinthissectionarespecificallydesignedto
clarifythinkingaboutdescriptordetailinactivityandcompetencystatements,althoughthebasicideasalsoapplytothedescriptordomainsforworkandorganizational
context.

Thequestionregardingthedegreeofdetailorspecificityofastatementhasanumberofassociatedimplicationsforsubsequentstepsinthejobmodelingprocess.8 To
meaningfullycompareandcontrastdifferentlevelsofspecificityinjobmodelingstatements,ameansformakingthesecomparisonsmustfirstbeavailable.One
measurethatIhavedevelopedinanefforttoevaluatethelevelofspecificityinjobmodelingstatementsistheStatementDetailScale(SDS).ApplicationoftheSDSto
workactivityandcompetencystatementsareaddressedinturn.

SDSandWorkActivityStatements

TheSDSindexiscalculatedusingtwocomponents:(a)thenumberofquestionsaddressedbythedescriptorstatement,and(b)thenumberofwordsinthestatement.
Foranyworkactivitystatement,fourquestionsareofpotentialinterest:

WHAT:Whatisdoneorwhatactionisbeingperformed?

WHO/WHAT:Whoorwhatisbeingactedon?

WHY:Whyistheactionoccurring(whatistheintendedoutcome)?

HOW:Howistheactionbeingaccomplished?

Thus,iftheWHATandWHO/WHATquestionsarebothdefined,thefirstcomponentfortheSDScalculationis2.Thesecondcomponentofthe

 Page105

SDSissimplyacountofthenumberofwordsinthestatement.ThesetwovaluesaremultipliedandtheproductistheSDS.ThehigherthevalueoftheSDSindex,the
moreinformationisconveyedbythestatementandthemorethestatementmovesfrombeingageneralizablestatementtohavingdetailthatmakesitmuchmore
organizationandfunctionspecific.Ofcourse,poorwritingandtheinclusionofunnecessarywordsinastatementcanleadtospuriouslyhighSDSindexes.Workingto
keepthestatementwordcountlowisanimportantaspectofgooditemwriting.Otherguidelinesforevaluatingwellwrittenitemsarecoveredinchapter5.Fornow,
severalexamplesofhowtheSDSvaluechangesasthedegreeofdetailofastatementchangesappearinTable4.9.

SDSandCompetencyStatements

TheSDSindexforcompetencystatementsissimilartothatusedforworkactivities,althoughthequestionsareslightlydifferent:

WHAT:Whatisrequired?

WHO/WHAT:Whoorwhatisinvolved?

WHY:Whyistheskill/knowledge/orientationnecessary?

HOW:Howistheskill/knowledgeaccomplished?

Beyondthis,theSDScalculationisthesame.SeveralexamplesofhowtheSDSvaluechangesasafunctionofdifferentdegreesofdetailincompetencystatements
appearinTable4.10.AdditionalscaledexamplesofworkactivityandcompetencystatementsappearinFig.4.9.

Althougheachsituationisdifferent,12jobmodelingexpertsshowedagooddealofagreementintheirjudgmentofthelevelofdescriptorstatementdetailrequiredto
supportdifferentapplications.9 Figures4.10and4.11displaythedegreeofspecificitytypicallyneededforworkactivityandcompetencystatementsusedasbuilding
materialsforthedifferentapplications.

AlthoughtheSDSindexhasbeenusedsuccessfullytoguideprojectworkandconsultwithcustomersaroundthelevelofdetailrequiredindifferentmodeling
situations,itisstillanevolvingconcept.Assuch,thesuggestionsaboutthelevelofdetailneededtosupportdifferentinterventionsshouldbeconsideredjustthat
initialsuggestionsforamodelertoconsider.Thehopeisthatcontinuedworkalongtheselineswilleventuallymakeitpossibletooffermoredefinitive
recommendations.

ProjectManagementTips

ThemostimportanttipIcanofferforStep2oftheCheshireStrategicJobModelingProcessistoreachaclearagreementwithyourcustomerearlyonregardingthe
purposeoftheprojectandexpecteddeliverables.Thesedecisions

 Page106

TABLE4.9
WorkActivityStatementComposition

WHATisbeingdoneor WHO/WHATisbeing WHYistheactionoccurring?orWHATisthe HOWistheactionbeingaccomplished? SDSVALUE

whatactionisbeing actedon? outcome/objective?
performed?
1A.INSPECTS engineparts.* 13=3

1B.INSPECTS polishedenginevalves. 24=8

1C.INSPECTS polishedenginevalve todetectraggededges,burrs,nicks,orother 316=48

irregularitiesinfinishededge.
1D.INSPECTS polishedenginevalves todetectraggededges,burrs,nicks,orother byremovingfromfeedercoilandplacingfirstand 436=144
irregularitiesinfinishededge secondfingeronvalveheadandslidingfingertips
acrossmachinededge.
2A.CALCULATES financialanalyses.* 13=3

2B.CALCULATES costvolumeprofitratios. 25=10

2C.CALCULATES costvolumeprofitratios toguidebusinessunitplanning. 310=30

2D.CALCULATES costvolumeprofitratios toguidebusinessunitplanning usinginformationprovidedbythecostaccounting 440=160

departmentandsolvingforunknowns,suchas
findingtheaveragecontributionmarginperunit
requiredtocoverfixedcostsandprovideoperating
profits.
*=Notclearwhatexactlyisbeingactedon,sonocredit.

 Page107

TABLE4.10
CompetencyStatementComposition

WHATisrequired? WHO/WHATis WHYistheskill/knowledgenecessary HOWistheskill/knowledgeaccomplished SDSVALUE

involved? (e.g.,performancestandards)?
1A.SKILL inpersuadingothers.* 14=4

1B.SKILL inpersuadingpotential 25=10

customers.
1C.SKILL inpersuadingpotential toconsiderthebenefitsofafinancial 315=45
customers. productorservice.
1D.SKILL inpersuadingpotential toconsiderthebenefitsofafinancial byanticipatingobjectionsandresponding 423=92
customers productorservice succinctlytoconcerns.
2A.SKILL inthinking.* 13=3

2B.SKILL inevaluatingstrategies. 24=8

2C.SKILL inevaluatingstrategies thatsupporttheorganization'sbusiness 310=30

plan.
2D.SKILL inevaluatingstrategies thatsupporttheorganization'sbusiness byanticipatinghowvariouspolitical,economic, 432=128
plan andbusinesseventswillplayoutandimpact
proposedresearchanddevelopmentalliances
withotherorganizations.
*=Notclearwhatexactlyisbeingactedupon,sonocredit.

 Page108

Fig.4.9.
Statementdetailscaleexample.

 Page109

Fig.4.10.
Activitystatementdetailrequiredfordifferentinterventions.

 Page110

Fig.4.11.
Competencydetailrequiredfordifferentinterventions.

 Page111

directlyinfluencetheamountoftimeandeffortrequiredonyourparttocreateamodelofworkthathastheappropriatebreadthandlevelofdetail.Inaddition,ajob
modelermustprotecthimorherselfagainstscopecreep,whichoccurswhenacustomerpushestheboundariesfurtherawayfromwhatwascontractedtobe
accomplishedtowardwhatcouldbedoneandtherebyexpandsthescopeoftheproject.Thishappenswithinternalaswellasexternalcustomers.

Thenthereistherealitythatcustomerprioritieschange,sometimesmidstream.Carefullydocumentingenhancementsorchangesandbeingabletojuxtaposethese
varianceswithaclearlywordedstatementofworkgivesyoualegtostandonwhenexplaininglaterimpactsonscheduleandcost.Keepgoodnotesandrecords
throughoutthecourseoftheprojectand,inevitably,onedayyou'llfindtheykeepyou.

Next,besuretoarticulatetherolesandresponsibilitiesofindividualsandteamsforprojectimplementation.Figure4.12laysouttherolesandrelationshipsthat
characterizemostjobmodelingprojectsinvolvingoutsideconsultants.Ifyouarerunningaprojectinhouse,theCustomerProjectTeamessentiallybecomesthe
ConsultantProjectTeamandmovesfromtheleftoftheverticaldottedlinetotheright.Oncetheprojectroleshavebeenclarifiedandindividualshavebeenidentified,
insertnamesandassociatedvoicefaxemailnumbersintheappropriateboxesanddistributetoprojectteammembers.

Fig.4.12.
Projectrolesandresponsibilities.

 Page112

Intermsoffleshingouttheprojectplan,avoidtheseductivetrapofproposingoverlyelegantsolutionstotheissuesinherentineachprojectstep.Noteverycustomer
willbeabletoswallowtheidealsolution,althoughtheymightbeabletoaccommodateandbuyintoamethodologythatisperhapsalittleshortofthestateoftheart.
Findoutwhatisworkableforthemandyouwillsavetimeandprofessionalrelationships.Oncetheprojectplanhasbeenfinalized,circulatecopiestomembersofthe
projectteamandyourexecutivesponsors.Ataminimum,theprojectplanshouldincludethefollowing:

ProjectContext.Thisincludesabroad,highleveldescriptionoftheorganization'svisionandstrategiesdrivingtheneedforaparticularapplicationandaclear
descriptionofdesiredoutcomes.

OverallProjectSteps.Thisincludesnotonlyabriefdescriptionofeachprojectactivityandassociateddeliverables,butalsoanassignmentofresponsibilityforwho
willconductormanagethevariouspiecesofsubsumedwork.

Timelines.Eachmajorprojectstepshouldhaveanassociateddeadline,withsomebestandworstcasescenarioboundaries.Althougheachprojectisunique,the
sampletimelineinFig.4.13providesanideaofthetimeframesfrequentlyassociatedwitheachstepinamodelingprojectofaveragescopeandcomplexity.Probably
themostfrequentcausefordelayinlargemodelingprojectsisduetoanunderestimateofthetimerequiredtodevelopamutualunderstandingandalignmentofthe
modelingprocessandgoalsacrossmajorcustomerconstituents.Havingtoworktodevelopconsensusacrossdifferentpartsoftheorganizationcansignificantly
expandthetimerequiredtocompleteanyoftheninestepsinthefigure.Trytobuildalittleslacktimeintotwoorthreestepsoftheprojecttogiveyousomeflexibility
andachancetorecoverscheduleintheeventyoudorunintoobstacles.

ExpectedProjectCosts.Includebothonetimedevelopmentcosts(time,money,resources)andongoingcosts(ifany).

Next,setadatefortheprojectkickoffmeeting.Thismeetingshouldincludeabroadmixofpotentialownersoftheapplicationsbeingbuiltandasampleofhigh
visibilityusersoftheeventualapplications.Partofthepurposeofthismeetingistoinform,settingclearexpectationsfornextstepsinthedevelopmentprocess,
describingthepurposeoftheresultingapplication,andsoforth.However,anequallyimportantpurposeofthismeetingistogainthebuyinandcommitmentof
individualswhowillusetheapplicationbeingconstructed.Donotunderestimatetheimportanceofthispartoftheequation.Strivetoclearlydescribetheexpected
payoffandreturnofthesuccessfulsystemintermsthat

 Page113

Fig.4.13.
Sampletimelineforstrategicjobmodelingproject.

 Page114

aremeaningfultothetargetaudience.Dependingonthescopeoftheproject,thisislikelytobea2to4hourmeeting.

Finally,makesuretoidentifyandcontacttheindividualsresponsibleforsupportingotherorganizationalinitiativesthatmustmeshwiththetargetapplicationbeing
constructed.Forexample:

Iftheintentistobuildaselectionsystem,besuretotalkabouthowthiseffortfitswithexistingrecruitingpractices,classificationandplacementpractices,andtraining
initiatives.

Iftheintentistobuildaperformanceappraisalsystem,contactthepeoplewhoheaduptrainingandcompensationtodiscusslinkageswithdevelopmentandpay
programs.

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1
Cook,T.D.,&Campbell,D.T.(1979).Quasiexperimentation:Designandanalysisissuesforfieldsettings.Chicago:RandMcNally.
2
Guion,R.M.(1998).Assessment,measurementandpredictionforpersonneldecisions.Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.
3
Schmitt,N.,&Landy,F.J.(1993).Theconceptofvalidity.InN.Schmitt&W.C.Borman(Eds.),Personnelselectioninorganizations(pp.275309).San
Francisco:JosseyBass.
4
ParaphrasingfromSwanson,R.A.(1994).Analysisforimprovingperformance.SanFrancisco,CA:BerrettKoehler.
5 Schippmann,J.S.(1996).Keydecisionpointsinjobmodeling.Unpublishedmanuscript.
6
EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission,CivilServiceCommission,DepartmentofLabor,&DepartmentofJustice.(1978).Uniformguidelinesonemployee
selectionprocedures.FederalRegister,43(166),3829538309.
7
Barrett,R.S.(1996).Fairemploymentstrategiesinhumanresourcemanagement.Westport,CT:Quorum.
8
Harvey,R.J.(1991).JobAnalysis.InM.D.Dunnette&L.M.Hough(Eds.),Handbookofindustrialandorganizationalpsychology(Vol.2,pp.71163).Palo
Alto,CA:ConsultingPsychologistsPress.
9
Schippmann,J.S.(1996).Keydecisionpointsinjobmodeling.Unpublishedmanuscript.
10
Davis,L.E.&Wacker,G.J.(1988).Jobdesign.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.1,pp.157172).
NewYork.Wiley.
11Beatty,R.W.,Coleman,S.C.,&Schneier,C.E.(1988).Humanresourcesplanningandstaffing.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,
industry,andgovernment(Vol.1,pp.138156).NewYork:Wiley.
12
Page,R.C.&vanDeVroot,D.M.(1989).JobanalysisandHRplanning.InW.F.Cascio(Ed.),Humanresourceplanningemploymentandplacement.
Washington,DC:BureauofNationalAffairs,Inc.
13
Gael,S.(1988).Jobdescriptions.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.1,pp.7189).NewYork:Wiley.
14
Prien,E.P.,&Schippmann,J.S.(1987).HiringScreeningandselectingstaffforthenonprofitorganization.InE.W.Anthes&J.Cronin(Eds.),Personnel
mattersinthe

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nonprofitorganization(pp.151182).WestMemphis,AR:IndependentCommunityConsultants.
15
Feild,H.S.&Gatewood,R.D.(1989).Developmentofaselectioninterview:Ajobcontentstrategy.InR.W.Eder&G.R.Ferris(Eds.),Theemployment
interview(pp.145157).NewburyPark,CA:Sage.
16
Bloom,R.,&Prien,E.P.(1983).Aguidetojobrelatedemploymentinterviewing.PersonnelAdministrator,28,8186.
17
Fine,S.A.,&Cronshaw,S.(1994).Theroleofjobanalysisinestablishingthevalidityofbiodata.InG.S.Stockes,M.D.Mumford,&W.A.Owens(Eds.),
Biodatahandbook(pp.3964).PaloAlto,CA:CCPBooks.
18
Morgan,R.B.,&Smith,J.E.(1996).Staffingthenewworkplace.Milwaukee,WS:ASQCQualityPress.
19
Gatewood,R.D.,&Feild,H.S.(1994).Humanresourceselection.FortWorth,TX:TheDrydenPress.
20
Kleiman,L.S.,&Biderman,M.(1989).Jobanalysisformanagerialselection:Aguidelinesbasedapproach.JournalofBusinessandPsychology,3,353359.
21
Landy,F.J.(1988).Selectionproceduredevelopmentandusage.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.1,
pp.271287).NewYork:Wiley.
22
Lopez,F.M.,Kesselman,G.A.,&Lopez,F.E.(1981).Anempiricaltestofatraitorientedjobanalysistechnique.PersonnelPsychology,34,479502.
23
Kane,M.T.,KingsburyC.,Colton,D.,&Estes,C.(1989).Combiningdataoncriticalityandfrequencyindevelopingtestplansforlicensureandcertification
examinations.JournalofEducationalMeasurement,26,1727.
24
Schippmann,J.S.,Hughes,G.L.,&Prien,E.P.(1987).Theuseofstructuredmultidomainjobanalysisfortheconstructionofassessmentcentermethodsand
procedures.JournalofBusinessandPsychology,4,353366.
25
Arthur,W.,Doverspike,D.,&Barrett,G.V.(1996).Developmentofajobanalysisbasedprocedureforweightingandcombiningcontentrelatedtestsintoa
singlebatteryscore.PersonnelPsychology,49,971985.
26
Schmitt,N.,&Ostroff,C.(1986).Operationalizingthe''behavioralconsistencyapproach":Selectiontestdevelopmentbasedoncontentorientedstrategy.
PersonnelPsychology,39,91108.
27
Schippmann,J.S.,&Vrazo,G.J.(1995).Individualassessmentforkeyjobs.Performance&Instruction,35,1015.
28
Colihan,J.,&Burger,G.K.(1995).Constructingjobfamilies:Ananalysisofquantitativetechniquesusedforgroupingjobs.PersonnelPsychology,48,563586.
29 Harvey,R.J.(1986).Quantitativeapproachestojobclassification:Areviewandcritique.PersonnelPsychology,39,267289.
30
Seealsochapter7andAppendixBofthisbook.
31
Goldstein,I.L.(1993).Traininginorganizations(3rded.).Monterey,CA:Brooks/Cole.
32
UnitedStatesCivilServiceCommission.(1976).Jobanalysisforimprovedjobrelatedemployeedevelopment.Washington,DC:Author.
33
DeCotiis,T.A.,&Morano,R.A.(1977).Applyingjobanalysistotraining.TrainingandDevelopmentJournal,31,2024.
34
Ammerman,H.L.(1977).Performancecontentforjobtraining:Vol.II.Statingthetasksofthejob(R&DSeriesNo.122).Columbus,OH:TheOhioState
University,TheCenterforVocationalEducation.

 Page116
35
Goldstein,I.L.(1993).Traininginorganizations(3rded.)Monterey,CA:Brooks/Cole.
36
Schippmann,J.S.,Vinchur,A.J.,Smalley,M.D.,&Prien,E.P.(1988).Usingstructuredmultidomainjobanalysistodeveloptrainingandevaluation
specificationsforclinicalpsychologists.ProfessionalPsychology:ResearchandPractice,19,141147.
37
Latham,G.P.,&Fry,L.W.(1988).Measuringandappraisingemployeeperformance.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,and
government(Vol.1,pp.216233).NewYork:Wiley.
38
Bernardin,H.J.,&Beatty,R.W.(1984).Performanceappraisal:Assessinghumanbehavioratwork.Boston:Kent.
39
Henderson,R.I.(1988).Jobevaluation,classificationandpay.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.1,pp.
90118).NewYork:Wiley.
40
Hughes,G.L.,Prien,E.P.,&Hicks,J.(1987).Compensationandbenefitplansinnonprofitorganizations.InE.W.Anthes&J.Cronin(Eds.),Personnel
mattersinthenonprofitorganization(pp.279312).WestMemphis,AR:IndependentCommunityConsultants.
41
London,M.(1988).Careerplanninganddevelopment.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.1,pp.234
242).NewYork:Wiley.
42
Wooten,W.(1993).Usingknowledge,skill,andability(KSA)datatoidentifycareerpathingopportunities:Anapplicationofjobanalysistointernalmanpower
planning.PublicPersonnelManagement,22,551562.
43
Seechapter6ofthisbook.
44
Carson,K.P.,&Stewart,G.L.(1996).Jobanalysisandthesociotechnicalapproachtoquality:Acriticalexamination.JournalofQualityManagement,1,49
64.
45
Langeland,K.L.,Johnson,C.M.,&Mawhinney,T.C.(1998).Improvingstaffperformanceinacommunityhealthsetting:Jobanalysis,training,goalsetting,
feedback,andyearsofdata.JournalofOrganizationalBehaviorManagement,18,2143.

 Page117

Chapter5
WhoistheTargetPopulation?
Warsstartatborders.
Napoleon

Itisunpopularthesedaysinbusiness,andinHRMinparticular,totalkaboutboundaries.AshkenasandcrewwroteaboutTheBoundarylessOrganization.1 Voss
discussedtheemergenceofvirtualorganizations.2 Hipcompanieshaveinternaldebatesabouttheevilsofmanagementstructure.Thereisreengineering,beyond
reengineering,andthenthereisbioreengineering.ThereistheThirdWave,followedbytheFourthWave,anddonotforgettheSecondCurve.Thenthereis
Bridges,3 AronowitzandDiFazio,4 andRifkin5 writingaboutthedisappearingjobasiftheywerereferringtoavanishingspeciesthathassimplybeenunabletokeep
upwiththeevolutionarypace.

Well,wewillsee.Forone,Ihesitatetojointheveritablearmyofpeoplewhoviewboundariesasasetoflegironsthatrestrictanorganization'sagilityandabilityto
succeedasacompetitorintotheyear2000andbeyond.Tothecontrary,thebordersofthings,althoughoftenasourceofcontentionandhardtodefine,conveyuseful
information.Thefactofthematteristhatthesizeandshapeofthingsformanoutlinethathelpstelluswhattheyare.Pickupacoffeemug,abook,oryourchildand
thecontoursofthesethingswilltellyouwhatyouaredealingwith.Thisisnottosaycompanies,careers,andjobsarenotchangingtheyare.Mypointisthatthe
boundaries,andthewaywemeasureanddefinethem,needtochangeaswell,asopposedtobeingdiscountedandignored.

WheretoStart

Thepriordiscussionispertinentbecause,atthisstageinthemodelingendeavor,itnowbecomesnecessaryto(a)getahandleonthescopeofthetargetpopulation,
and(b)collectasmuchcurrentlyavailableinformationaspossible

 Page118

forthejobsinvolved.However,firstthingsfirst.Inanyoneorganization,thereareanumberofdifferentkindsofjobs.Thesejobsmaybegroupedaccordingtowork
function,levelorhierarchy,positioninabusinessprocess,andanynumberofotherways.Whereshouldonestart?

Ofcourse,yourcustomermayhaveadefinitestartingplaceinmind:"Wewantyoutomodeltheworkofourfrontlinesalesassociatessowecanusetheresultsto
buildanXYZapplication."However,thereareinstanceswherethequestionofwheretostartiseitheropenorilldefined.Inthesecases,andactuallyeveninthe
formercaseforthepurposeofhelpingtoestablishtherelevanceofthemodelingeffort,itmayproveusefultoemployasystematicprocessforevaluatingpotentialjob
groupstartingpoints.Similartothestrategicimpactcriteriaforevaluatingpotentialapplicationsdiscussedinchapter4,theimpactcriterialistednextcanhelpguideone
tothosegroupsofpeopleintheorganizationwhohavethemostdirectlinktotheultimategoalsandoverallperformanceoftheorganization.

Relevanceofthejoborjobgroup.Giventhevisionandcompetitivestrategyoftheorganizationandtheexpectedoutcomesassociatedwithkeystrategicinitiatives,
whichgroupsofpeopleholdjobsthataredeadcenterinthecriticalpath?Ifyouhaveworkedthroughabusinesscontextandstrategyweb,whichenvisionedwork
activityandcompetencydimensionsarelinkedtomajorstrategicinitiatives?Whatfunctions,workprocesses,oroutcomesjustifytheexistenceoftheorganization?
Giventhestrategicintentofthefirm,whatmusttheorganizationexcelat(or,thereverse,wheredoerrorsandpoorperformancecostthemost)?Whydoorwhy
shouldcustomerschoosetodobusinesswiththeorganization?Theanswerstothesequestionsshouldleadonetothehyperrelevantjobsorjobgroupsinthe
organizations.

Sizeofthejobgroup(i.e.,thenumberofpeopleaffected).Whichjobtitleshavethemostincumbents?Arethereobviousinstanceswherepeoplewithdifferentjob
titlesarebasicallyperformingthesameworkandshouldbepooledtogethertoformalargerjobgroup?Financialandpoliticalconstraintswithintheorganization
notwithstanding,itmakessensetoworkinanareawherethereislikelytobethegreatestamountofimpactforthegreatestnumberofpeople.

Degreetowhichtheworkandassociatedworkerrequirementsarecurrentlyunderstood.Forwhichjobsistherethemostconfusionaboutworkactivitiesand
theassociatedcompetencyrequirements?Aretherejobgroupswherethereareenvisionedchangestotheworkprocessortheworkplacethatwillmakethecurrent
understandingobsolete?Aretherejobgroupswheretheoutputsofworkarelargelyunobservableandhardtodefine?Doestheorganizationneedtodevelopafuture
orientedpictureforajob

 Page119

groupthatisbeingredesignedorthatdoesnotyetexist?Theanswerstothesequestionsshouldprovideadditionalperspectiveonthebroaderquestionofwhereto
startwithamodelingeffort.

Jobgroupscharacterizedbyperformancerelatedproblems.Aretherejobgroupswhereindividualproductivity(i.e.,revenuebasedoutcomeslikeunitssold,
billablehours,ideasgenerated,unitsassembled)isinordinatelylow?Aretheregroupswherecostbasedoutcomesliketurnover,accidents,customercomplaints,
budgetvariances,processingtime,grievances,timetomarkettimelines,shortages,errorrates,andtrainingtimeareinordinatelyhigh?Thejobsthatsurfaceafter
questionsliketheseareoftenthesameasthoseidentifiedbythethirdsetofquestionsearlier,butnotalways,soitoftenmakessensetoapplytheseaswell.

Entrylevelandfeederjobsintheorganization.Whichjobsconstitutetheprimarypointsofentryforthedifferentjobtracksintheorganization?Onceinsidethe
organization,aretherejobsthatarewidelyconsideredtobegroomingspotsorhubsinthepipelinetohigherleveljobs?Theremaybesomeduplicationinthelistof
jobsidentifiedbythesequestionsandthoseidentifiedbyquestionsfocusingonthesizeofjobgroups.

Legal,union,andorganizationalenvironmentthatformsthecontextforajoborjobgroup.Arethereincumbentgroupsthatoperateinacontentiouslegalor
unionenvironment?Aretheregroupswithintheorganizationwhosimplyhavetobeapartofthedevelopmentandimplementationofanynewmanagementpracticeor
humanresourceinitiativetoacceptorusetheresult?Theanswerstothesequestionsshouldhelpspotlightjobgroupswherethelackofsoundinformationmayhave
negativeconsequences.

Now,backtothebroaderquestionofwhichtargetgrouptofocusonfirst.Asyoucansee,thereisnosinglecriterionthatmaybeappliedtoarriveatareasoned
response.However,thepreviousparagraphscontainagoodrepertoireofquestionsthatcanbeusedtoprioritizepotentialmodelingstartingpoints.Onewayto
proceedistolist,inrankorderofimportance,thetopfivejobsundereachofthesixcriteria.Lookforjobsthatcropupinmultipleplaces.

Ofcourse,thesixsetsofquestionsarenotequallyimportant.Itislikelythatthefirsttwosetsofquestionswillbeconsideredpreeminent,withsomedropoffinoverall
valueoccurringwiththethirdandfourthquestionsetsandthenanothervaluedropforthefinaltwosetsofquestions.Regardlessofwhetheryoubuyintothisranking,
youmaywishtodifferentiallyweightthesixsetsofquestionstohelpdevelopalogicalbasisforprioritizingpotentialstartingpoints.Evenifyoudonotformally
completethisprocess,simplyposingthequestionstoyourcustomerwilllikelyleadtothoughtfuldialoguethatcanonlyhelptoensurethatstrategicbusinessandhuman
resourcepracticesaremoretightlylinked.

 Page120

InitialInformationGathering

Onewayoranother,atthispointyoushouldhaveaprettygoodideaofthepopulationbeingtargetedbythemodelingeffort.Further,youwillprobablybepleasedto
learnthatthereissomuchinformationreadilyavailableaboutmostjobsthatitisrarelynecessarytostartajobmodelingprojectfromscratch.However,aclear
definitionofthetargetjobgroupandtheassociatedboundarieswillhelpfocusattentiononpreviousworkintheareathatcanbeleveraged.Assoonaspossible,work
withyourcustomertoclearlydefinethetargetjobs,joblevels,andbusinessunitsandlocationsinvolved.

Descriptionsofworkcontentandinventoriesofitemsexistforawiderangeofjobfamiliesandjobs.Forexample,fairlygenericinventoriesareavailableforbroadjob
familieslikesales,6 management,7 ,8 andclericalandadministrative.9 Inaddition,morefocuseddescriptionsofcontentexistforspecificjobgroups,suchaspolice
officer,10,11,12municipaltransitoperator,13computerprogrammer,14andmanyothers.15Althoughthesesolutionsareexcellentsourcesofinformation,keepinmind
thatfrequentlytheyarespecificsolutionsdesignedtosupportaparticularapplicationandoftenforaparticularorganization.

Whenscavengingjobinformationfrompublishedinventories,orevenfrominventoriespreviouslyconstructedwithinyourorganizationoryourcustomer'sorganization,
acoupleofcautionsareinorder.First,carefullymodifyexistingdescriptivecontentsothatitaccuratelyfitsanddescribestheworkinthecurrentsetting.Forexample,
somejobmodelinginventoriesaregenericandthegeneralnatureoftheworkactivityandcompetencyitemsmightnotprovideenoughdetailedinformationtosuitthe
applicationinmind.Furthermore,itispossiblethataninventoryofitemsconstructedforaspecificorganizationorapplicationwillcontainlanguageorexamplesthatare
inappropriateforanother.Also,anexistinginventoryofitemsmightcontainvoidsincoverageandnotbecomprehensiveforthecurrentsetting.Itisenticingto
concludethataparticularsetofitemsiscompleteandsufficientwithoutcriticallyexaminingthecomprehensivecoverageoftheseitemstoyourapplicationor
organization.However,evenwiththesefactorstoconsiderandovercome,itisstillusefultoscavengefromexistingsourceswhenconstructinganinitialjobmodel.

Furthermore,inmostsettings,someinformationisavailableaboutthecontentofthejobsintheorganizationinquestion.Itispossibletolearnagreatdealfrom
materialsorinformationthatexistinternallyandusethemtostructurethinkingabouttheworkactivitiesandcompetenciesrequiredtoperformthetargetjobs.SeeFig.
5.1forasourcematerialchecklist.

JobModelingInterviewsandFocusGroups

Typically,itisalsousefultocollectinformationfromvariousperspectivesthroughoneononeinterviewsorfocusgroups.Thespecificgroupsofindivid

 Page121

Organization'sannualreport(itiscrucialtoknowsomethingabouttheclient'sbusiness).

Organization'smissionstatementorpublishedsetofguidingvaluesandprinciples(togivesomeideaofthecontextinwhich
thejobsexist).

Organizationalchartsstartingseverallayersabovethetargetjoborjobgroupandmovingalayerortwolowerinthe
organization.

Newemployeeorientationmaterials(thesecanbeleaflets,workbooks,audiotapes,videos,orothermaterials).

Organization'strainingmanuals.

Instructionalmaterialsrelatingtotheoccupationalarea(thisincludesmanualsrelatingtoequipmentused).

Materialsusedbyincumbentsinperformingthejob,suchasformscompletedorjobaids.

Performanceappraisalformsusedforthejobsinthetargetjobgroup.

Existingjobdescriptions(don'tgetyourhopesuptoohighoftenthecontentcanbemoremisleadingthanhelpfulasa
consequenceofmisleadingoroutdatedinformation).

Previouslyconstructedinventoriesorjobanalysisworkrelatingtotheoccupationalarea(seethecaveatabove).

Testsand/orstandardinterviewprotocolusedtoscreencandidatesinthetargetjobgroup.

Fig.5.1.
Preinterview/focusgroupchecklist.

ualsyoushouldincludeasSMEsorfocusgroupparticipantsdependonthequestionsyouplantoask,whichinturndependson,youguessedit,theintendeduseand
applicationofthejobmodelinginformation.Specificquestionsareaddressedlaterinthebook.Fornow,bearinmindthat,totheextentitisnecessarytocollect
informationfromSMEstosupplementanexistinginventoryofitemsorpoolofinformation,itisimportanttocollectinformationfromarepresentativegroupof
individuals.Thesepeoplewillprovidethedescriptiveandprescriptiveinformationusedtocreatetherationallyderivedjobmodel.Ifyoudonotensurethatallpossible
variationsandjobcompositionswithinthetargetoccupationareincludedwhenyoucollecttheintervieworfocusgroupinformation,theresultinginventoryof
informationwillcontainvoidsinrepresentation,willnotbecompleteandcomprehensive,andwillbedeficientintheinformationproducedfortheintendedapplication.

WhomtoIntervieworInvitetoaFocusGroup

AsFig.5.2indicates,differentindividualsintheorganizationcanprovideyouwiththenecessaryinformationindifferentdegrees.Formostinterventions,youwilllikely
bechoosingfromamongfiveinformationholders:jobincumbents,

 Page122

JobIncumbents

Usejobincumbentswhencollectinginformationaboutcurrentjobdemands,challenges,andcompetencyrequirements.
Nobodyknowswhatittakestosucceedinaparticularjoblikesomebodywhodoesit.Jobincumbentsshould:

Becurrentjobholdersintheareaforwhichthetargetedapplicationisbeingdesigned.

Havebeeninthejoblongenoughtogainacompletepictureofjobscopeandperformanceexpectationsandunderstandthe
intricaciesandsubtletiesassociatedwiththework.Ofcourse,dependingonthejob,thismaybe3monthsorevenamatterof
years.

Supervisors/Managers

Usesupervisorsormanagerstogatherinformationaboutcurrentjobdemandsandrequirements,butparticularlytogain
informationaboutthedifficultyofworkactivitiesandthelevelofmasteryrequiredincertaincompetencyareastoperformwork
activities.Supervisorsandmanagersshouldalsohaveagoodbasisforgivingyouinformationaboutanticipatedchangesinjob
requirementsresultingfromtheintroductionofnewequipment,revisionstotheworkprocess,theintroductionofnewwork
systems,orothersystemicchanges.Supervisorsandmanagersshould:

Beonelevelupfromindividualsinthejobstargetedbytheapplications.

Haveacomprehensiveunderstandingofthetargetjob.

Haveabroadframeofreferencegainedbyhavingseenanumberofpeopleperformthejob.

Havesomeunderstandingofemergingtrendsandchallengesthatarelikelytoimpactthecontentandworkerrequirements.
Trytoincludepeoplewhoserveontheorganization'sstrategyortechnologyteams.

OrganizationalVisionaries

Usevisionarieswhenthetargetjobischangingsignificantlyorwhentheanticipatedchangeisalongtermenterpriseoris
understoodbyonlyafewkeyindividualsintheorganization.Suchsituationsmightincludedramaticallyredesigningthejobsin
theorganizationtoincludemorecrossfunctionalwork,increasingspansofcontrolforindividuals,changingperformance
expectations,orcreatingnewjobsorneworganizationswherethereisnopreviousframeofreference(e.g.,newplantstartups
withnewlydesignedjobs).Visionariesshould:

Beatleasttwolevelsabovethejobtargetedbytheapplication.

Haveafeelforemergingbusinesstrendsandtheimplicationsofthesechangesfororganizationalfunctioningandjob
requirements.

Customers
Usecustomerswhenbuildinganinformationbaseforhowworkshouldbeaccomplishedorredesigned.Customerscanhelp
highlightworkactivitiesandcompetenciesthatareimportant,butnotcurrentlydemonstratedorunderstoodbyjobincumbents.
Customersshould:

Includebothinternalandexternalcustomersasappropriate.Thegroupcanbebroadenedtoincludestrategicpartners.

Workcloselywithanddependontheworkandresultsofworkperformedbyindividualsinthetargetjob.

Observers

Useobserverswhenyouhavereasontobelievethatpeople'sresponsesonaquestionnairemightconflictwithactualjob
demands(e.g.,respondentsinflatingjobrequirementswhenthejobmodelingisbeingdoneprimarilyforjobevaluationorthe
creationofpaygrades)orwhenyouareunabletocollectdatafromorganizationemployees(e.g.,duetoanadversarialunion
environmentorwhenworkisbeingconductedamidsttheconstraintsofsomeformoflegalchallenge).Ofcourse,theuseof
observersislimitedtosituationsinwhichthetargetedbehaviorsareobservableandmeasurabletasksobserversareless
usefulforprovidinginformationaboutunobservablecompetencies,suchasthinkingorplanning.Observersshould:

Calibratetheiruseoftheratingscalewithotherobservers.

Beclearonwhethertheyarefocusingonlyondescription,oriftherearealsoinferentialhypothesestestingobjectives(e.g.,
makingjudgmentsaboutthedifferencesbetweenhighandlowperformers).

Besensitivetojobincumbentreactivityanddemandcharacteristicsthatcancropupasaresultofbeingobserved.

Fig.5.2.
Potentialinterview/focusgroupparticipants.

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supervisorsormanagerofjobincumbents,organizationalvisionaries,customers,andobservers.Ofthesefivegroups,youwilllikelyfindthatmostofyourmodeling
workinvolvesincumbentsandsupervisorsofincumbents.Generalizingsomewhatliberallyfromtheresearchinvolvingthesetwogroups,theindividualsyouchooseto
includeatthisstepshouldhavethefollowingcharacteristics:

BeAmongtheBrightest Thereissomeevidencetosuggestthatindividualswithhigher
cognitiveabilityprovidemoreaccurateinformation.
16,17,18,19,20,21

BeAmongtheMostExperienced Similarly,thereisevidencetosuggestthatindividualswithgreater
tenureintheirroleprovidemoreaccurate
information.22,23,24,25,26

BeAmongtheBetterPerformers
Ingeneral,thereisconvergingevidencethatindicatesbetter
performersprovidehigherqualityinformation.27,28,29,30Anote
ofcaution:Yourclientmightbetemptedtofirstofferyouaccess
totheworstperformersbecausetheyaremostexpendable.
Demandthebest!

AlthoughIdonotwanttoveeroffintoadiscussionofthepotentialfallibilityofhumanjudgment,IwouldberemissifIdidnotatleastmakethepointthatSMEsbring
tothemodelingsituationtheirownsourcesoferror.Differentvalues,perspectives,experiences,cognitivecapability,andsoforthallmayintroducesomeunknown
amountoferrortotheinformationthatiscollected.Forthosewhowishtoresearchthistopicfurther,MorgesonandCampionrecentlypublishedausefularticlethat
reviewstheliteraturerelevanttothepsychologicalprocessesthatunderlieinaccuracyinjobanalysisdata.31

Interview/FocusGroupSamplingPlan

Thequalityofthejobmodelinginformationobtainedisdirectlyrelatedtotherepresentativenessoftheinformationcollectedintheinitialinformationgatheringphase.
Theindividualsinterviewed,orthesubjectmatterexpertsincludedinthejobmodelingfocusgroups,shouldrepresenteachofthekeygroupsorareasofpotential
differenceintheorganization.AsFig.5.3indicates,thesesourcesofpotentialdifferenceincludemajorjobtitlesinthejobgrouporjobfamily(i.e.,titleswithmany
incumbents),differentlocations,differentfunctionsorbusinessunits,anddifferentgender,age,andethnicgroups.

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JobTitles

Jobtitleswithlargenumbersofincumbentsneedtoberepresentedaccordinglyingreaternumberininterviewsorfocusgroup
meetings.

GeographicLocation

Whetheracrosstown,ontheothersideofthecountry,orinadifferentcountry,jobswiththesamejobtitleoftenhave
differencesincontentandworkerrequirementsaswell.Thedifferencesinlocaleneedtobesampledaccordingly.

Functions/BusinessUnits

Althoughthesamejobcanberepresentedindifferentpiecesofthebusiness,differentsegmentsoftheorganizationby
definitioncanhavedifferentmarkets,productlines,workprocesses,orotherdifferences,anyofwhichhavethepotentialto
impactthewayworkisperformed.

Ethnic,Gender,AgeGroups

Differentgroupsoftenhavedifferentperspectivesandorientations.Althoughitisuncleartowhatextentthesedifferencescan
haveonthejobmodelinginformationcollected,itisagoodideatosamplethesegroupsaccordingly.Intheeventahuman
resourceinterventionbuiltfromthejobmodelingworkfacesalegalchallenge,thecourtsoftenlookatrepresentativenesshere
asanindexofthethoroughness,quality,andobjectivityoftheinformationplatform.Further,samplingthesegroups
accordinglycanfacilitatebuyinonthepartofeventualusersoftheintendedintervention.

Fig.5.3.
Interview/focusgrouprepresentationchecklist.

SizeofIntervieworFocusGroupSample

Therearenowidelyacceptedguidelinesforhowmanyinterviewsneedtobeconductedorhowmanyindividualsneedtobeincludedinfocusgroups.However,there
areanumberofvariablestokeepinmind.Forexample,ifoneisstartingfromscratchwithoutpriorresearchorexistingjobdescriptionsversusstartingfromasolid
base(e.g.,drawingonpublishedinventoriesforsimilarjobsandexistingjobdescriptionsthatarefairlycomprehensive,uptodate,andavailable),itisnecessaryto
conductmoreinterviewstoensureallthenecessaryinformationhasbeencaptured.Also,theknowledgeandexperienceofthejobmodelingteamcanaffectthe
numberofinterviewsorfocusgroupsrequired.Anindividualwithlittlejobmodelingexperienceandlimitedexposuretothetypeofworkbeingmodeledwilltake
longertocollectthenecessaryinformationineachinterviewandwillrequiremoreinterviewstocaptureandintegratethenecessaryinformation.Asageneralrule,the
interviewingprocessshouldcontinueuntiltheinterviewersarecollectingonlyredundantinformationatthelevelofdetailrequiredtounderstandtheworkinvolvedfor
creatingtheplannedapplication(s).Thisisanimportantpointbecause,totheextentthejobmodelinginformationisincompleteorfaulty,subsequentjudgmentsbased
onthisinformationintheapplicationsthatfollowwillalsobeincorrect.

Althougheachjobmodelingsituationisunique,andthushasitsownrequirementsandvariablestoconsider,Table5.1providessomegeneralguide

 Page125

 Page126

linesfordeterminingthenumberofindividualstobeincludedintheinterviewingorfocusgroupprocess.Theideabehindthisdeterminationtableistovarythenumber
ofinterviewandfocusgroupparticipantsbasedonthedemandsofthejobmodelingsituation,asrepresentedbytheimpactvariables(114)inthefarleftcolumn.
Theseimpactvariablesandtheassociatedweightsarebasedprimarilyontheresearchdesignedtoinvestigatethekeydecisionpointsinjobmodelingprojects
describedinchapter4.32

Tousethetable,firstanswerthisquestion:Howmanyincumbentsareinthetargetjob(s)?Thenumberinparenthesesandboldprintassociatedwithaparticular
incumbentsizebreakoutisthebasenumberofrequiredintervieweesorfocusgroupparticipantsthisnumbergetsenteredinthetopcellinthefarrightcolumn.This
numberisthenmultipliedbytheappropriatepercentagesassociatedwiththeresponsecategoryforeachoftheremaining13impactvariables.Ineachcase,the
resultingnumberrepresentstheadditionalnumberofindividualsaddedtotheinterview/focusgroupsample.Inotherwords,thestartingorbasenumberof
interviewees/participantsisaddedtothenumberresultingfromtheproductofbasepercentageinQuestion2,plustheproductofbasepercentageinQuestion3,
andsoon.

Forexample,ifthereare3,400incumbentsinthetargetjobgroup,thebase(orstarting)numberofrequiredinterviewand/orfocusgroupparticipantsis10.Second,if
thegoalofthejobmodelingworkistocreateaninformationplatformforsupportinganewemployeeselectionprogrampaperandpenciltestingwithfollowup
validationthenmultiplythebaseofN=10by50%andentertheproduct(i.e.,5)inthecellinthefarrightcolumn.ThenproceedtodothesameforQuestions3to
14.Oncealltheimpactvariableshavebeenaddressed,addthenumbersinthe14cellsontherighthandsideofthepagetogetanapproximationofanappropriate
samplesize.

TakeafewminutestoreviewtheBankPartners,Inc.casestudypresentedinchapter4.Thencompletetheinterview/focusgroupdeterminationtableinTable5.1.
Althoughyourassessmentoftheimportantvariablesinthecasestudymaydifferslightlyfrommine,I'llbetwearefairlyclose.Thenumberofpeopleaddedtothe
sampleasaresultofeachimpactvariable,basedonmyassessmentofthesituation,appearsbelow:

Q1 10people
Q2 5people
Q3 5people
Q4 10people
Q5 2.5people
Q6 2.5people
Q7 10people
Q8 15people
Q9 10people

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Q10 0people
Q11 5people
Q12 1person
Q13 5people
Q14 10people

Thenumberofsuggestedinterviewsorfocusgroupmembersinthiscaseis91.Althoughthisnumbershouldnotbeconsideredafixedvalue,youshouldfindittobea
reasonablygoodstartingpointestimate.

ConductingInterviews

Theguidelinesforconductingjobmodelinginterviewsarefairlystraightforward.Theinterviewershouldattempttocreateacomfortableandrelaxedatmosphereto
facilitateintervieweecomfortwiththeprocess.Aheadsuplettergoesalongwaytowardsettingthestageinthisregard.Forexample,beforeindividualsare
interviewed,theymightreceiveanexplanatorymemoliketheonefollowing,whichisfromahighlevelinternalsponsor.
Dear[INCUMBENT,SUPERVISOR,ORGANIZATIONALVISIONARY,ORCUSTOMER]:

Asyoumaybeaware,wehavecontractedwith[YOURDEPARTMENTORORGANIZATION]todevelop[NAMEOFTARGETINTERVENTION].Themajorphasesofthis
projectareoutlinedbelow.

1.Conductjobmodelinginterviews(orfocusgroups)withkeyindividuals.
2.Developaquestionnairetocollectratingsabouttheworkactivities(and/orcompetencies)importantforthejob.
3.Constructacompetencyprofileofthetargetedjobs.
46.[SEVERALDESCRIPTIVESTEPSASSOCIATEDWITHTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHETARGETAPPLICATION.]

Inthefirstphaseofthisproject,wewillconductaseriesofinterviews(orfocusgroups)tocollectinformationabouttheactivitiesand/orcompetenciesthatcontributetosuccess.
Youhavebeenselectedbecauseyouarefamiliarwiththedutiesandresponsibilitiesof[NAMEOFTARGETJOB]with[NAMEOFTARGETDEPARTMENTORCUSTOMER
ORGANIZATION].Thepurposeoftheinterviewistocollectinformationaboutthejoblistedonthismemo.Wearenotinterestedintheperformanceofspecificindividuals.The
interviewerwillaskanumberofquestionsdesignedtocollectinformationabouttheactivitiesandcompetenciesthatcontributetojobsuccess.Theinterviewresultsare
confidential,sopleasefeelfreetospeakopenlyandfrankly.

Tohelpyoupreparefortheinterview,pleasereviewthequestionsyouarelikelytobeasked,whichareoutlinedonthenextpage[NOTE:THISSTEPISOPTIONAL].Pleasenote
thatnotallinterviewswillcoverallofthequestionslisted.Theinterview(orfocusgroup)willrequireapproximately[AMOUNTOFTIME

 Page128

ALLOTTED].Thankyouinadvanceforyourparticipationandcooperationingettingthisimportantprojectofftoagoodstart.

Sincerely,

[PROJECTSPONSOR]

Toactuallybeginaninterviewsessionwithasubjectmatterexpert,youmightsay:
Mynameis[YOURNAME],andIworkfor[YOURDEPARTMENTORYOURORGANIZATION].Iamcollectinginformationtodeterminethekindsofworkperformedby[NAME
OFTARGETJOB]andthetypesofcompetenciesorskillspeopleneedinordertoperformthiswork.Iwillbeaskinganumberofpeoplewhoworkas[NAMEOFTARGETJOB]to
describetheirjobs,andIwillcombinethisinformationwiththeinformationthatyouprovidetocomeupwithadescriptionoftheactivitiesperformedandcompetenciesrequired
forsuccessasa[NAMEOFTARGETJOB].

Theinformationgatheredfromtheseinterviews(orfocusgroups)willbeusedtodevelopaquestionnairethatwillthenbeusedtocollectinformationfromalargergroupof
[NAMEOFTARGETJOB].Thepurposeofallthisworkistocaptureinformationfromexpertswhoknowthejobwell,suchasyourself,inordertoguideoureffortstodevelop
[NAMEOFTARGETAPPLICATION].Itismyunderstandingthatwehave[AMOUNTOFTIMEALLOTTED]forthisinterviewisthatcorrect?Doyouhaveanyquestionsfor
mebeforewebegin?

Thisintroductionshouldsettheintervieweeatease,providehimorherwiththenecessaryinformation,andencouragehimorhertoaskanyquestions.Viewthis
contactasanopportunitytobuildrapportwithanimportantmemberofthecustomerorganization(thisisjustasimportantforinternalasexternalconsultants),
underscoretheimportanceofcapturingqualityinformation,andsellthevalueoftheintendedtargetapplication.Youwillfindthatmostpeopleenjoytalkingabouttheir
jobs.Thus,gettingstartedistypicallynotaproblem.Actually,thetrickistokeeptheintervieweesontracksotheygiveyouinformationthatisusefulforyourpurpose.

Oneapproachforkeepingintervieweesontrackistohavethethembeginbytalkingaboutthegeneralworkactivitiesperformedandthenprogressivelygointomore
detailormoreabstractinformation(collectinginformationaboutobservableworkactivitiesistypicallyaneasierprocessthancapturinggoodinformationfrom
intervieweesaboutoftenunobservablecompetenciesorindividualworkerrequirements).Forexample,itmightbeusefultohavetheintervieweegroupthekindsof
activitiesheorsheperformseachdayintoafewcategories.Anillustrationortwofromanotherareaofworkcanbeusefultointerviewees.Ifyouareinterviewing
heavyequipmentoperators,youmightwishtouseasanexamplethegeneraldutyareasperformedbyindividualsinsomeoftheclerical

 Page129

positionsintheorganization(suchasfileandretrievedocumentsandtypeandprocesswrittenmaterials).

Itiseasiertogetspecificexamplesoftasksperformedoncetheintervieweehasgroupedhisorherworkactivitiesintosomegeneralareas.Compartmentalizingthe
workinthiswayalsohelpsfacilitategettinginformationaboutthemoreabstractcompetenciesrequiredtoperformthework.Keepinmindthatyouareinterestedin
tryingtodiscoverwhatactionscomprisetheworkbeingperformed,whoorwhatisatthefocusoftheaction,whytheactionisoccurringandifnecessary,andhow
theactionisbeingaccomplished.Oncethisinformationhasbeencollectedforthevariousactivityareasofthework,itisthenappropriatetoquestiontheinterviewee
aboutthecompetenciesrequiredtoperformtheidentifiedworkactivities(ifthisinformationisrequiredforyourintendedintervention).

Itisalwaysagoodideatoclosetheinterviewbyreaffirmingthepurposeofthemeetingandintendeduseoftheinformation.Ifpossible,leavetimetoprovideahigh
levelsummaryoftheconclusionscomingfromtheinterviewandgivetheintervieweeachancetoconfirmandaskafollowupquestionortwo.Thenthanktheperson
forhisorherhelpandcooperation.

Thebottomlineisthis:Yourinterviweeisthesmartestpersonintheroom.Hence,ifasjobmodelerswedonotaskthewrongquestions,ourinterviweesarecapable
ofteachinguseverythingweneedtoknow.Summariesofthestatements,questions,andprobestoconsiderusingtosolicitinformationfromyourjobexpertsappearin
Figures5.4to5.8.Thesearejustexamples.Eachjobmodelingsituationwilllikelyrequireadifferentnumberandconfigurationofquestions.

Forbasicdocumentationneedsandintroductorystatements,seeFig.5.4.

Forquestionsdesignedtotapinformationaboutworkactivitiesperformedandcompetenciesrequired,seeFig.5.5.

Forquestionsusedtoclarifytheorganization'sbusinesscontext,vision,andstrategicfocus,seeFig.5.6.Ofcourse,giventhespecificdemandsofaparticular
modelingcontext,oneshouldreorganizethestructureforthequestionsandintroduceadifferentmixofquestionsorfollowupprobes(drawingfromthecontentin
chap.3)asappropriate.

Fororganizationcontextquestionsdesignedtotapinformationaboutworkrewards,thework,workconditionsthatformtheenvironmentinwhichjobsorrolesare
embedded,andorganizationalstructure,seeFig.5.7.

Forquestionsdesignedtotapinformationthatcanbeusedtocreateoperationaldefinitionsofhighlyeffective,satisfactoryorsolid,andunsatisfactoryperformance,
seeFig.5.8.

 Page130

Documentation
Dateoftheinterview/focusgroup.
Nameoftheinterviewer/focusgroupleader.
Nameandtitleoftheinterviewee/focusgroupparticipant.
Interviewee/participant'sworkgrouporbusinessunit,worklocation,andtelephonenumber.
Interviewee/focusgroupparticipant'stenureinjobandwiththecompany.

StructuringStatement
Yournameandaffiliation.
Purposeoftheinterview/focusgroup.
Descriptionofhowtheresultinginformationwillbeused.
Activitiestooccurintheinterview/focusgroupandtimeframes.

Fig.5.4.
Jobmodelinginterview/focusgroupintroductionchecklist.

PurposeofJob/Overview
Canyousummarizethetargetjobinonesentence?
Whatisthepurposeofthejobwhatarethemajoroutputs?
Whathappensduringatypicalday,fromthetimeyouarrivetothetimeyouleave?
Whatgoalsareincumbentsheldaccountabletomeet?

WorkActivitiesPerformed
Whatarethefiveorsixmajordutiesorgroupsofworkactivitiesperformedinthejob?
Describeeachoftheseactivityareasinmoredetail:

Whatisdoneorwhatactionisperformed?

Whoorwhatisbeingactedon?

Whyistheactionimportant?

Howistheactionaccomplished?

Whatarethemostchallengingordifficultactivitiesofthejob?

Whattypesofproblemsorissuesdoincumbentsroutinelyface?

CompetenciesRequired
Whataretheimportantknowledge,skills,abilities,orpersonalcharacteristicsneededtoperformtheworkactivities
we'vejustdiscussed?
Whatdifferentiatesatopperformerinthisjobfromamarginalorpoorperformer?
Ifyouwerehiringsomeoneintothisjob,whatcapabilitieswouldyoulookfor?
Whattechnicalexpertiseisrequired?
Whatpeopleskillsarecritical?
Whatpersonalcharacteristicssuchasdriveorpatienceareessential?
Wheredomajorworkorjobpressurescomefrom?Istherealotofburnout?Why?

Fig.5.5.
Jobmodelinginterview/focusgroupworkactivity
andcompetencyinvestigationchecklist.

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FactorsExternaltotheOrganizationthatareLikelytoImpacttheBusinessintheFuture(NOWPart1)
Whataretheexternalfactorsormacroandmicroenvironmentaltrendsthatseemparticularlysignificantfortheorganizationoverthenext5years?
Whatemergingopportunitiesandobstacleswilltheorganizationneedtocontendwithoverthenext5years?Thesemayarisefromchangesinanumberofpotentiallyrelevantarenas,
including:
Social
Economic
Political/Legal
Technological
Markets(size,scope,maturity)
Competitors(newentrants,changesincompetitiveposture)
Customers
Suppliers
FactorsInternaltotheOrganizationThatareLikelytoImpacttheBusiness,ortheWayBusinessisConducted,intheFuture(NOWPart2)
Whataretheinternalfactorsororganizationlevelcompetenciesthatwillbesignificantvariablesfortheorganizationtocontendwithoverthenext5years?
Whatarethecorestrengthsandweaknessesoftheorganizationthatwillimpacttheorganization'svaluecreationcapabilitiesoverthenext5years?Theseincludeassetsandliabilitiesin
severalsegmentsoftheorganizationallandscape,including:
Human
Technological
Infrastructure
Financial
Contextual/Cultural
DefiningFeaturesoftheOrganization'sVisionandMission(WOW)
Giventheexternalandinternalcontextoftheorganization,whatisthemission?
Whatwillthefuturevaluechainoftheindustrylooklikeandwherewilltheorganizationwanttofitin?
Whereistheorganizationtodayversuswhereitwantstobe?
Whatarethecurrentandfuturecashcowsofthebusiness?
Whataretheintermediateandlongrangefinancialgoalsfortheorganization?
Whatarethemarketleadershipgoalsforspecificbusinesssegmentsandmajorproduct/servicelines?
Giventheexternalandinternalcontextoftheorganization,whatarethecorevaluesandbeliefs?
Whatlevelofeconomicreturndoestheorganizationhopetoprovideowners/shareholders?Employees?
Whatwerethedefiningvaluesoftheorganizationalfounders?Arethesevaluesstillheldbytheseniorleadershipteam?Howcanonetell?
StrategiesandInitiativesDesignedtoPreparetheOrganizationforFutureCompetitiveness(HOWPart1)
Whatistheorganization'scompetitivestrategy?
Whatisthesourceoftheorganization'scompetitiveadvantage?
Whatmajorfactorswillcontributetotheorganization'ssuccessoverthenext5years?
Howdocustomersviewtheorganizationintermsofthingsdonewellorpoorly?
Whatstrategicinitiativesareinplacetoleverageorganizationalstrengths?Shoreupweaknesses?
Capitalizeonemergingbusinessopportunities?Respondtopotentialthreats?Theseinitiativesmayimpacttheorganization'shumantalent,technologicalcapabilities,infrastructure,
financialcapital,orculture.
ImpactofStrategiesandInitiativesonJobsandtheJobModel(HOWPart2)
Giventhestrategiesandinitiativesoftheorganization,whatwillbetheimpactonjobstargetedbythemodelingwork?
Whatchangeswilloccurintheworkactivitiescomprisingthejobs?Willtherebeanychangesinreportingrelationships?

Fig.5.6.
Jobmodelinginterview/focusgroup''vision&strategyreview"checklist.

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WorkBenefits(IntrinsicAndExtrinsic)
Compensation:Whatisthepaycomparedtosimilarjobsintherelevantlabormarket,andwhatisthecompensation
potentialoverthenextseveralyears?Whatistheperceivedlinkagebetweenpaytovalueandbetweenperformanceand
pay?
JobSecurity:Whatlevelofsecuritydopeoplehaveintheirjobsnow?Fourtofiveyearsout?
JobMobility:Towhatextentareincumbentsabletomovelaterallyandverticallyintootherjobsintheorganization?
Collegiality:Towhatextentdoincumbentsinteractwithothersandfeelpartofateam?
Recognition:Doincumbentsreceiverecognitionfortheirworkeffortswithintheworkgroup?Acrosstheorganization?
Outsidetheorganization?
Development:Whatopportunitiesaretheretolearnnewworkactivities,ideas,workapproaches?Howdoincumbents
receiveintellectualstimulationineverydayjobactivities?Whatkindsoforganizationalsupportexistforindividual
development?

WorkItself
WorkVariety:Howmanydifferentworkactivitiesdoincumbentsperformthroughouttheday?Whatopportunitiesexistto
participateindifferentworkactivitiesorprojectsthroughouttheyear?
Creativity:Whatopportunitiesarethereforindividualstotryoutnewideas,dothingsdifferently,orbecreativeintermsof
howworkactivitiesareperformed?
CoachingorMentoring:Towhatextentarejobincumbentsresponsibleforteaching,mentoring,ordevelopingtheskillsof
others?
ToolsandEquipment:Whatkindsofgeneralofficeequipment(faxmachines,computers,photocopiers,papershredders),
recordingdevices(taperecorders,VCRs,securitycameras),vehicles(cars,trucks,forklifts),andhandtoolsorsafety
equipmentareusedonthejob?

WorkConditions
Environment:Describetheeverydayworkenvironment.Aretheresafetyissues?Doesthejobinvolveworkingoutside?
Whatkindoftechnicalandstaffsupportsareavailable?Whatkindsofinteractionswithcustomersarerequired?
Travel:Whatkind(local,regional,intercontinental)andamountoftravelisrequiredtofulfilljobduties?
TimeFlexibility:Whatisthebalancebetweenjobdemandsandpersonallife?Isitpossibletoadjustscheduleorworkat
homeasopposedtoattheofficeonoccasion?
Autonomy:Towhatextentarejobincumbentsabletosetowngoalsandworkdirection?Howmuchdiscretiondo
individualshavefordecidingonmethodsforcarryingoutthejob?
Structure:Whatkindsofbehavioralnorms(explicitandimplicit)existintheworkplace?Inwhatwaysdojobincumbents
settheirownstandardsgoverningtheappropriatenessofworkplacebehavior?Istheorganizationruledrivenandbythe
book?
WorkStress:Inwhatwaysdojobincumbentshavecontrolovertheoverallnumberofworkactivitiesrequiredduringthe
day?Aretherewaystoadjustschedulestoeasetimepressure?Hasburnoutbeenaproblem?Ifso,why?

OrganizationalStructure
OrganizationSize:Howdoesthesizeofthisorganizationcomparetoothersoperatinginthesamemarket,intermsof
numberofemployees,revenue,geographicdispersion,oranyotherrelevantfactor?
Hierarchy:Howmanylevelsarethereforaparticularjobclassintheorganization?Howmanypaygrades?
Centralization:Towhatextentareemployeeslocatedinoneorrelativelyfewlocationsversuswidelydispersed?Towhat
extentarekeydecisionsmadeinoneversusmanylocations?
LevelofPerformanceTracking:Whogetsevaluatedindividuals?teams?businessunits?Howisperformancemeasured
andtracked?

Fig.5.7.
Workcontextinterview/focusgroupquestionchecklist.

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HighlyEffectiveAnchors

Foreachmajorworkactivityorcompetencycategory,relateaspecificsituationorincidentthathadverysuccessful
consequences.

Whatleduptothesituationandwhatwasitaboutthejobincumbent'sbehaviorthatwassoeffective?

Whatweretheconsequencesofthebehavior?

Whatopportunitieswererealizedasaresultofthebehavior?

Whatpotentialobstacleswereavoidedbecauseofthebehavior?

SatisfactoryorSolidAnchors

Foreachmajorworkactivityorcompetencycategory,relateaspecificsituationorincidentthathadsatisfactory
consequences.Inotherwords,thinkofatimewhenthejobincumbent'sbehaviordidnotmakethesituationworse,nor
capitalizeonanopportunitytohaveamoredramaticandpositiveimpact.

Whatleduptothesituation?Whatwasitaboutthejobincumbent'sbehaviorthatkepttheconsequencesinthesolid
range?

Whatweretheconsequencesofthebehavior?

Whatopportunitiesweremissed?

Whatpotentialobstacleswerenotcompletelylaidtorestoravoided?

UnsatisfactoryAnchors

Foreachmajorworkactivityorcompetencycategory,relateaspecificsituationorincidentthathadveryunsuccessful
consequences.

Whatleduptothesituation?Whatwasitaboutthejobincumbent'sbehaviorthatwassoineffective?

Whatweretheconsequencesofthebehavior?

Whatpotentialobstacleswereintroducedasaresultofthebehavior?

Fig.5.8.
Performancestandardinterview/focusgroupquestionchecklist.

ConductingFocusGroups

Focusgroupscanbealotoffunbecauseyouneverknowwhatisgoingtohappenwhenyougetagroupofpeopletogether.Theyarealittlemoredifficulttomanage
thanoneononeinterviewsforthesamereason.Thefacilitationaspectcanbetrickyitrequiresabitofabalancingactbetweenbeingsupportiveanddirectiveasone
putsthespotlightonotherstolearnandunderstandwhattheyalreadyknow.

Keepinmindthatthejobmodelingfocusgroupisnotanopportunityforpeopletocometogetherforablueskydiscussion.Tothecontrary,agoodmodelingfocus
groupisdeliverableoriented,wherethedeliverablemaybethedevelopmentofacontentstructureand/orpopulatingthestructurewithitemleveldescriptors,oritmay
beacomprehensivereviewandenhancementofastrawmodel,andsoforth.Beclearupfrontabouttheexpectedresult,andtheprocessforgettingthere,when
dealingwithagroupofsubjectexperts.

 Page134

Similartotheapproachusedforoneononeinterviews,alwaysbeginamodelingfocusgroupwithacompleteintroductionofyourself,statethepurposeandgoalof
themeeting,andconfirmthetimeallocation.Inaddition,inagroupsetting,itisoftenusefultodropanameortwooftheexecutivesponsorsoftheinitiativejustto
drivehomeitsimportanceandlendsomecredibilitytothework.Ifyoucangetanexecutivesponsororlocalrepresentativetokickoffthemeeting,thatisevenbetter.

Next,workyourwayaroundthetableandhavetheparticipantsintroducethemselves,theirtitles,andwheretheywork.Inpart,thepurposeoftheseintroductionsis
toserveasanicebreaker.Onceaparticipanthassaidsomething,itiseasierforhimorhertospeakupagain.Moreimportant,evenifpeopleinthegroupknoweach
otherbysight,theyoftendonotrecalleachother'snamesorworklocations.

Youcanhavealittlefunwiththeintroductions,too.Forexample,inadditiontoname,title,andworklocation,askpeopletonametheirfavoritemovieortellthegroup
somethinguniqueaboutthemselves.Whenpeopleworkasintenselyastheydoinamodelingfocusgroup,theycanburnoutiftheyarenotgivensomereliefor
opportunitiestoreenergizethemselvesbyhavingalittlefun.Asthefacilitatortakingcarefulmentalnotesabouttheinterestinganduniquethingsyouhearaboutyour
groupparticipants,youarecreatingopeningsforreferringbacktotheircommentsandintroducingalittlelevityatvariouspointsthroughoutthecourseofthemeeting
(e.g.,"Okay,Ifeelasifwe'vebeenmakingprogressupthemountainuntilthispointandnowweseemtobestuck.Sandy,you'retherockclimberinthegroup,what
doyourinstinctstellyou?").Lookforwaystoconnectandshareafewlaughswiththegroup.

Nowyouarereadytoestablishwhatevergroundrulesyouwanttouse.Forexample:

Onlyonepersonspeakingatatime.

Everyonehasequalvoiceinmakingdecisions(thismightbeagoodplacetopointoutthateightpeopleina31/2hourmeetinghaveonly22.5minuteseachofair
time[minustwo15minutebreaks],andthateveryoneneedstobeconsiderateofothers'righttospeak).

Sticktofactsandbespecific.

Postthegroundrulesinaprominentplacethroughoutthemeeting(e.g.,recordthelistonaflipchartpage,tearitoff,andtapeittothewall).Youwillfindmostgroups
doaprettygoodjobofpolicingthemselves.

However,therewillbeoccasionswhen,asthefacilitator,youwillneedtostepforwardtoensurethatallvoicesareheardandrepresentedinthefinalproduct.The
followingareexamplesofparticipanttypesthatcaninterferewithaproductivefocusgroupmeeting,alongwithsomepossiblesolutions:

 Page135

Rambler: Hasadifficulttimefocusinghisthinking.ThanktheRamblerforhisinput,thenrefocushis
andthegroup'sattentionbyrestatingthegoalsofthemeeting.Ifthedifficultypersists,say
"I'mnotsurethatwhatyouaresayingisontargetgiventheintentofthediscussion."Then
turntothegroupandask,"Cansomeonehelpushere?"

Mummy: Eitherchoosesnottoparticipateinthediscussionorparticipatesinahaltingand
ineffectualway.Donotignorethisperson.Herinputandperspectivemaybevery
valuable.BesuretomaximizeeyecontactwiththeMummybecausethisprovides
encouragementtospeak.Also,useopenendedprobeslike"Tellmeaboutyourviews
onthisissue"toprovideaninvitationtotalk.Anotherlessdirectapproachistoaskthis
persontoprovidefollowupperspectivesontheinputofothers.Ifyouarestillhaving
trouble,considerhavingtheMummysimplyparaphrasetheinputofanothermemberof
thegroupandaskifsheagrees.

EagerBeaver: Goesoverboardinhiseffortstocontribute.Donotembarrasstheindividual.Simply
saying"That'saninterestingpointnowlet'shearfromsomeoneelse"onceortwicecan
helpreignhimin.AnothertacticistoasktheEagerBeavertosummarizethepointsmade
byothersatdiscretepointsinthemeetingandtrytopullhimoutoftheroleofindividual
contributor.

Provocateur: ThecompleteoppositeoftheEagerBeaver,theProvocateurisconfrontativeand
combative.Maybesheisjusthavingabadday,month,oryear.Maybeitisjusther
normalstyleofexpressingherself.Whatever.Takeabreathandaskforexamplesor
detailstogetallpotentialconcernsorissuestothesurface.Donotletthispersondraw
youintoanargumentorputyouonthedefensive.Youmightconsiderthrowingthe
Provocateur'sviewsbacktothegroupfortheirevaluationandasking,"Whatdoyou
think?"Ifyoureallygetboxedin,thereisnothingwrongwithturningtothegroupand
saying,"We'restuck.Whocanhelpushere?"Dowhatyoucantoidentifytheissuesof
herargument,documentthem,andmoveon.Inextremecases,youmaywanttocheckin
withthispersondirectlybysaying,"Youareveryargumentativethismorning.What's
wrong?"Thisshouldbe

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doneoutsidethegroupsession(e.g.,onbreak)andonaoneononebasis.

Conversationalist: Precipitatesandperpetuatessidelineconversationsthataredistractingtothegroup.To
begin,addresstheConversationalistbynameandremindhimofthegroundrulesforthe
meeting.Besuretotellhimthatyouwillgettohisconcernsmomentarily.Ifthatdoesnot
work,walkovertotheConversationalistandtouchthebackofhischairasyouredirect
theeffortsofthegroup.

Approach1:SemistructuredOpenDiscussion

Oneapproachforcollectinginformationinafocusgroupfollowsthesamemethodusedtofacilitatetheoneononeinterview,wherethegroupwouldbeginanopen
discussionaboutthegeneralworkactivitiesperformed.Thediscussionwouldbeledintomoredetailaroundtheemergingbroadcategoriesofactivitiesandthen,if
required,intoadiscussionoftherequisitecompetencies.Inadditiontothesuggestionsforconductingfocusgroupscoveredintheprecedingpages,itmayproveuseful
tofurtherclarifythegameplanorgroundrulesforthiskindofmeeting.33Forexample:

Quantityisdesirable.Themoredescriptorstatementsgeneratedbythegroup,thebetter.

Redundancyisokay.Itismuchbettertohaveseveralstatementsthataresimilarandthatmaybeconsolidatedlaterthantomisssomethingimportant.

Donotwordsmithasyougo.Getthegistoftheideaoutsothatitmayberecordedandletthemodelingteamworryaboutphrasingtheperfectstatement.

Noeditingorcriticizingsomeoneelse'sinput.Itoftenhelpstokeeptheprocessmovingifeffortsbythegrouptoeditorcriticizeagroupmember'sinputislimited,if
notoutrightdisallowed.Ifagroupmemberwantstobuildonorrestatesomeone'sinputandsuggestanotherdescriptoritemtobeaddedtothepool,great,butno
goingbacktotweaksomebodyelse'sideas.

Stateideasquicklyandconcisely.Donotencouragegroupmemberstoprovidearationalefortheirinput.However,asthegroupleader,youshouldprobefordetail
orclarifythemeaningofasuggestionasappropriate.

Themakeupofthiskindoffocusgroupisanimportantfactorinitssuccess.Aswiththeinterviews,youwantthebrightest,mostexperienced,andbestperformers
availabletobeyourSMEs.Also,unlessthereisaclearreasonfordoingso,itisnotagoodideatoincludepersonsfromdifferentlevelsintheorganiza

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tioninthesamegroup.Thepresenceofoneortwobossescandampenthespontaneityofthemeeting,whichisapotentialstrengthoftheapproach.

Approach2:StructuredRoundRobin

Asecondapproachinvolvesaroundrobincollectionofideas.Askparticipantstocreatetheirownlistofmajorworkactivityareas(afterpromptingthemwithseveral
examples).Thenworkaroundthetableandaskeachpersontoreadonecategorylabelfromhisorherlist.Ateachjuncture,documenttheresponseona
transparencyorflipchartsheetforeveryonetosee.Asacategorymakesitontoyourlist,asktheotherparticipantstomarkoffthesame,orsimilar,categoriesfrom
theirlists.Donotpermitdiscussionorevaluationofcategoriesastheyarecontributedandrecorded.Keepgoingaroundthetableuntilacompletelistofcategoriesis
generated(i.e.,alllistshavebeenexhausted).Thengobackand,asagroup,evaluatethecompletesetofcategories,consolidatingorexpandingwherethegroup
thinksitisnecessary.

Oncethestructureofworkactivitycategoriesiscomplete,thesameprocedurecanbeusedtogeneratethemostimportantfourorfiveitemleveldescriptorsforeach
category.Theadvantageofthisapproachisthatitkeepsparticipantsfocusedandmakesitdifficultforoneortwopeopletodominatethediscussionandresults.Also,
ithelpscreatethesensethattheproductisjointlyowned.Onthedownside,itcanbetimeconsuming.Partofthisdifficultymaybecircumventedifitispossibleto
haveparticipantscreatecategoryanditemlistsasprework.

Approach3:StrawModelReview

Yetanotherapproachistowalkintothemeetingwithastrawmodelbasedonpreviousworkwithothercustomers,editedcompilationsofpublishedinventorieswith
similarjobgroups,resultsofpreviousinterviewsorfocusgroupsconductedaspartofthecurrentproject,andsoforth.Selectamethodfordisplayingthemodel,using
transparencies,flipchartsheets,handouts,projecteddisplaysfromalaptop,orothermeansasappropriate.Startthereviewatthehighestorbroadestlevelofcontent
organization(e.g.,factorsordimensions)andthenmoveintoareviewoftheitemcontent.

Theobviousadvantageofthisapproachisthatitprovidesastartingpointforanalysisandsavestimefromhavingtobuildfromscratch.Apotentialliabilityisthatitis
terriblyeasyforparticipantstolockintoaparticularwayoflookingattheworldandoverlookmoremeaningfulconfigurationsofthecontent.Also,itcanbedifficult
forparticipantstorecognizeoversightsorgapsinthestrawmodelwhenpresentedwiththisfairlyfleshedoutsolution.

Asomewhatlessfrequentdifficulty,whichmakesitnolesschallengingwhenitdoeshappen,istohavetheparticipantsreactnegativelytothestrawmodel

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basedonseeminglyminutewordingthatisinconsistentwiththewaytheorganizationdoesbusiness.Inthiscase,itcancomeacrossasifyouaretryingtoforcefita
solutionratherthantryingtobuildupfroma50%solution.Obviouslyintroducingandpositioningthestrawmodeliskey.However,despitethebestintroduction
possible,ifyouchoosetousethisapproach,therewillcomeadaywhenyouhitthiswall.Whenithappens,bereadytoputyourwellthoughtoutstrawmodelaside
andbuildfromscratchiftheparticipantsdemandtostartover.

WrappingUp

Whenyouarefinishedwiththemeetingandarereadytoconclude,rememberthatasimple"Thankyou"and"Goodbye"isneverenough.Leaveenoughtimeatthe
endofthesessiontoreviewthemajordecisionsorproductsofthegroup.Indoingso,tellthegroup,"Ifyouhearsomethingyoubelievethegroupdidnotagreeto,
pleasesayso."Youwantthegroupmemberstofeelthattheyhavebeenlistenedtoandunderstood.Thentakeseveralminutestoreiteratehowtheresultswillbeused
toenhancefutureworkproducts.Youalsowantthesefolkstofeelinvestedinanimportantinitiative.

Finally,takeacoupleofminutestodoameetingcritique.Youmightdivideaflipchartsheetintotwoverticalcolumns:"WhatWeDidWell"and"WhatWeShould
HaveDoneDifferently."Thisgivesthefacilitatorachancetocheckinandidentifythingstododifferentlyinfuturefocusgroups.Justasimportant,itgivesthe
participantsachancetoreflectabitandevaluatehowwelltheyaccomplishedthegoal.Ofcourse,thehopeisthattheyendupsharingpositivereactionstotheprocess
andoutcome.However,thesetypesoffocusgroupscanbeabitfrustrating,sothecritiquealsooffersthemachancetoventandyouachancetoassuagesomeofthis
frustration.

Youarestillnotquitedone.Severaldaysafterthefocusgroup,itoftenmakessenseforyou,orsomeonefromthemodelingteam,tocalltheparticipantsandaskif
theyhaveanyadditionalinputorcontributionstheywouldliketomakeandthankthemagainfortheirtime.Youmightpickupsomeadditionalinformation,butthetime
iswellspentiffornootherreasonthanyoucontinuetobuildrapportwithstarperformersintheorganizationandsolidifycommitmentfortheproject.Itisworthsaying
again:Youwantthesepeopletofeeltheyhaveanownershipinterestintheoutcome.

CreatingModelContent

Translatingtheresultsofjobmodelinginterviewsandfocusgroups,reviewsofpriormodelingwork,andothermaterialintodescriptorcontentisafairly
straightforwardactivity,buttherearesometricksofthetradethatfacilitatetheprocess.

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DevelopingWorkActivityDescriptors

Whendevelopingworkactivitydescriptors,keepinmindthattheoverarchinggoalistocreateasetofstatementsthatincludesallofthetargetjob'scriticalactivities
andexcludesthetrivialones.Thebeststatementsaresimpledeclarativesentences.Furthermore,onewaytogetahandleonthethornylevelofdetailissueisto
compartmentalizethedifferentpartsofthetypicalactivitystatement.

Fromchapter4'sdiscussionoftheItemDetailScale,youcanrecallthatactivitystatementscanbeconfiguredtoaddressuptofourquestionsofpotentialinterest:

WHAT:Whatisdoneorwhatactionisbeingperformed?

WHO/WHAT:Whoorwhatisbeingactedon?

WHY:Whyistheactionoccurringorwhatistheintendedoutcome?

HOW:Howistheactionbeingaccomplished?

WithrespecttoWHATisdone,youshouldbeginthestatementwithaclearandunambiguousactionverb(e.g.,persuades,interviews,adjusts,tells,corrects,
plans).Avoidverbsthathavemultiplemeanings(assists,supports,determines).Also,refrainfromusingmultipleactionverbsinthesamestatement(e.g.,"Advises
andinstructs"or"Weighsandadjusts").Althoughthismightseemtobeagoodwaytoconsolidateandcondensethetotalsetofdescriptions,youwillmerely
introducesomeunknownamountofimprecisionintothefinalproduct.Theexceptioniswhenyouaredealingwithactionsthatinvariablygotogether.Terrificstarter
listsofactionverbsareavailable.34,35,36,37,38

WithreferencetoWHO/WHATisbeingactedon,thegoalistoclearlystatetheobjectoftheverb.Everythingeachofusdoesinourownsphereofworkisdoneto
orforsomeoneorsomething.Thepurposeofthispartofthestatementistobeclearaboutthewhoorwhat.Clarityisalsoessentialhere,buttheconsequencesof
complexityorambiguityarenotasdire.Thus,statementsthathavemultiplemeaningsbecausetheyareoverlybroad(e.g.,"Advisespeople")oractuallyhave
multipleobjects(e.g.,"Attachescableandswitchboxes")areseldompreferredforcustomizedsolutions,butthereareoccasionsinwhichtheadditionalprecisionis
notcritical.

Weliveinaworldthatrevolvesaroundcauseandeffectrelationships.TheintentofthethirdpotentialcomponentofanactivitystatementistoexplainWHYtheaction
isoccurringandoutlinetheintendedeffectoroutcome.Ifthislevelofdetailisnecessarytosupportyourplannedapplication,thisquestionshouldbephrasedinaway
thatclarifiesthepurposeoftheactivityanditsrelationshiptotheobjective.

Finally,thereareanumberofwaysaparticularworkactivitycanbeaccomplished.Incertainsituations,jobmodelersmightneedtounderstandanddocumentHOW
itisdone.Forexample,ifdifferenttrainingactivitiesandlearning

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objectivescouldnotbederivedfromlessdetailedstatements,itmightmakesensetodrivethedefinitionoftheactivitydomaindownonemorelevel.However,as
notedinchapter4,thisdegreeofresolutioninthemodelingpictureisnotnecessaryformostHRinterventions.

Torecap,keepthefollowingpointsinmindasyouwriteactivitystatements:

Keepeachstatementasbriefaspossible(yetmaintainthelevelofdetailyouneedtosupportaparticularapplication).

AddresstheWHATandWHO/WHATquestionsasclearlyaspossible.IfusingWHYandHOWquestions,addressthemequallyclearly.

Keepstatementsonactivitiesthatareunimportanttoperformingamajorpartofthejob,areperformedinfrequently,orapplytoonlyafewjobstargetedbythe
researchoutofyourdescriptorpool.

Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldalsoproveusefulinkeepingyououtofstatementwritingtraps:

Uselanguageandwordsthataremeaningfultothepeoplewhoperformthework(atthesametime,itisagoodideatoavoidabbreviationsandanyjargonthatis
completelymeaninglesstoeveryonebutsubjectmatterexperts).

Thereissomeevidencethatthereadinglevelofstatementsinaninventorymightimpactthereliabilityofsubsequentresponsesbysubjectmatterexperts.39Itmakes
sensetokeepthereadinglevelaslowaspossible(e.g.,keeptotalwordcountlow,reducetheaveragenumberofsyllablesperwordinthesentences,steerclearof
technicalterminologyunlesscompletelyfamiliartoallrespondents).However,becauseoftheuniqueconstructionofactivitystatements,itisnotclearwhether
traditionalreadinglevelscalessuchastheFlesch,40FOG,41andSMOG42indexesareappropriate.

Trytokeepthelevelofdetailacrossstatementsroughlythesame.Inotherwords,ittypicallyconfusesthingstobuildasetofdescriptorsthatcontainamixof
detailedandgeneralitems.

Becausetheyimplyperformancestandards,avoidusingadverbsandadjectivesinthestatements(e.g.,"Coachesemployeesontheproperuseofhandtools").This
distinctionisimportantbecauseitshiftsthefocustoanexaminationofproficiency,whichcancloudtheviewofactivitiesandresults.

Keepdescriptionsofworkerrequirementssuchasaptitude,skill,andknowledgeoutoftheinventoryofworkactivitydescriptors.Competenciesaresomewhat
differentanimalsanddeservetheirowndistinctdescriptions,asoutlinedinthenextsection.

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DevelopingCompetencyDescriptors

Theapproachforwritinggoodcompetencydescriptorsissimilartothatforcreatingqualityworkactivitydescriptors.Inaddition,thejobmodelermustbecarefulnot
tofallintothetrapofsimplyadding''Skillin"or"Knowledgeof"onthefrontofaworkactivityandcallingthisacompetency.Althoughthereissomeoverlapbetween
thedomainofworkactivitiesandthedomainofcompetencies,thisblurringoftheboundariesoccursprimarilyatlowerlevelsonthejobcomplexityladder.For
example,aworkactivityforacopytypistmightbe"Typesdraftsoflegaldocumentsusingstandardwordprocessingsoftwarepackages."Acompetencyitemforthe
samejobmightinclude"Skillintypingfromdraftcopiesordictation."

Thefactofthematteristhis:Asworkactivitiesbecomemorecomplexorabstract(e.g.,longrangeplanningactivitiesversustypingactivities),thecompetencies
requiredforsuccessfulperformancealsobecomemorecomplexandintangible.Inaddition,successfulperformanceinmorecomplexworkactivitiesseemstobe
contingentonagreaternumberofinterrelatedcompetencies.Consequently,thecausalrelationtoworkactivityperformancebecomesmoredifficulttoidentify,
althoughbeingabletoidentifythisrelationshipistheprimarygoal.Thatsaid,somebasicguidelinesforwritingcompetencystatementsfollow:

Eachstatementshouldconstituteauniqueindividualdifferencecapability.

Eachcompetencyshouldcontainenoughdetailtocapturetheessenceoftheindividualdifferencevariation.

Keeptheuseoftraitorpsychologicalconstructreferencesoutofthecompetencydescription.

Keepstatementsthatrefertotrivialcompetenciesoutofyourinventory.Thisisobviouslyajudgmentcall,butonethatyouwillbeinapositiontoreliablymake.For
example,although"Knowledgeofstandardpurchasingandsupplyrequisitionprocedures"mightbeanimportantcomponentofasupplyofficer'srole,itprobably
wouldnotshowupinaninventoryformostdepartmentmanagers,despitethefacttheseindividualsmaymakeuseofthisknowledgeonaninfrequentbasis.

Beyondthispoint,thesuggestionsfordevelopingqualitycompetencydescriptorsmirrortherecommendationsfoundinthelastfivebulletsforcreatingworkactivity
descriptors.

DevelopingaRationallyDerivedModel

Aftertheinterviewsand/orfocusgroupshavebeencompletedandaftertheworkactivity,competency,orotherdescriptorstatementshavebeenwrittenfollowingthe
standardsdescribedearlier,itistimetorefinethedescriptorcon

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tentandcreateanorganizingstructureormodeltodisplaytheresultsofthemodelingeffort.Byrefinethedescriptorcontent,Imeanexaminingthestatementswithin
eachcontentdomainto:

eliminateredundantitems

mergeorfleshoutsimilaritemsthat,ontheirown,arealittleskimpyintheirdescription

identifyandsmoothoutunevennessinitemdetail

clarifycumbersomeorambiguouslanguage

identifycoveragegapsinthemodel(i.e.,whatappeartobeimportantcontentcategoriesthatseemlightindescriptordefinition)and

otherwisehighlightdeficienciesinthedescriptorcontentthataredifficulttodiscernwhenthestatementsarereviewedindividually.

Bycreateanorganizingstructureormodeltodisplaytheresults,Imeancreatinga:

classificationofcontent,

taxonomyofworkdescriptors,

configurationofcomponents,

representationoffacts,and

partitioningofrealityintoaconceptualsystemthathasexplanatorypower.

Explanatorypower,yousay.Soundsnice,butwhatexactlydoesthismean?Well,inpart,itmeanstheresultingclassification,taxonomy,system,andsoonshould:

serveasabasisforunderstandingvariabilityinindividualjobperformance

guidedecisionsaboutjobsorpeoplethatrequirehavingknowledgeabouttherelationshipsamongclassesofdescriptorcontentorbetweenclassesofdescriptor
contentandotherbusinessorworkperformancevariables

facilitatecommunicationaboutimportantaspectsofjobsandworkrelatedindividualdifferencesusingacommonlanguagefortalkingaboutjobsandworkrelated
peoplecapabilities

easethestorage,manipulation,andretrievalofworkandpersonrelatedinformationbyprovidingameansforchunkingrelatedbitsofinformation

makeitpossibletomakeefficientcomparisonsofworkandpersonrelatedinformationacrossjobgroups,organizationlevels,businessunitsand

otherwiseclarifythescope,configuration,anddefinitionofjobstargetedbythemodelingeffortforthepurposeofdesigningormodifyingawiderangeofHR
interventions.

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So,howdoesonestart?Well,dependingonthescopeofthemodelingproject,whetherdescriptorcontentisbeingcreatedindependentlybyinterviewer/focusgroup
leadersorasateam,thedegreeofitemdetailrequiredtosupporttheapplication,andsoforth,theentirepoolofitemleveldescriptorsforanyonecontentdomain
mayrangefromseveraldozentoseveralhundred.Ineithercase,itisfrequentlyusefultobeginbyprintingeachdescriptorstatementfromthefirstcontentdomain(e.g.,
workactivities)onaseparate35indexcard.Thensortthecardsintopilesbasedontheirsimilarityorrelatednessofcontent.Theideaistoreducetheentirepoolof
itemstomeaningfuldimensionswithoutlosingtheessentialcomplexityandpowerofinformationtheyrepresent.Beyondthispoint,thereisconsiderablevariationinthe
wayamodelermaychoosetorationallybuildamodel.Severalapproachesaredescribednext.

Approach1:FreeFormContentAnalysis

Thisprocedurestartsbyhavingasubgroupofthemodelingteamsortthecardsintomeaningfulandrelativelyhomogenoussubgroupingswiththeinstructionthat:(a)
eachdescriptororcardcanbeplacedinonlyonepile,(b)alldescriptorstatementscannotbeplacedinasinglemegapile,and(c)thepreponderanceofitemscannot
beplacedintheirownstandalonepile(althoughsomeitemscanbesortedbythemselves).Theresultisaninitialsetofdimensionsthatgroupsrelateditemstogether.
Thegroupthenreviewsthedescriptoritemswithinacategorytoeliminateredundancies,createnewitemsthatcombineminorvariationsintwoormoreitems,and
otherwiserefinethecontentofthedimensionsasdescribedearlier.

Duringthisrewritingprocess,thegroupneedstobecarefulnottoeliminateorcombineitemsinawaythatcreatesavoidindomainrepresentation.Also,duringthis
step,voidsintheexistingdescriptorcontentmaybecomeapparentthesevoidsnecessitateconductingadditionalinterviewsorfocusgroupstogathermoreinformation
(i.e.,lotsofstandaloneitemsorcategoriesthatcontainonlyacoupleofitems).

Assumingthatthepoolofcontentiscomprehensiveandthatadditionalinterviewsorfocusgroupsareunnecessary,thesecondstepwouldbeforasecondsubgroup
ofthejobmodelingteamtotaketherevisedsetofdescriptoritems,printedonanewsetof35indexcards,andindependentlyconductasecondsortingtask
applyingthesamerulesofengagementnotedearlier.Thissecondsortingactivitymayrevealsomedifferentwaysfordividingupthecontentthatneedstobediscussed
andreconciledwithgroupone.Althoughtheprimarypurposeofthissecondsortingeffortistodevelopthefinalstructureforconfiguringtheitemcontent,additional
areasforrefiningitemsmayalsobecomeevident.Itoftenmakessensetohaveapersonortwofromthecustomerprojectteamaspartofthissecondcontentanalysis
effort.

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Oncethesecondsortingisfinished,andafterdifferencesbetweenthefirstandsecondsortingsolutionshavebeendiscussedandapreferredviewachieved,apotential
thirdstepistosequentiallymergethedimensions.Thisisaccomplishedbymergingthetwodimensionsthatareconsideredtobethemostsimilarandproceedingwith
thisprocessuntilthefinaldimensionorcompositedimensions(i.e.,apreviouslymergedgroupoftwoormoreindependentdimensions)aremergedintoafinalgroup
thatcontainsallthedescriptorstatements.Thisstepcanhelphighlightadditionaldescriptoritemsinneedofsomerefinement.Perhapsmoreimportant,itforcesthe
modelingteamtoconsiderthesimilarityanddistinctivenessofthedimensionsinthesecondgenerationmodelandmaysuggestwaystogrouptheitemsthataremore
parsimoniousandmeaningful.Additionally,iftherearealargenumberofdimensionstodealwith,itmaymakesensetoconfigurethedimensionsintohigherorder
groupingsorfactors.Thesequentialmergeprocessbringstotheforefronttherelationshipsbetweenthedimensionsinthecontentdomainandisagoodwaytoguide
thecreationofarationalbasedsetoforganizingfactors.

Apotentialfourthstepisadifferentialweightinganalysis.Thismaybeaccomplishedbydividingthedescriptoritemsintothreegroupsofequalsize:thoseconsidered
mostimportantforsuccessfulperformanceinthetargetjoborjobgroup,thoseconsideredtobeofintermediateimportance,andthoseconsideredleastimportant.
Actually,itiseasiertojustsortitemsintothehighandlowimportancecategoriesandlettheleftoverfinalthirdoftheitemsrepresentthemiddle.Thissortingofwork
activitiesandcompetencieshighlightsthemostcriticalsubsetofcontentandisonewaytohelpestablishthejobrelatednessofthecriticalcoresetofitems.

Thereareotherquestionsaboutthedescriptorcontent,otherthanimportance,thatcanbeusefultoinvestigate.Forexample,onemightwanttolookatvariationinthe
strategicimportanceoftheitemcontentortheextenttowhichpeoplehaveachancetodevelopacompetencyonthejobversusneedingtobeinfullpossessionofa
particularskilltohitthegroundrunningfromDay1.Thenextchapterpresentsanumberofpotentiallyusefulquestionsthatmaybeappliedtothemodelingcontentin
theformofaquestionnaire.However,thesamequestionsmaybeappliedtothecontentintheformofasortingtaskalongthelinesjustdescribed.Theresultofthis
process(i.e.,Steps12andSteps14ifdesired)isacontentmodelthatprovidesaneconomicalstructureforbuildingvariousjobinformationdisplaysand
characterizingthesimilaritiesanddifferencesamongjobs.43

Approach2:FixedStructureContentAnalysis

Asecondapproachissimplytoretranslatethepoolofdescriptoritemsintoanexistingclassificationstructure.Forexample,perhapsadecisionhasbeenmadetouse
arigorouslydevelopedstructurethathasbeenusedelsewhereintheorga

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nizationoronereportedintheliteratureforasimilarjobgroup.Insomecircumstances,onemightalsochoosetouseagenericclassificationschemeforajobcategory
liketheoneformanagementinAppendixA.Inthesecases,proceedingthroughSteps1and2willstillaccomplishtheintendedpurposeofidentifyingduplicateitems,
identifyingitemsthatmaybecombinedorneedtoberewritten,andsoforth.Thedifferenceintheprocedureisthatthenumberofcategoriesintowhichitemsare
sortedisfixedandthecategoriesarealreadyclearlylabeledanddefined.Thesequentialmergeprocessmaystillbeusedtoinvestigaterelationshipsamongthe
categoriesandperhapssuggestahigherorderorclassification.Similarly,thedifferentialweightinganalysismaybeusedtoreclassifydescriptorcontentintocategories
reflectingdifferentweightingintermsofdegreeorlevelofsomecharacteristic.

Approach3:DelphiBasedContentAnalysis

AthirdapproachinvolvesusingamodificationoftheDelphitechnique.NamedaftertheGreekoracleknownforpredictingevents,thismethodologyforcapturing
expertjudgmentshaditsbeginningsinthe1950swhenagroupofRandCorporationscientistsdevelopedasystemforcombiningindividuals'judgmentsofhowtobet
atthehorseracestothebenefitofall.44Perhapsthedefiningfeatureofthetechniqueisitsiterativeprocess,wheretherespondentsareconstantlyinteractingwiththe
independentlycreatedsolutions.Asecondimportantfeatureoftheapproachistheanonymityoftheauthorsoftheindependentlycreatedsolutions.

ThewaythistechniqueworksbestinamodelingcontextistostarttheprocessafterStep1hasbeencompletedasdescribedinthefreeformcontentanalysis
approach(i.e.,aftertheinitialpoolofdescriptoritemshasbeencleanedupandconsolidated).Step2involvesreproducingtheconsolidatedsetofdescriptor
statementsonanewbatchof35cardsforeachmemberofthesubteaminvolvedinproducingthefinalsolution.Armedwithhisorherownsetofcards,each
participantgeneratesanindependentclassificatorysolutionandproducesawrittendocumentillustratinganddescribinghisorhersolutionandprovidescopiesforthe
otherparticipants.

Inthethirdstep,armedwithalloftheoriginalsolutionsproducedandafterreviewingtheproductsfromtheotherparticipants,eachmemberofthesubteamworks
independentlyonarevisedsecondgenerationsolution.Again,eachparticipantproducesawrittendocumentillustratinganddescribinghisorherrevisedsolutionsfor
theothermembers.Aftertwoorthreeindependentgenerations,anextstepislikelytobeagroupmeetingtodiscussthesecondgenerationsolutionsandworkouta
finalmodelasateam.

Theadvantagesofthisapproacharenumerous.Forexample,thefactthatthereisanonymityduringtheprocesscanleadtoafreerexpressionofideas,resultingin
creativewaysofmodelingthedescriptorcontent.Thefeatureofano

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nymityalsomakesitmoredifficultforinterpersonalfactorsofthegrouptoimpactthefinalsolution.Further,thesharinganditerativeprocessallowseachparticipantto
considerandbuildontheideasofothers.Additionally,giventhedesignoftheprocess,itcanbemanagedwithouttheparticipantseverhavingtobeinthesameroom
together,whichhelpswhenconsultingandcustomerparticipantsintheprocesshappentoresideindifferentcities,countries,orcontinents.Onthedownside,this
approachclearlyhastimeandcost(basedprimarilyontime)implications.Forexample,themodelingresultsusingtheDelphiprocedurereportedinSchippmann,
Prien,andHughestookmorethanamonthtocomplete.45

Approach4:ScalingBasedContentAnalysis

Approach4ismerelyanextensionofthefirsttwostepsdescribedinthefreeformcontentanalysis.However,intermsofthesecondstep,ratherthanhavinga
subteamworkingasagrouptoconductthesecondroundofthecontentanalysis,eachindividualindependentlysortsthedescriptorsintodimensions.Wheneach
personhascompletedthesortingtask,theresultsmaythenbecombinedacrosspeople.InApproach4,eachperson'ssortingresultsareputinamatrixortablethat
hasasmanyrowsandcolumnsastherearedescriptoritemssorted.Thetotalnumberofpeoplewhoputtwoitemsinthesamecategoryintheirindependentlyderived
classificationsolutionsisthenenteredintothecellsofthismatrix.Therefore,ahighnumberinacellindicatesthatmanypeopleputaparticularpairofitemsinthesame
category,suggestingthatthetwoitemsareconceptuallysimilar.Itisthenpossibletoanalyzethistabletoidentifygroupingsofrelateditemsanddevelopthe
classificationstructure.

Ofcourse,beyondacoupleofdozenitems,thisprocedurebecomescumbersomewithoutrelyingonacomputerandsomestandardstatisticalsoftwarepackagesto
facilitatethemanagementandanalysisofthesedata.Then,too,ratherthanrelyingonthepotentiallyfallibleinteroculartest(i.e.,eyeballingthedataanddrawing
conclusionsbasedonastraightvisualinspectionoftheresults),itmakessensetousefactororclusteranalysisstatisticstoanalyzethedatamatrix.However,atthis
point,wearemovingprettyquicklyawayfromapurerationalanalysisofcontenttowardanempiricallybasedapproachandtheempiricalmethodsgetplentyof
coveragestartinginchapter7.

Itshouldbenotedthatonesetofstatisticalproceduresnotdiscussedinchapter7includesthevarietyoftechniquesreferredtoasmultidimensionalscaling(MDS)
methods.Itisthisclassofmethodsonwhichthisfourthapproachisbased.Forthosewhoareinterestedinusingthisapproachforlargerdatasetsorinamore
sophisticatedway,startbylookingataneminentlyreadablediscussionofMDSbyRosenbergandSedlack.46

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ProjectManagementTips

ThereareanumberoftipsassociatedwithStep3oftheSJMprocess.Tobegin,developaclearpictureofthetargetjobs,jobfamilies,organizationalroles,relevant
joblevels,andincludedbusinessunitsandlocationsbeforegatheringreferenceandsourcematerials.Youwillsavetimewithamorerefinedandtargetedsearch.

Next,trytokeeptheintervieworfocusgroupleaderteamsmallitiseasiertoorganizeandintegrateinformationiffewerpeopleareinvolved.Also,ifpossible,take
thetimetopicktherightpeopletoparticipateasinterviewersandfocusgroupleadersandnotjusttherightnumber.Youwantpeoplewhowillhavecredibilitywiththe
intervieweesorfocusgroupparticipants.Besuretopreparetheinterviewersorfocusgroupleaderswithplentyofbackgroundinformation,suchasinformationonthe
customerorganization,purposeandanticipatedoutcomesoftheproject,theorganizationstructure,namesandtitlesoftheexecutivesponsor(s)oftheproject,aswell
asthoseofkeymembersofthecustomer'sprojectteamanddescriptiveinformationonthetargetjobs,jobfamilies,organizationalroles,andbusinessunits.

Carefullydeterminehowmuchtimeyouwillneedtoconducttheinterviewsorfocusgroupsandthensticktoit.Dependingontheextentofexistinginformation,the
experienceoftheinterviewers/focusgroupleaders,andtheintendeduseofthejobinformationandresultingdetailofinformationrequired,youcanprobablyexpect
interviewswith:

jobincumbentstorequireatleast1hour.

supervisors/managersofthetargetjobstorequirebetween1and2hours.

organizationalvisionariestorequirebetween1and2hours.

focusgroupmeetingswithfourtoeightpeopletorequire2to4hours.

Althoughinterviewsandfocusgroupsaregreatwaysofcollectinginformation,itisalsoimportanttostudyworkliveswheretheyarereallylivedandnotsimplywhere
thejobmodelerfindsitconvenienttolookatthem.Thisrecognitionmayseemasblandandobviousasaclich,butitiseasytosuccumbtowhatisexpedientinthe
crushforspeed.Donotdoitthequalitywillsuffer.

Intermsofcreatingmodelcontent,itisoftenagoodideatohaveeachinterviewerandfocusgroupleaderindependentlycreatedescriptorcontentthatgetschanneled
intotheoverallpool(vs.comingtogetherasagroupandcreatingcontentasateam).Althoughmorelaborintensive,itisoftenthebestwaytoensurecomprehensive
coverageofthecontentdomain.Eachmodelingteammemberwillcertainlycreatealotofsimilaritemsandoverlappingcontent,butyouwillbeinabetterpositionto
leveragethepossiblyimportantdistinctionswhenyouconsolidateinformationlaterintheprocess.Ofcourse,ifthemodelingteamislargerthanfourorfivepeople,you
quicklyreachthepointofdiminishingreturnsincapturingvalueaddeddistinctionsconsideringtheaccompanyingincreasesintimeandlabordemands.Whenyouhave
alarge

 Page148

modelingteam,considerbreakingthetotalgroupintosubteamsandhavethesubteamsgenerateindependentcontent.

Alsokeepinmindthatawholeslewofoneononeinterviewsaremoredifficulttointerpretthanseveralfocusgroupsduetothesequentialversussimultaneousreceipt
ofinformation.Ifyourprojectincludesalotofinterviews,giveyourselfsomeextratimeattheendtoconsolidateinformationandcreatetherationallyderivedmodel.

Finally,Table5.2presentssomeofthemoreimportantadvantagesanddisadvantagesofdifferentinformationgatheringmethods.Thiskindofsummarycomparisonof
methodscanbeusefulwhenconsultingwithyourcustomeraroundthedifferentoptions.YouwillnotethatIhavejumpedthegunalittlebitbyincludinginformation
aboutquestionnairemethods.

TABLE5.2
JobModelingInformationGatheringMethods

ReviewExistingSourceMaterials

PotentialAdvantages PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
+Potentialtogetasignificantheadstartinunderstandinga Notalwayseasytotellwhatis"good"informationorto
particularworkdomain. determineapplicabilitytothecurrentmodelingsituation.
+Nonreactiveandnonintrusivewaytogatherlotsof
information.

SemistructuredInterview(FacetoFace)

PotentialAdvantages
+Terrificrelationshipbuildingpotential.Thislevelof
personalattentionandconvenienceoftenrequiredwhen
dealingwithhighlevelmanagersandexecutives.
+Allowsconsultantopportunitytoimmerseselfincustomer Timeconsumingtocoordinateandconductmultiple
organizationandgatherinformationusingallsixsenses.
+Unforeseendepositsofusefulinformationmaybe
identifiedandmined"onthefly."
PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
Difficulttoconsolidatetheresults,particularlyifthereare
manyinterviewsandmanyinterviewers.
interviewsasaresult,isexpensive.
Noteveryoneisagoodinterviewer.Ittakesaspecialblend
ofcompetenciestodeveloparapportwithpeoplewhile
stayingfocusedandintentongettingmeaningfulanswersto
questions.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page149

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE5.2(continued)

FocusGroup

PotentialAdvantages PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
+Costeffectivewaytogarnermostofthebenefitsofthe Thiskindofgroupinterviewputsspecialdemandsonthe
interviewatafractionofthetimeandcost. focusgroupleader,andskilledfacilitatorsarenotalways
easytofind.
+Goodrelationshipbuildingpotential. Unlessnaturalclustersofpeopleexistinclosegeographic
proximity,canbedifficulttogetlargenumbersofpeopleto
traveltoacommonlocation.
+Allowsconsultantopportunitytoimmerseselfincustomer
organizationandgatherinformationusingallsixsenses.
+Interactionbetweenparticipantsoftenhasasynergistic
effectthatcanenhancethecreativityandqualityofthe
createdcontent.

Observation

PotentialAdvantages PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
+Putsthemodelersmackdabinthemiddleoftheworkplace Aswiththeinterview,itistimeconsumingtocoordinate
withallthecontextualrichnessthatentails. andconductmultipleobservations.
+Atrainedobserverislikelytogenerateinformationthatis Becauseoftheabove,itisexpensive.
lessbiasedthanthatofferedupbyajobincumbent,
supervisor,andsoon.
+Enhancedperceptionbyjobholdersthattheirjobhasbeen Theactofobservingpeopleoftenchangestheirbehavior.
takenseriously.
+Inmanycases,makesminimaldemandonthejob Formanyjobs,itcanbedifficulttoinferthemostimportant
incumbent(i.e.,causeslittledisruptionforthepersonbeing aspectsofthejob(e.g.,problemsolving).
observed).

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page150

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

TABLE5.2(continued)

Questionnaire

PotentialAdvantages
+Terrificwaytogetlotsofpeopleinvolvedandhavethem
provideinputtothemodelingprocess.
+Inmanyrespects,themostcosteffectivewaytogather
andsummarizelargeamountsofinformation.
+Objectiveformatcircumventshavingtofindskilled
interviewersandfocusgroupleadersandhavingtorelyon
theinterpretiveandprocessingpowerofthosefacilitators.
+Easilyhandlessituationswhentheexpertsarenumerous
and/orinmultipleandfarflunggeographiclocations.
+Atitsbestwhenthereisaneedtoprioritizejobcontentin
somewayordeterminethedegreetowhichsomequality
characterizesaspectsofthejobcontent(e.g.,Current
Importance,FutureImportance).
+Similarly,thismethodiswellsuitedtodescribingand
differentiatingsetsofrelatedjobsorhandlingsituations
wherepeoplewiththesamejobtitledodifferentthings.
PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
Canbeviewedascoldandimpersonaland,ifnot
positionedcorrectly,maybeviewedassomethingofatest.
Questionsandassociatedratingscalesrequireagreatdeal
ofthoughtbecausetherangeofresponseoptionsis
predetermined.
Relatedtotheabove,itcanbedifficulttowritegooditem
contentforinclusioninaquestionnaire.
Truemeaningoftheresultingnumbersisnotalwaysas
clearcutastheblackonwhitenumbersontheprintoutmight
leadonetobelieve.Responsebiasintroducessomeunknown
amountoferrorintotheresults.
Peoplearenotalwaysreadytostopwhattheyaredoingto
completeaquestionnaireoneneedstobepreparedtohandle
lowresponserates.

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Ashkenas,R.,Ulrich,D.,Jick,T.,&Kerr,S.(1995).Theboundarylessorganization.SanFrancisco:JosseyBass.
2 Voss,H.(1996,JulyAugust).Virtualorganizations:Thefurtureisnow.StrategyandLeadership,p.14.
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Bridges,W.(1994).Jobshift.Reading,MA:AddisonWesley.
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Aronowitz,S.,&DiFazio,W.(1994).Thejoblessfuture.Minneapolis,MN:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.
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Prien,E.P.(1997).Salesinventory.Memphis,TN:Author.
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Borman,W.C.,&Brush,D.H.(1993).Moreprogresstowardataxonomyofmanagerialperformancerequirements.HumanPerformance,6,121.
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Prien,E.P.(1997).Clericalinventory.Memphis,TN:Author.

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Bernardin,J.H.(1988).Policeofficer.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.2,pp.12421254).New
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Kane,J.A.(1983).AjobanalysisforthepoliceofficerjobinthecityofWashington,DC.Unpublishedmanuscript.
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Dunnette,M.D.,&Motowildo,S.J.(1975).Policeselectionandcareerassessment.Washington,DC:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice.
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Baehr,M.E.,&Orban,J.A.(1988).Municipaltransitbusoperator.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.
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Page,R.C.,&Caskey,D.T.(1988).Computerprogrammer.InS.Gael(Ed.),Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.2,pp.
11921205).NewYork:Wiley.
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Gael,S.(1988).Thejobanalysishandbookforbusiness,industry,andgovernment(Vol.2).NewYork:Wiley.
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Ash,R.A.,&Edgell,S.L.(1975).Anoteonthereadabilityofthepositionanalysisquestionnaire.JournalofAppliedPsychology,60,765766.
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Cornelius,E.T.,&Lyness,K.S.(1980).Acomparisonofholisticanddecomposedjudgmentstrategiesinjobanalysisbyjobincumbents.JournalofApplied
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18
Cordery,J.L.,&Sevastos,P.P.(1993).Responsestotheoriginalandrevisedjobdiagnosticsurvey:Iseducationafactorinresponsestonegativelyworded
items?JournalofAppliedPsychology,78,141143.
19
Ackerman,P.L.,&Humphreys,L.G.(1990).Individualdifferencestheoryinindustrialandorganizationalpsychology.InM.D.Dunnette&L.M.Hough(Eds.),
Handbookofindustrialandorganizationalpsychology(Vol.1,pp.223282).PaloAlto,CA:ConsultingPsychologistsPress.
20
Hunter,J.E.(1986).Cognitiveability,cognitiveaptitudes,jobknowledge,andjobperformance.JournalofVocationalBehavior,29,340362.
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Landy,F.J.,&Vasey,J.(1991).Jobanalysis:ThecompositionofSMEsamples.PersonnelPsychology,44,2750.
22
Borman,W.C.,Dorsey,D.,&Ackerman,L.(1992).Timespentresponsesastimeallocationstrategies:Relationswithsalesperformanceinastockbrokersample.
PersonnelPsychology,45,763777.
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Landy,F.J.,&Vasey,J.(1991).Jobanalysis:ThecompositionofSMEsamples.PersonnelPsychology,44,2750.
24
Mullins,W.C.,&Kimbrough,W.W.(1988).Groupcompositionasadeterminantofjobanalysisoutcomes.JournalofAppliedPsychology,73,657664.
25
Schmitt,N.,&Cohen,S.A.(1989).Internalanalysesoftaskratingsbyjobincumbents.JournalofAppliedPsychology,74,96104.
26
Silverman,S.B.,WexleyK.N.,&Johnson,J.C.(1984).Theeffectsofageandjobexperienceonemployeeresponsestoastructuredjobanalysisquestionnaire.
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Borman,W.C.,Dorsey,D.,&Ackerman,L.(1992).Timespentresponsesastimeallocationstrategies:Relationswithsalesperformanceinastockbrokersample.
PersonnelPsychology,45,763777.
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Mullins,W.C.,&Kimbrough,W.W.(1988).Groupcompositionasadeterminantofjobanalysisoutcomes.JournalofAppliedPsychology,73,657664.

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Wexley,K.N.,&Silverman,S.B.(1978).Anexaminationofdifferencesbetweenmanagerialeffectivenessandresponsepatternsonastructuredjobanalysis
questionnaire.JournalofAppliedPsychology,63,646649.
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Conley,P.R.,&Sackett,P.R.(1987).Effectsofusinghighversuslowperformingjobincumbentsassourcesofjobanalysisinformation.JournalofApplied
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Morgeson,F.P.,&Campion,M.A.(1997).Socialandcognitivesourcesofpotentialinaccuracyinjobanalysis.JournalofAppliedPsychology,82,627655.
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Schippmann,J.S.(1996).Keydecisionpointsinjobmodeling.Minneapolis,MN:Author.
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Manyofthesegroundrulesaresimilartothosesuggestedforrunningsuccessfulbrainstormingsessions.SeeOsborne,A.F.(1953).Appliedimagination.New
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Ammerman,H.L.(1977).Performancecontentforjobtraining:Vol.II.Statingthetasksofthejob(R&DSeriesNo.122).Columbus,OH:TheOhioState
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35
Gael,S.(1990).Jobanalysis:Aguidetoassessingworkactivities.SanFrancisco,CA:JosseyBass.
36
Lawshe,C.H.(1989).Describingworkbehavior:Howtopreparejobactivityortaskstatements.WestLafayette,IN:Author.
37
McIntire,S.,Bucklan,M.A.,&Scott,D.(1995).Jobanalysiskit.Lutz,FL:PsychologicalAssessmentResources.
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Prien,E.P.(1991).Actionverbstarterlist.Memphis,TN:Author.
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Murphy,W.F.(1966).Theapplicationofreadabilityprinciplestothewritingoftaskstatements.Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation.
40 Flesch,R.(1948).Anewreadabilityyardstick.JournalofAppliedPsychology,32,221233.
41
Gunning,R.(1964).HowtotaketheFOGoutofwriting.Chicago:DartnellCorporation.
42
McLaughlin,G.H.(1969).SMOGgrading:Anewreadabilityformula.JournalofReading,12,639646.
43
Schippmann,J.S.,Hughes,G.L.,&Prien,E.P.(1987).Theuseofstructuredmultidomainjobanalysisfortheconstructionofassessmentcentermethodsand
procedures.JournalofBusinessandPsychology,1,353366.
44
Rath,G.,&Stoyanoff,K.(1983).TheDelphitechnique.InF.L.Ulschak(Ed.),Humanresourcedevelopment:Thetheoryandpracticeofneedsassessment
(pp.111131).Reston,VA:RestonPublishingCompany.
45
Schippmann,J.S.,Prien,E.P.,&Hughes,G.L.(1991).Thecontentofmanagementwork:Formationoftaskandjobskillcompositeclassifications.Journalof
BusinessandPsychology,5,325354.
46
Rosenberg,S.,&Sedlack,Z.(1972).Structuralrepresentationsofperceivedtraitrelationships.InA.K.Romney,R.N.Shepard,&S.B.Nerlave(Eds.),
Multidimensionalscaling(Vol.2,pp.133162).NewYork:Seminar.

 Page153

Chapter6
WhichQuestionsareAsked?
IthinkthatImayarriveatmyfactsmostdirectlybyquestioningyou
SirArthurConanDoyle'sSherlockHolmes

InAugust1854,themostterriblecholeraepidemicinEngland'shistorybrokeoutalongBroadStreetinLondon.Atthetime,theterrifiedpeopleinthekingdomknew
nothingaboutbacteriaorthemodeofthedisease'stransmission.Alltheyknewwasthat,inthespaceof10days,thereweremorethan500fatalitieswithina250
yardradiusoftheintersectionofCambridgeStreetandBroadStreet(andtherewouldhavebeenalotmoreifpeoplehadnotvirtuallydesertedthatpartofthecity
withinthefirstseveraldaysoftheoutbreak).

AchapterinTufte'srecentbookdescribestheshrewddetectiveworkofDr.JohnSnow,whoiswidelycreditedwithdiscoveringthecauseoftheepidemicand
bringingittoanend.Inadditiontosoundmedicalanalysis,Dr.SnowwouldhaveimpressedevenSherlockHolmeswithhisinvestigativeapproach,whichinvolved
askingtherightquestionsoftherightpeopleandemployingquantitativeprocedurestohelpputtheanswerstogetherinawaythatwaslogicalandreasonable.1

Forexample,despitethatabustlingbreweryhadbeenoperatingsmackdabinthemiddleofthedecimatedarea,noneofthe70workmensufferedfromthecholera.
Bysurveyingtheproprietorandtheworkers,hefoundthataperkofthebusinesswasthateachemployeewasallowedadailyquantityofmaltliquor.Moreover,asa
resultofthisbenefit,theyneverhadreasontovisitthepublicBroadStreetwaterpumptogetanythingtodrink.Itwasthisparticularpumpthatwaseventually
implicatedasthesourceofthecontaminatedwaterthatfueledtheepidemic.Savedbythebeer!

However,thisisnotthemoralofthestory.ThereallessonherewasDr.Snow'slogicalsetofquestions,which,whenappliedtoalotofpeople,allowedhimto
developabasisofevidencethatpointedhimintherightdirection.That

 Page154

iswhattherestofthischapterisallabout:askingclear,lucidquestionsfrompeoplewhoareinapositiontotellyouwhatyouneedtoknowandputtingtheiranswers
togetherinawaythatpointsyouintherightdirection.

PotentialQuestions

Foranyspecificcontentunit,suchasanitemlevelworkactivityorcompetencystatement,anumberofdifferentquestionscanbeaskedofajobcontentexpert,
supervisor,organizationalvisionary,trainedobserver,orcustomer.Thesetofquestionsorratingscalesdiscussedinthissectioncertainlyisnotmeanttobean
exhaustivelist.Rather,itissimplyasubsetofthequestionsIhavefoundmostuseful,usedsinglyorincombination,inthewidestrangeofsettings.

CurrentImportance

Rarelyaretheworkactivityandcompetencycomponentsofajoborjobgroup(i.e.,items,dimensions,orfactors)ofequalvalueorimportanceincontributingto
effectiveperformance.TheCurrentImportancequestion(seeFig.6.1,PartA,forasamplescalefocusingonworkactivities)isonewaytocapturethesedifferences
foruseinconstructingawiderangeofHRapplications.Infact,thisquestionisprobablythemostversatileofallthepotentialquestionsdiscussedinthissection.Thus,
althoughitisnotpossibletodiscussallthewaysthisquestionmightbeused,Iofferoneappliedexample.

Intheareaofselection,thereisavarietyofmethodsthatmaybeusedtomakepreemploymentpredictions,includinginterviews,biodata,paperandpenciltesting,
simulations,andworksampletests,tonameonlyafew.Regardlessofthespecificmethod,avitalfirststepistoidentifyandprioritizethemostimportantaspectsofthe
job(s).Clearly,itisnotpossibletosetupasystemforpredictinganapplicant'sperformanceinatargetjobwithoutaclearunderstandingofthetargetjob's
requirements.

Giventhisbackground,considertheefforttobuildasetofsimulationsandworksamplesforscreeningnewhiresintoproductionjobswithinaworkteamenvironment
foralargeautomobilepartsmanufacturer.Displeasedwiththeresultsofanexistingpaperandpenciltestingprocedure,theoperationsleadershipgroupwantedto
employmoreinteractiveprocedurestoassesstheinterpersonalcharacteristicsandworkhabitsofpotentialnewteammembers.Inthisproject,questionsaboutthe
CurrentImportanceofbothworkactivitiesandcompetencieswerebuiltintothemodelingquestionnaireforthepurposeofestablishingthejobrelatednessofthe
resultingsimulations.

Foremploymentdecisionstobejobrelated,federalandprofessionalguidelinesrequiredecisionstobebasedonimportantaspectsofthejobcontentdomainthatare
necessaryonentry.Inthisregard,theUniformGuidelinesstatethatmeasuresarerelevanttotheextentthatthey''representcriticalorimpor

 Page155

CURRENTIMPORTANCE(PARTA)
UsetheImportancescaletoindicateyouranswerconcerningtheimportanceofeachworkactivityforfullperformanceinthejobinquestion.Foreachworkactivitystatement,proceedin
twosteps.First,considerwhetheraworkactivityisorisnotpartofthejob.Ifaworkactivityisnotpartofthejobordoesnotapply,thenyoushouldratethisactivitya"0."

Ifaworkactivityispartofthejob,youmustdecidehowimportantitisrelativetootheractivitiesperformedaspartofthejob.Whendecidinghowimportantaworkactivityitemis,think
abouthowcriticalorimportanteachactivityiscomparedtoalltheotherworkactivitiesthatmakeupyourjob.RecordyouranswerintheImportancecolumnnexttoeachworkactivity
item.Remember,youareratingtheimportanceofeachworkactivitycomparedtoalltheotheractivitiesthatmakeupyourjob.Thus,someactivitieswillberelativelymore,orless,
importantthanothers.
0Theworkactivityisneverdoneandisunimportanttothejob.
1Theworkactivityisofverylittleimportancetothewholejob,butisusefulforsomeminorpartofthejob.
2Theworkactivityissomewhatimportantforsuccessfulperformanceineitherthewholejoborsomepartofthejob.
3Theworkactivityisimportantforsuccessfulperformanceineitherthewholejoboramajorpartofthejob.
4Theworkactivityisveryimportantforsuccessfulperformanceinthewholejoborasignificantpartofthejob.
5Theworkactivityiscriticallyimportantforsuccessfuljobperformanceinthewholejob.

FUTUREIMPORTANCE(PARTB)
UsetheFutureImportancescaletoindicateyouranswerconcerningtheanticipatedfutureimportanceofeachcompetencyforfullperformanceinthejobasitwilllooktwoyearsfrom
now.Firstconsiderwhetheracompetencyisorisnotexpectedtobeapartofthejob.Ifacompetencyisnotexpectedtobeapartofthejobordoesnotapply,youshouldratethis
competencya"O."

Ifthecompetencyispartofthejob,thenyoumustdecidehowimportantitwillbeforthejobthatwillexisttwoyearsfromnow,relativetoothercompetenciesexpectedtoberequiredas
partofthejob.Whenmakingyourratings,trytoanticipatechangesinthewaytheworkisperformed,theintroductionofnewprocesses,technology,orotherchangefactorsthatarelikely
tooccuroverthenexttwoyears.
0Thecompetencywillnotberequired.
1Thecompetencywillbeofverylittleimportance.
2Thecompetencywillbesomewhatimportantforsuccessfulperformance.
3Thecompetencywillbeimportantforperformingpartofthejob.
4Thecompetencywillbeveryimportantforperformingasignificantpartofthejob.
5Thecompetencywillbecriticallyimportantforperformingnearlyallaspectsofthejob.

Fig.6.1.
Jobmodelingquestions.

(continues)

 Page156

FREQUENCY(PARTC)
UsetheFrequencyscaletoindicatethefrequencywithwhichspecificworkactivitiesareperformedaspartofthejob.Foreachworkactivity,proceedintwosteps.First,considerwhether
aworkactivityisorisnotpartofthejob.Ifaworkactivityisnotpartofthejobordoesnotapply,ratethisworkactivitya"O."

Second,iftheworkactivityissomethingthatisperformedaspartofthejob,thendeterminehowfrequentlytheactivityisperformedrelativetootherjobactivitiesusingthefollowing
scale.
0Theworkactivityisneverdone.
1Theworkactivityisperformedinfrequently.
2Theworkactivityisperformedoccasionally.
3Theworkactivityisperformedfairlyoften.
4Theworkactivityisperformedveryfrequently.
5Theworkactivityisperformedconstantly.

LEVELOFMASTERY(PARTD)
UsetheLevelofMasteryscaletoindicatethedegreeofexpertiserequiredtoperformspecificcompetencies.First,considerwhetheracompetencyisorisnotpartofthejob.Ifa
competencyisnotrequiredtoperformthejobordoesnotapply,ratethecompetencya"1."

Second,ifthecompetencyisrequiredtoperformthejob,determinethelevelofmasteryorexpertiserequiredtoperformthecompetencyrelativetootherrequiredcompetenciesusingthe
followingscale.
1Thecompetencyisnotrequired.
2Minimalcompetencerequired.Jobincumbentscanbeexpectedtohandleonlythesimplestorleastcomplexsituationscallingforthiscompetency,andtheywillneedsignificantsupport
orassistancetohandleanythingbuttheeasiestsituations.
3Intermediatecompetencerequired.Jobincumbentsshouldbecapableofhandlingmanydaytodaysituationscallingforthiscompetency,buttheywillneedtoseekassistancein
difficultsituations.
4Advancedcompetencerequired.Jobincumbentshouldbecapableofhandlingmostdaytodaysituationscallingforthiscompetency,thoughtheymightneedtoseekexpertassistance
indealingwillparticularlydifficultsituations.
5Expertcompetencerequired.Jobincumbentsshouldbecapableofhandlingallsituationscallingforthiscompetency,andtheycouldbeexpectedtoserveasrolemodelsandcoach
othersonthiscompetency.
WHEREACQUIRED(PARTE)
UsetheWhereAcquiredscaletoindicateyouranswerconcerningwhereanindividualinthejobwouldacquireeachcompetency.Inotherwords,youaretojudgewhetheranindividual
shouldbecompetentinaparticularareabeforeenteringthejob,orifapersoncouldgainproficiencyonthejob.MarkyouranswerinthespaceprovidedintheWhereAcquiredcolumn
nexttoeachitem.
0Doesnotapply.
1Proficiencyinthiscompetencymustbeacquiredonthejob.Anewpersonisnotbeexpectedtoperformthiscompetency.
2Forthemostpart,proficiencyinthiscompetencymustbeacquiredonthejob.
3Proficiencyinthiscompetencycanbeacquiredwhileonthejoborbeforeenteringthejob.
4Forthemostpart,proficiencyinthiscompetencymustbeacquiredbeforeenteringthejob.
5Competencycannotbegainedonthejobproficiencyinthiscompetencymustbeacquiredbeforeenteringthejob.

Fig.6.1
(continued).Jobmodelingquestions.

 Page157

DIFFICULTYTOACQUIRE(PARTF)
Considerthedifficultyanaverageemployeewouldhaveinlearningtoperformaparticularcompetency.Ofinteresthereisnotwhetheranindividualhasanopportunitytolearnthe
competency,butratherthedifficultytheindividualwouldhaveindevelopingproficiencyrelativetoothercompetencies.MarkyouranswerintheDifficultytoAcquirecolumnnexttoeach
item.
0Doesnotapply.
1Thiscompetencyisveryeasytolearn.Proficiencycanbeacquiredinaveryshorttime.
2Thiscompetencyiseasierthanmostotherstolearn.Proficiencycanbeacquiredinarelativelyshortspanoftimewithoutanygreatdegreeofdifficulty.
3Thiscompetencyisaboutaverageintermsofdifficultytolearncomparedwithothercompetencies.
4Thiscompetencyishardertolearnthanmostothers.Itcantakeafairlylongtimetodevelopproficiencyinthiscompetency.
5Thisisoneofthemostdifficultofallcompetenciestolearn.Itrequiresagreatdealoftimeandpracticetodevelopproficiency.

Fig.6.1
(continued).Jobmodelingquestions.

tantjobduties,workbehaviors,orworkoutcomesasdevelopedfromthereviewofjobinformation"(p.38300).2

Ratingdatafromjobincumbentsandsupervisorswerecollectedusingthisscaletodeterminewhichworkactivitiesandcompetenciesweremostimportantanddirectly
relatedtoeffectiveperformance.Thiswasaccomplished,inpart,bycreatingjobinformationdisplaysthatrankorderedtheimportantworkactivityandcompetency
items.Chapter7discussesindetailtechniquesforprioritizinganddisplayingmodelingresults,sothischapterdoesnotgotoofardownthispath.Fornow,letmejust
saythatonlythemostimportantcontentwasincludedintheconstructionphaseoftheselectionproject(i.e.,roughly60%oftheoriginalpoolof200workactivity
itemsand50%oftheoriginalpoolof120competencyitems).

TheconstructionphaseincludedcreatingaTestBudgetMatrixbylistingtheretainedcompetencyitemsononeaxisandworkactivitiesontheother,thuscreatinga
mechanismforlinkingimportantcompetenciestoimportantworkactivities.Twoindividualsfromthecustomers'projectteamandtwoindividualsfromtheconsultant
projectteamthen,asagroup,madeajudgmentastowhetheraparticularcompetencywasimportantforperformingaparticularworkactivity.Iftheanswerwas
"yes,"acheckwasplacedinthecorrespondingcellofthematrix.ThecompletedTestBudgetMatrixidentifiedrelatedgroupsofworkactivitiesrequiringaparticular
competency.3 Althoughnotemployedhere,itshouldbenotedthatamoreempiricalmeansformakingthesecompetencytoworkactivitylinkagesisavailable.4 ,5

 Page158

Next,theprojectteamsneededtomakedecisionsconcerningthemostappropriatetypesofsimulationsandworksamplesthatwouldallowcandidatestodemonstrate
theirdegreeofpossessionoftherequisitecompetencies.ThisdecisionwasaidedbythecreationofanAssessmentMethodMatrix,whichconsistedofcompetencies
ononeaxisandseveralpotentialsimulationandworksamplemethodsontheother.Asagroup,theprojectteamsdiscussedtheadvantagesanddisadvantagesof
usingaparticulartypeofsimulationorworksampletogetattheindividualdifferencevariabilityforeachcompetencyandplacedacheckintheappropriatecellofa
logicalcompetencybysimulationmethodcombination.

Hence,setsofcompetenciesthatwerejudgedbestassessedusingaparticulartypeofsimulation(e.g.,leaderlessgroupdiscussion,groupproblemsolving,operations
inbasket)wereidentifiedusingtheAssessmentMethodMatrix.Thesetofcompetenciesjudgedbestsuitedformeasurementusingaparticularsimulation(e.g.,a
groupproblemsolvingsituation)werethenreviewedintheTestBudgetMatrixtoidentifythecorrespondingsetoflinkedworkactivities.Thisdone,theassociated
workactivitieswereusedtocreatescenariocontentandoperationstobeperformedbyassessorswhilethelinkedcompetencieswereusedtorepresentimportant(for
fulljobperformance)individualdifferencevariabilitytobemeasuredbyassessors.

Forexample,20workactivitieswereusedtoguideconstructionofthegroupproblemsolvingsimulationtomaximizethefidelityofexercisecontenttoactualjob
demandsandcreateopportunitiestoobserveandassessthecriticalcompetencies.Inotherwords,theproblemsolvingsimulationcreatedasituationwhere
participantswererequiredto"collaboratewithteammemberstogeneratesolutionsformachineryorsystemproblems"and"investigatepotentiallyconflicting
informationfrommultiplesourcesconcerningtheoperationofinstrumentsormachines."Basedonobservationsofjobcandidates'performanceinthesimulation,which
replicatedcriticalworkactivities,assessorswereprovidedtheopportunitytoobserveandassessthedegreeofpossessionofthemostimportantcompetencieslinked
totheseactivities.

Ofcourse,thepriorprojectexamplerepresentsonlyonespecificdescriptionforhowCurrentImportancedatamightbeused.Mostofthereferencestaggedwiththe
listofHRapplicationspresentedinchapter4offersomedescriptionofhowCurrentImportancedataareusedtoguidethedevelopmentofspecificHRapplications
(e.g.,workloadanalysis,jobredesign,creationofjobdescriptions,selectingtestsforanindividualassessmentprogram,conductingtrainingneedsanalysis,conducting
jobevaluation,orinvestigatingthecomparableworthofjobs).

FutureImportance

TheFutureImportancescale(Fig.6.1,PartB)isafutureorientedderivativeoftheCurrentImportancescale.Acritical,althoughoftenoverlooked,elementinjob
modelinginvolvesidentifyingandestimatingtheimportanceofnewwork

 Page159

activitiesornewcompetencyrequirementsasthejobchangesovertime.Informationabouttheimportanceofspecificcompetenciesfortheenvisionedfuturejobcan
beusedtoguidethinkingaboutanticipatedchangesinthecompetencyrequirementsthatmightresultfromchangestothedirectionoremphasisofthebusiness,
changestotheconfigurationofthejobresultingfromworkredesign,changesinknowledgerequirementsstemmingfromtheintroductionofnewtechnology,orother
changes.

Intermsofaprojectexample,considersomerecentworkwithadiversifiedoilcompany.Thisorganizationoperatesinthreeprimaryareas:explorationandproduction
ofoilandgas,refininganddistribution,andchemicalproductsrelatedtooil.WithintheInternationalExplorationdivisionofthefirstarea,thecompanywasinterested
indevelopingadetailedmodelforthejobofManagerofInternationalContractsandNegotiations.Theresultsofthemodelingprocessweretobeusedtoguidethe
creationoftoolsforidentifyinghighpotentialcandidates,evaluatingcompanybenchstrength,andguidingindividualdevelopmenteffortsofhighpoemployees.

Thechallengewasthatthejobwasrapidlychanging.Inthepast,thosewhosucceededwerebasicallyglobetrottingcowboyswhoworkedindependentlytosecure
explorationandproductionagreementsfromgovernmentrepresentativesallovertheworld.However,giventheincreasedcomplexityofthenegotiationsand
agreements,theneedtoworkasamemberofateamofspecialistswasbecomingmoreimportant.Furthermore,becauseofincreasedemphasisonmerging
commercialcontractlawtheoriesandprecedentsintotheoverallnegotiationstrategy(whichimpactedorganizationalconcernssuchasexplorationtimeframes,revenue
sharing,andoptionsontheproductionperiod),itappearedasifsomeofthebasicrequirementsofthejobwerechanging.

Giventheextentofanticipatedchangeinjobrequirements,andgiventheinternalpoliticssurroundingthisparticularmodelingeffort,membersfromboththecustomer
andconsultantprojectteamsquicklydeterminedthatitwouldbenecessarytoshow,withsomeprecision,themigrationofjobrequirements.Hence,bothCurrent
ImportanceandFutureImportancequestionswereusedwithboththeworkactivityandcompetencysectionsofaquestionnairethatwasadministeredtoawide
rangeofincumbents,supervisors,andpotentialnegotiationteampartners.Itemlevelratingsofcurrentandfutureimportancewererolledupandreportedbackatthe
dimensionlevelusinginformationdisplayslikethosefoundinchapter7(replacingthedifferentjobdesignationswiththecurrentandfuturerequirementassessmentsfor
thesamejobofManagerofInternationalContractsandNegotiations).

Themostcriticalcompetencydimensionsandsubsumeditemsfortheemergingfuturejobwerethenidentified(again,moreonhowtodothisinthenextchapter)and
usedtobuild,amongotherthings,anintegratedassessmentorforwardlookingperformanceappraisaltool.6 ,7 Theideabehindintegratedassessmentistouse
informationthatisalreadyavailableinmostorganizations

 Page160

andprovideamechanismforsystematicallyevaluatingbehaviorasitoccursonthejobtoassessinternalcandidatesforapromotionalopportunity.Theassumptionis
that,althoughitmaynotbepossibletoobserveapromotionalcandidateinalltheactivitiesofatargetjob,itispossibletoobserveacandidateinasampleofsituations
thatareapproximationsofactivitiesthatcomposethetargetjob.Fromtheseobservations,itispossibletoinferthedegreetowhichacandidatepossessesrequisite
competencies.Inthiscontext,ratingsofFutureImportancenotonlyidentifiedthemostimportantdimensionstobuildintothisprocedureandofferedalogical
rationalefordifferentiallyweightingthem,buttheitemleveldescriptorswerebuiltrightintotheassessmenttools.Insummary,theFutureImportanceinformationnow
servesasthecoordinatesonatalentmap,fromwhichseveralapplicationshavebeenconstructedforthepurposesofidentifyinganddevelopingindividualsinpotential
feederpositionsthroughoutthecompany.

Frequency

TheFrequencyscale(Fig.6.1,PartC)isbasedontheolderTimeSpentmeasureusedinearlyjobanalysiswork.Frequencyratingsareusuallyrelatedtoratingsof
CurrentImportance.8 ,9 ,10Clearly,ifindividualsspendmostoftheirtimeperformingaparticularworkactivity,thatactivityisusuallyimportantforfulljob
performance.Forthisreason,measuresofimportancearefavoredoverquestionsaboutfrequency.However,somejobsdoincludeworkactivitiesthatareperformed
infrequentlyyetarerequiredandcriticalforjobsuccess.Thus,whilethesetwoscalesarerelated,theyarenotidentical.

Anexcellentillustrationofthedifferencebetweenmeasuresofimportanceandfrequencycomesfromtheworkofacolleague.ErichPrienhasbeeninvolvedina
numberofprojectsinvolvinglawenforcementofficersovertheyears.OneoftheconsistentfindingsistheratinggapbetweenCurrentImportanceandFrequency
ratingsforcrimerelatedactivities.Specifically,activitieslike"firingone'sweaponinthelineofduty"or"usingbatons,mace,ortaserstosubdueandcontrolsuspects"
arealwaysratedasimportant,despitethatthefrequencyofoccurrenceislow.

LevelofMastery

TheLevelofMasteryscale(Fig.6.1,PartD)capturesthelevelordegreeofpossessionofacompetencyneededtoperformtheassociatedworkactivitiesinajob.
TheLevelofMasteryandtheImportancescalesdifferinthatacompetencydimensionsuchasAnalyzingIssuescanbeequallyimportantfortwodifferentjobs(e.g.,
salesrepresentativeandanesthesiologist),butthedepthofskill/knowledge/competenceisdifferent.Thishasbeenreferredtoasthewithinjobrelativeversuscross
jobrelativeframeofreferencechallenge.11Inshort,thisscaleisoftena

 Page161

nicecomplementtotheCurrentImportancescale,particularlywhenthemodelingworkcoversabroadrangeofjoblevelsandfunctions.

Suchwasthecasewithamodelingeffortinvolvingoneofthemostprominenthospitalsystemsintheworld.Themodelingworkcoveredallexemptandnonexempt
medicalandnonmedicaljobsinthesystem.Inthesekindsofcases,themetamodelorsuperordinatemapcoversalotofground(seechap.7foronewaytopresenta
highleveldescriptionofthecompetencycompositionforanentireorganization).Thus,acompetencydimensionlikeNumeralAcumenmightneedtoapplytotoptier
executivejobssuchashospitaladministratorordirectorofgeneralservice,aswellasentryleveljobslikelabaideorsupplyclerk.Althoughthesamebasic
competencymaybeinvolvedineach,thelevelofmasteryneededtoperformeffectivelyiscertainlydifferent.

EmployingtheLevelofMasteryscaleinthequestionnaireinthissettingallowedtheprojectteamtoidentifyitemlevelcontentthatoperationallydefinedthe
competenciessomewhatdifferentlyatthreebroadlevels.Forexample,NumericalAcumenatthemidlevelmanagementthroughexecutiveranksrequiredmasteryin
specificitemlevelcompetencieslike"skillingraspingthefullmeaningofkeyfinancialindicatorsonoverallbusinessperformance"and"usingalgebraicorcomplex
formulastosolveproblems."However,formanyentryleveljobs,NumericalAcumenwasdefinedasmasteryinitemlevelcontentlike''skillinperformingroutine
calculationsquicklyandaccurately"and"knowledgeofbasicarithmetic(e.g.,addition,subtraction,multiplication,anddivision)."

WhereAcquired

TheWhereAcquiredscale(Fig.6.1,PartE)isusefulfordistinguishingbetweencompetenciesthatshouldbeusedforselectionandthoseusedfortraining
specifications.Inthisregard,theUniformGuidelinesstatethattestusersshould"takeintoaccounttheextenttowhichthespecificknowledgesorskillswhicharethe
primaryfocusofthetestarethosewhichemployeeslearnonthejob"(p.38301).12Further,thePrinciplesstatethat"jobcontentdomainsshouldbedefinedinterms
ofwhatanemployeeneedstodoorknowwithouttrainingorexperienceonthejob"(p.22).13BecausetheWhereAcquiredscaleisfrequentlyusedincombination
withtheDifficultytoAcquirescale,Iwillrefrainfrompresentingaprojectexampleuntilbothquestionshavebeencovered.

DifficultytoAcquire

Eachofthequestionsdescribedearlierinvolvejudgmentsaboutajob.Inotherwords,theresponsestotheCurrentImportance,FutureImportance,Frequency,
LevelofMastery,andWhereAcquiredscalesarebasedonaparticularframeofreferencethetargetjoborjobs.Forexample,aparticularworkactivitycanbe

 Page162

importantforjobperformanceinaparticularjob,orarelatedcompetencymustbepossessedpriortostartingaparticularjob.

Thereareotherquestionsthatinvolvecharacteristicsspecifictotheworkactivityorcompetencyyetdonotrefertoaparticularjob.Forexample,takealookatthe
DifficultytoAcquirequestioninFig.6.1,PartF.Thisquestionismorecomplexthanthepreviousquestionsbecauseitrequiresabroadbaseofinformationabout
peopleandisaimedatgettinginformationabouthowdifficultitisfortheaveragepersontodevelopanadequatedegreeofpossessionofaparticularcompetency.So,
whileacomplexjudgmenttoasksomeonetomake,itcanbearguedthatitdoestapafairlystableunderlyingphenomenon.However,keepinmindthattherater's
priorexperienceandindividualabilitiesarelikelytoimpactjudgmentsevenmoresothanforotherquestionswemightaskaboutdescriptorcontent.

Nowforacaseexample.Itmaynotsurpriseyoutolearnthatmorethan90%ofprivatecompaniesintheUnitedStateshavesomeformofsystematictraining.14
Giventhattrainingisnotaninexpensiveenterprise,itmaysurpriseyoutolearnthatfewcompaniesdomuchbywayofformallyidentifyingthecompetenciestobe
trained,matchingappropriatetrainingmethodstorelevantobjectives,orevaluatingthesuccessoftraininginitiatives.

Arecentclientintheconsumerproductsbusinesswasanexception.Aconsciousdecisionhadbeenmadebytheseniormanagersofthecompanytosimplifyand
reducethecostoftheselectionprocessforentrylevelplantemployeesandpourmoredollarsintotrainingnewhireswhohavethebasicbuildingblockcompetencies.
ThoseHRmanagersinchargeoforchestratingthisshiftfromabuytodevelopmodeofoperationwereacutelyawareoftheneedtogobeyondinformaldiscussions
amongtrainingtaskforcememberstoidentifyareasforemphasisintrainingandtheinhousetrainingcurriculum.

InadditiontocollectingCurrentImportancedatafromjobincumbents,asmallgroupofsupervisorsandtrainingmanagerswerealsoselectedtoprovideWhere
AcquiredandDifficultytoAcquireratingsforthesameitemlevelcompetencies.TheWhereAcquireddataproducedinformationthatclearlydistinguishedcontent
coveredinthelimitedscreeningprocessversuscontentthatshouldappearinsomeforminthetrainingspecifications.

Forthecompetencycontentthatendedupinthetrainingcamp,theDifficultytoAcquiredataprovedtobeavaluableadditionalperspective.Forexample,
competenciesthatwerejudgedtobefairlyeasilyacquiredweretobedevelopedthroughsomeminimalonthejobcoachingbyasupervisororexperiencedemployee.
Conversely,competenciesjudgedtobedifficulttolearnweretreatedinamoreformalwayinclassroomorapprenticeshiptraining.

Inaddition,tohelpguidethelevelofemphasisofcertainconceptsandbodiesofknowledgeintheinhousetrainingcurriculum,wedevelopedCompetencyTraining
Composites.Thatis,wecalculatedacompositeindexforeachcompetencyitembymultiplyingtheaveragedCurrentImportancejudgments,theaver

 Page163

agedWhereAcquiredjudgments(wherehighnumbersdenotecontentthatmustbelearnedonthejob),andtheaveragedDifficultytoAcquirejudgments(where
highnumbersdenotethemostdifficultcontent).Suchacompositereflectsthelogicthatcompetenciesmostdeservingofemphasisintrainingcurriculumcontentare
thosejudgedmostimportantforjobperformance,thosethatmustbedevelopedonthejob,andthoseforwhichitismostdifficulttoacquireproficiency.

Simplyrankorderingthecompetencyitemsaccordingtothistrainingcompositeindexcanbeinformativeforcurriculumevaluationandinstructionaldesignpurposes.
However,inthissetting,itmadesensetotaketheadditionalstepofmakingformalcomparisonsofcurrenttrainingcoveragetoactualcompetencydemandsinthe
targetjobgroups.Thiswasaccomplishedbycalculatingtheamountoftrainingtimedevotedtoeachcontentareaandthenrelatingtheresultstotheactualcompetency
demandsusingatwodimensionaljobrequirementandtrainingemphasismatrix.15Inthisway,trainingdeficienciesandexcesseswereidentifiedwithreferenceto
actualworkdemands,andthetrainingprogramwasmodifiedwhereappropriate.

ThereAin'tNoRulesaroundHere

HenryFordwasfondofsaying,"Thereain'tnorulesaroundherewe'retryingtoaccomplishsomething!"Ifeeltheneedtoinfusealittleofthis"thereain'tnorules
aroundhere"spiritintothechapteratthispoint.Withthisthoughtinmind,letmeteeupanotherprojectexampletoillustratesomeofthemorenonconventionalways
onemayusemodelingquestions.

Letmefirstprovidealittlebackgroundonthe360degreeormultiperspectivefeedbackmethodologyusedforemployeedevelopment.Thisapproachhasgaineda
greatdealofpopularityinrecentyears.Theideaistoprovideindividualswithboss,peer,directreport,andperhapsevencustomerfeedback(i.e.,360degreesor
fromallpointsaroundthejobcompass)thatcanbeusedtohighlightjobrelatedstrengthsanddevelopmentneeds.Althoughthevastmajorityofmultiperspective
feedbackinterventionstargetmanagementpopulations,theapproachisincreasinglybeingusedforvarioustechnicalorprofessionalsegmentsoftheworkforce(e.g.,
physicians,attorneys)aswellashighlevelindividualcontributors.Furthermore,althoughthemajorityofinterventionsusestandardizedtools,whichtapfairly
conventionalcompetencydimensionsassociatedwithmanagementwork,thereappearstobesomeincreasedinterestincreatingcustomizedcontentthatisbuiltintoa
shellofa360degreedeliveryandprocessingvehicle.

Thecreationofcustomcontentfora360degreetoolformanagerswasthepresentingneedofaninternationalorganizationreferredtohereastheIntercontinental
Organization(ICO).TheICOhasmajoroperationsindozensof

 Page164

countries,andtheinvestmentstrategiesandoperationsineachcountryareguidedbyacountrymanager.Inrecentyears,theICOhasfounditselfinthethroesof
changeintermsofhowtheorganizationconductsbusinessandfulfillsitsmission.Furthermore,inmanyways,thecountrymanagerswereatpointformuchofwhat
waschanging.Withoutgoingintotoomuchdetail,theimplementationoftheICO'sbusinessstrategywasbecomingmorecomplex,thecriteriaforsuccessatthe
countrylevelwerebecomingmoreabstractandmultifaceted,therulesofengagementweremuchlessclear,thejobincreasinglyrequiredworkingwithandsatisfying
multipleconstituencies,andtheneedtorespondquicklytoopportunitieswasbecomingacriticalsuccessfactor.

Withinthiscontext,thepresentingconcernwasthatthemodelforfuturejobsuccesswaspoorlyunderstoodbythiscriticalgroupofICOmanagerswhowerecentral
tocarryingoutthebusinessplan.Hence,identifyingthemodelforsuccessforcountrymanagersandbuildingthecontentintoa360degreefeedbacktoolaspartofan
individualdevelopmenteffortwasthescopeoftheoriginalproject.

Oncewestartedtheinterviewswiththeincumbentcountrymanagers,however,someinitialsuspicionsbegantobeconfirmed.AlthoughbyanymeasuretheICOhad
succeededformanyyears,thissuccesshadfosteredabureaucraticrigidityandstrongresistancetochange.Infact,theunwrittenphilosophyofthecountrymanagers
wasto"dothingsbythebookandnotcreatewaves."Individualeffortstodeviatefromtheestablishedworkprotocolorattemptstosuggestnewandinnovativeways
ofconductingbusinessorrevisingthesuccessmetricsmetwithabootbeingappliedtothethroatoftheoffendingmanagerorworse!Morethanoneofthe
interviewedmanagersexplicitlystated,andnearlyallofthemimplied,thattheyknewwhatittooktoreallysucceedinthenewrole.However,iftheydemonstrated
someofthesebehaviors,theywouldgettheirheadshandedtothembytheirbosses.

Insummary,thefirm'sCEOandseniormanagementteamindicatedanawarenessthatchangewasrequiredinthemanagementmodelsofperformanceatthecountry
level.Furthermore,thecountrymanagersarticulatedsimilarviewsabouttheneedforchange.Thechallengeseemedtobethatseveralinterveninglayersof
management,andyearsofestablishedoperatingprotocol,stoodinthewayofnecessarychange.

Sensitiveaboutnotwantingtodilutethefocusoftheprojectfromtheoriginalgoalcreatingamodelofsuccessthatcouldbebuiltintoa360degreefeedbacktool
weapproachedourcounterpartsontheclientprojectteamaboutmodifyingthegameplanjustabit.Specifically,werecommendedgoingforwardwiththemodeling
effort,butwealsosuggestedexpandingtheinformationgatheredfromthequestionnaireprocess.Insteadofjustbuildingtherationallyderivedmodelintoa
questionnaireandaskingsupervisorsandincumbentstoprovideratingsofCurrentImportanceandFutureImportance,wewantedtoaddanOrganizational
Supportscale.

 Page165

Addingthisscaletothemodelingquestionnairewouldprovideuswithdatatoidentifyorganizationalhotspots,whichtheclientcouldthenusetoguidewhatappeared
tobeamuchneededorganizationalchangeeffort.Theleadfromtheclient'sprojectmanagementteampresentedtheideatotheexecutivesponsors,allofwhom
boughtintotheplan(afterensuringthatwewerenotgoingtobe"raisingmoredustthanwecouldsettle").Asaresult,wewoundupupgradingourstraightforward
modelingeffortintoastagingareaforafullblownorganizationaleffectivenessorchangeeffort.

Tobegin,theclientandconsultantprojectteamshuddledtoidentifythealterationsandadditionsthatneededtobemadetotheoriginalgameplan.First,the
organizationalsupportscalewasdeveloped(seeFig.6.2).Inthequestionnaire,respondentsfirstansweredquestionsaboutacompetency'simportanceandthenabout
theleveloforganizationalsupport.IfyoureplacetheWhereAcquireProficiencyscaleinFig.6.6withtheOrganizationalSupportscaleyouhaveanideaofwhat
thequestionnairelookedlike.

Next,weexpandedthecharteroftheoriginalprojecttoincludeamechanismforconductingthediagnosisthatwouldresultinactiononidentifiedproblems.The
author'sFASTframeworkfororganizationalchange(seeTable6.1)wasusedtostructurethinkingaboutadditionalactivitiesandresponsibilitiesthatneededtobebuilt
intotheproject.AnswerstothequestionsinTable6.1werequicklydeterminedandtheprojectmovedforward.

Morethan50SMEs,roughly90%ofthetargetpopulation,respondedtotheexpandedquestionnaire.Table6.2illustrateshowwechosetopresenttheresults
juxtaposingtheCurrentImportanceandtheOrganizationalSupportdata.Inthiscase,anitemwasidentifiedascriticaltoincludeinthemodelifthemean
Importanceratingwasgreaterthan3.50andthestandarddeviationwasless

ORGANIZATIONALSUPPORT
UsetheOrganizationSupportscaletoindicateyouranswerconcerningtheextenttowhichtheICOvaluesandpromotestheuseofeachcompetency.Inotherwords,towhatextentdoes
theICOcultureencourageandrewardtheuseofeachcompetencyversuscreatingbarrierstodemonstratingthecompetency?
1Clearlynotsupportive.PracticallynobodyattheICOvaluesthiscompetencyorsupportsitsuse.
2Notverysupportive.VeryfewpeopleattheICOvaluethiscompetencyorsupportitsuse.
3Somewhatsupportive.SomepeopleattheICO,atvariousorganizationallevels,valuethiscompetencyorsupportitsuse.
4Verysupportive.ManypeopleattheICO,atvariousorganizationallevels,valuethiscompetencyorsupportitsuse.
5Extremelysupportive.AlmosteveryoneattheICO,atallorganizationallevels,valuesthiscompetencyandsupportsitsuse.

Fig.6.2.
Organizationalsupportratingscale.

 Page166

TABLE6.1
FASTChangeforOrganizations

Focus Feedback ActionPlanning Scorecard Tracking

Whatistheimpetus Whoseesinitial Isthereaneedto Howwillthesuccess Isthereaneedto
forchange? resultsanddecides followupontheresults oftheinterventionsbe buildasystemfor
Whatdothe howto"frame"for toclarifyissues?Ifso, evaluated?Whatkind regularlytrackingor
prevailingissuesseem broaderreview? howwillthisbe ofdownstream monitoringtheissueor
tobe? Whatprocesswillbe accomplished? informationwillbe evaluatingthesuccess
Howwillthecurrent usedtofeedback Giventhatspecific collected,bywhom,to oftheinterventionona
stateoftheissuesbe resultsmorebroadly? issuesarehighlighted gaugetheimpact? longtermbasis?Ifso,
measured?Howwill asaresultofthe howwillthisbe
thediagnosisproceed? measurement,what accomplished?
interventionswillbe Whoownsthe
takentoeffectchange? evaluationprocessand
Specifically,whatwill whatarethe
bethe: implicationsof
objectives, deviationsfromthe
resources, expectedpath?
steps,
timeframes?

TABLE6.2
ICO"LeadCourageously"CompetencyDimensionandItems

Dimension:09LeadCourageously(N=51)
Includedin Under
Item Scale Mean SD Model Supported
34.Willingnesstotakeastandandface Importance 4.52 0.79
problemsorresolveimportantissues. Yes Yces
Support 2.81 1.36
36.Willingnesstochallengestatusquo Importance 4.48 0.67
practicesorconventionalthinking. Yes Yes
Support 2.52 1.12
35.Willingnesstoactdecisivelyanddrivehard Importance 4.45 0.80
tosolveproblems,capitalizeonopportunities,
etc. Yes Yes

Support 2.92 1.04

38.Willingnesstoshowconsistencyof Importance 4.43 0.73 Yes Yes
principles,values,andbehaviors.
Support 2.85 1.28
39.Skillinprojectingconfidenceandself Importance 4.39 0.78
assuranceinownabilities. Yes No
Support 3.67 1.02
37.Skillinchampioningnewideas,initiatives,or Importance 4.26 0.69
plans. Yes Yes
Support 2.76 0.83

 Page167

Fig.6.3.
Organizationconstraintanalysis.

than1.25(adetaileddiscussionoftherationalebehindthesekindsofcutoffsispresentedinthenextchapter).Itemswerelabeledundersupportedifthemean
Importancevaluewasabove4.25andtheOrganizationalSupportvaluewaslessthan3.00.Inotherwords,weonlywantedtohighlightareasofconstraintthat
werelinkedtocriticalaspectsofexpectedperformance.Only7%ofthenumberofcompetencyitemswerehighlightedinthisway,buttheywereallgroupedin3of
theoriginallyenvisioned12dimensions:LeadCourageously,Innovation,andHighPerformanceOrientation.

Figure6.3illustrateshowwechosetosummarizetheresultsforpresentationtotheexecutivesponsors.Themagnitudeofthechallengewasreadilyobviousatthetime
ofthiswriting,weareinthemiddleoftheActionPlanningphaseoftheFASTchangeframework.Atleastonetaskforceisbeingformedtoscopeoutobjectives,
resourcerequirements,concreteactionsteps,andtimeframesformanagingthechangeeffort.

 Page168

BuildingYourOwnScales

Bynowitshouldbeobviousthatavarietyofquestionscanbeaskedaboutactivities,competencies,performancebehaviors,ororganizationalfeatures.16,17,18The
typesofquestionsusedandhowtheyarewordedshouldbedeterminedbythepurposeofthejobmodelingeffort.Table6.3presentssomesuggestionsforlinking
specificquestionstodifferentHRapplications.Asthistableillustrates,questionsaboutthecurrentandfutureimportanceofdescriptorstatementsareparticularlyuseful
acrossabroadbandofapplications.

However,keepinmindthatthepotentialquestionsdiscussedearlierdonotrepresentacompletelist.Newsituationsandscaleneedspopupallthetime.Bewillingto
improviseandadapt.However,whethermodifyinganexistingquestionordevelopingyourown,alsokeepinmindtheimportanceofawelldevelopedratingscale.
Forexample,thereisevidencethatthemostefficientnumberofresponsecategoriesforaratingscaleisbetweenfiveandnine.19,20,21,22Fewerthanfivecategories
mightresultinafailuretocapturemeaningfulvariabilityinjudgments,andratingsscaleswithmorethanninecategoriesrequirerespondentstomakefiner
discriminationsthancanbemade.Infact,havingtoomanyresponsecategoriescanhaveanegativeeffectonthequalityofthedataobtained.

Inadditiontonumbers,wordsandphrasesaretypicallyusedtotelltherespondentthesignificanceormeaningofmakingaratingatagivenpoint.Here,too,thereis
someevidenceindicatingthatdifferentexpressionsoffrequency(e.g.,always,sometimes,ornever)oramount(e.g.,all,some,ornone)havedifferentmeaningsand
interpretabilityrelativetootherexpressionsoffrequencyoramount.23,24,25,26,27,28Forexample,thewordsnever,infrequently,occasionally,fairlyoften,very
frequently,andconsistentlywerecarefullychosentoanchordifferentpointsofthe5pointFrequencyscaleinFig.6.1becauseoftheresearchdescribingthe
meaning(i.e.,levelofmagnitude)ofthesewordsrelativetooneanother.

InformationSources

Aswithquestionsconcerningthetargetpopulationandthekindsofquestionsasked,questionsaboutwheretheinformationinputscomefrominanempiricalmodeling
approacharedeterminedbythepurposeofthejobmodelingstudy.Forexample,insomeinstances,itisimportanttocollectinformationfromjobincumbents.Inother
situationsorforotherkindsofdata,apanelofSMEsorvisionariesmightbeused.Instillothercases,observersormodelingexpertscanmonitortheworkof
individualsandprovideinputdata.

Regardlessofthesource,keepinmindthattheusefulnessoftheresultsofthejobmodelingeffortdependdirectlyontherepresentativenessandadequacyofthe
respondentsample.Responsesfromapoorlydesignedinformationgatheringprocesscanbeviewedastheresearchequivalentofafourleafclover,fromwhichone
concludesthatallcloversaregreenandpossessfourleaves.

 Page169

TABLE6.3
AppropriateQuestionstoAsktoGenerateRelevantInformationforDifferentApplications
Questions |

Application Current Future Freq. Levelof Where Difficulty

Imp. Imp. Mastery Acquired toAcquire
HumanCapitalPlanning
1.Jobdesign/redesign Activity *** *** ***
Competency *** *** ** *
2.Workloadanalysis Activity *** *** **
Competency *** *** ** * *

Recruitment
3.Jobdesc.&minimum Activity *** *** ***
qualifications
Competency *** *** **
4.Realisticjobpreviewcontent Activity *** ** **
Competency *** ** ** * *

Selection
5.Interviewsystem Activity *** ** *
Competency *** ** ** ** **

6.Scoredapplication Activity *** ** *

blank/biodata

Competency ** ** ** ** **

7.P&Ptesting(followup Activity *** ** *

validation)
Competency *** ** ** ** **

8.P&Ptesting(validity Activity *** ** *

generalization)

Competency *** ** ** ** **

9.P&Ptesting(custombuilt) Activity *** ** **

Competency *** ** ** *** **

10.Sim'lns/contentoriented Activity *** ** **

testconstruction

Competency *** ** *** *** **

11.Individualassessmentfor Activity *** ** *

selection

Competency *** ** ** *** **

ClassificationPlacement
12.Jobclassification Activity *** ** **
Competency *** ** ** * *

13.Employeeskillsbank& Activity *** ** *

matching
Competency *** ** *** ** *

(tablecontinuedonnextpage

 Page170

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage

TABLE6.3(continued)
Training
14.Trainingneedsanalysis Activity *** ** **
Competency *** ** *** ** *

15.Trainingprogramdesign Activity *** ** **

Competency *** ** *** ** ***

PerformanceAppraisal
16.BARSappraisalorientedtest Activity *** * *
construction
Competency *** * ** *
Compensation
17.Jobevaluation Activity *** ** **
Competency *** ** *** *** **

CareerManagement
18.360instrumentsfor Activity *** ** **
development

Competency *** ** *** * **

19.Individualassessmentfor Activity *** *** *

development
Competency *** *** ** ** **

20.Careerladders/succession Activity *** *** *

planning

Competency *** *** *** ** **

21.Careerplanning Activity *** ** *

Competency *** ** ** ** *

22.Coaching Activity *** ** *

Competency *** ** *** ** **

OrganizationStructure
23.Organizationalanalysis& Activity ** **
change
Competency ** **
***=Alwaysanappropriatesourceforinformationofthistype.
**=Oftenanappropriatesourceforinformationofthistype.
*=Seldomanappropriatesourceforinformationofthistype.
Blank=Neveranappropriatesourceforinformationofthistype.

Therearealsotypesofinformationthatarebettersuitedforcollectionfromdifferentsources.Forexample,jobincumbentsorsupervisorsareusuallythebestsource
ofinformationregardingthecurrentcompositionorrequirementsforaparticularjob.Intermsoftheworkactivityandcompetencyrequirementsforjobsthatare
undergoingchange,beingredesigned,orthatdonotcurrentlyexist,asmallgroupofvisionariesislikelythebestsourceofinformation.

 Page171

Furthermore,becausetheDifficultytoAcquirejudgmentisparticularlydifficulttomake,asmallpanelofsupervisorsorsubjectmatterexpertsoftenprovidesmore
reliableratings.Similarly,asmallgroupofSMEswillprovidebetterdataonwhetheracompetencymustbeacquiredbeforecomingtothejoborisacquiredasa
resultofexperienceonthejob(i.e.,theWhereAcquiredjudgment).Supervisorsorindividualsresponsiblefortrainingintheorganizationareoftenusedtomakethese
judgmentsbecauseoftheiropportunitytoseeanumberofpeopleenterthetargetjobandobservetheirjobperformanceinnumeroussituationsoverextendedperiods
oftime.Thus,thissmallgroupofexpertsislikelytohaveamorebroadandinformedbasefromwhichtomakethesedifficultjudgmentsthanothergroups.Onthe
otherhand,jobincumbentsareusuallyusedtoprovideinformationabouttheimportanceofworkactivitiesorcompetenciesforfulljobperformanceandaboutthe
frequencywithwhichworkactivitiesareperformed.

Yetanotherwaytocollectjobmodelinginformationistouseobserversormodelingexpertstomonitorandrecordtheincumbent'sbehavior.Theadvantageofusing
observersisthatthedatacollectedareadirectandindependentlyobservableaccountoftheworkbeingperformed.Also,whenobserversareused,questionsabout
therespondents'understandingoftheratingtaskandmotivationlevelarelargelyavoided.However,thepresenceofobserverscanbeadistractiontothejob
incumbentandcanpossiblyencourageordiscouragecertainactivities.Furthermore,theusefulnessofobserversastheinformationfiltercanbelimitedinsituationsin
whichtheworkbeingperformedismorecomplexandcognitiveinnature.Finally,comparedwithothersourcesofinformation,thecostsassociatedwithusingteamsof
observersisaconsideration.Table6.4providesasummarychartthatsuggeststhemostappropriateinformationsourcefordifferenttypesofquestions.

Table6.4
AppropriateInformationSourceforDifferentQuestions

Incumbents Supervisors Visionaries Customers Observers

CurrentImportance *** *** ** ** **

FutureImportance * ** *** * *
Frequency *** *** * * **
LevelofMastery ** *** ** * **
WhereAcquired ** *** * *

DifficultytoAcquire ** *** * *

***=Alwaysanappropriatesourceforinformationofthistype.
**=Oftenanappropriatesourceforinformationofthistype.
*=Seldomanappropriatesourceforinformationofthistype.
Blank=Neveranappropriatesourceforinformationofthistype.

 Page172

TheQuestionnaire

Whatisthequestionnairegoingtolooklike?Thisdependsinlargepartonthetypeofcontent,mixofmodelingquestions,intendedrespondentgroup,andsoforth.
However,afairlystraightforwardquestionnaire,whichfocusesonlyoncompetenciesandworkcontext,mighthavethefollowingfoursections.

Section1shouldprovideabriefoverviewtothequestionnaire.AsFig.6.4illustrates,thisislikelytoincludethepurposeoftheinstrument,somementionofhowthe
dataaremanagedandused,astatementonhowtocompletethequestionnaire(e.g.,oncompanytime)andbywhen,andcleardirectionsforreturningtheresponses
alongwithacontactnameiftherearequestions.Also,dowhatyoucantodrivehomethepointthatthefocusofthisdatagatheringdeviceisthejobandnotthe
individual.
SECTION1:OVERVIEW

Thepurposeofthe[NAMEOFORGANIZATION]JobModelingQuestionnaireistolearnmoreabout:

A.Thecompetenciesorindividualskillsandknowledgerequiredtoperformtheworkactivitiescomprisingyourjob.ThefocusisYOURJOBandnotyou.

B.Theworkcharacteristicsthatdefinetheenvironmentwhereyouwork.

Yourresponseswillbecombinedwiththoseofabout[ESTIMATEDNUMBEROFRESPONDENTS]employeestohelpusdefinetherolerequirementsandrelatedcompetenciespeople
needinordertoperformsuccessfullyinabroadrangeofretailbankingjobs.Yourindividualresponsestothisquestionnairewillbekeptstrictlyconfidential.Onlyaggregateddatafor
largejobgroupswillbereported.

Itshouldtakeyoucloseto[ESTIMATEDTIMEREQUIREMENT]tocompletethequestionnaire.

Everyone'sdataisimportant.Completethequestionnaireoncompanytimeby[DEADLINEDATE].Please[RETURNQUESTIONNAIRES,COMPLETEDDISKS,ETC.]directly
to[CONSULTANTORGANIZATION]using[ENCLOSEDENVELOPE,DISKMAILER,ETC.].

Shouldyouhaveanyquestions,pleasecontact[CONTACTPERSONANDTELEPHONENUMBERAND/OREMAILADDRESS].

Thankyouforyourtime.

Fig.6.4.
Sampleoverview:Questionnairewithfoursections.

 Page173

SECTION2:COMPETENCIES

Thefollowingsectionaskstwoquestionsabouteachof[NUMBEROFITEMSINQUESTIONNAIRE]competencies(i.e.,personalskillsandcharacteristics)thatmightcontributeto
successfulperformanceinYOURJOB.Pleaserespondtobothquestionsandmakeyourratingscarefully.

Step1.ImportanceofCompetencytoYourJob
UsetheImportancescaledescribedbelowtoratetheimportanceofeachcompetencytosuccessfulperformanceinyourjob.Youmayalsofindthatanumberofthesecompetenciesare
notimportantinordertoperformyourjob.Note:Trytousethefullrangeofthe6pointscale(i.e.,useallsixnumbers)asyoumakeyourratings.

5ThiscompetencyisCriticallyImportantforsuccessfulperformanceinmyjob.
4ThiscompetencyisVeryImportantforsuccessfulperformanceinmyjob.
3ThiscompetencyisImportantforsuccessfulperformanceinmyjob.
2ThiscompetencyisSomewhatImportantforsuccessfulperformanceinmyjob.
1ThiscompetencyisofMinorImportanceforsuccessfulperformanceinmyjob.
0ThiscompetencyisNotImportantformyjob.

Step2.WhereIsProficiencyintheCompetencyAcquired(i.e.,BeforeorAfterJobEntry)UsetheWhereAcquiredscaletoindicateyouranswerconcerningwhereanindividualinyour
jobwouldacquireeachcompetency.Inotherwords,youaretojudgewhetheranindividualshouldbecompetentinaparticularareabeforeenteringthejob,orifapersoncouldgain
proficiencyonthejob.MarkyouranswerinthespaceprovidedintheWhereAcquiredcolumnnexttoeachitem.

5MustBeAcquiredBeforeEnteringtheJobproficiencyinthiscompetencymustbeacquiredbeforeonestartsthejob,becausethereisnoopportunityto''learnasyougo."
4PrimarilyAcquiredBeforeEnteringtheJob.
3AcquiredBeforeorAfterEnteringtheJob.
2PrimarilyAcquiredontheJob.
1MustBeAcquiredontheJobproficiencycanonlybeacquiredafteronestartsthejob,anewpersonisnotexpectedtopossessthiscompetency.

Fig.6.5.
Sampleintroductiontodescriptorcontentsection:
Tworatingscalesappliedtocompetencies.

Section2shouldbethebeginningofthegutsofthequestionnaire.AsillustratedinFig.6.5,thismeanspresentingclearandconcisedefinitionsofthemodelingrating
scalestobeappliedtothefirstdomainofdescriptorcontentandthen,asillustratedinFig.6.6,listingtheitemleveldescriptorswithaplaceforindividualresponses.
Regardlessofwhetherquestionnairesarepresentedinpaperorelectronicform,itisagoodideatoreproduceatleastanabbreviatedversionofthequestionsorrating
scalesoneachrespondentpage(e.g.,seeFig.6.6).

 Page174

Fig.6.6.
Sampleratingpage:Tworatingscalesappliedtocompetencies.

 Page175

Section3containstheinstructionsandcontentforthenextdomainaddressedbythequestionnaire.InFig.6.7,thisisabriefsetofitemstargetingworkcontext.The
samesuggestionsnotedearlierapplyhereaswell.Useaclear,conciseratingscaleandreproducethescaleoneachpagerequiringaresponse.

Section4shouldbethebackgroundinformationpage(s).Farfromtrivial,thisisacriticalsectionofthequestionnairebecauseitdetermineshowonecancutthedata
onthebackend.Thus,itisreallyimportanttothinkaheadaboutalltherelevantcomparisonsthatneedtobemade.Forexample,itisoftenusefultomake
comparisonsbetween:

worklocations,

businessunitsorareasofwork,

sizeofdivisionsorworkgroups(e.g.,050,51100,101200,201300,morethan300),

genderandethnicgroups,

levelsintheorganization(e.g.,manager,supervisor,teamleader),

howpeoplearepaid(e.g.,hourlywage,salary,commission,basepluscommission),

thehourspeoplework(e.g.,straightshift,swingshift,splitshift),and

numberofpeoplesupervised(e.g.,05,610,1115,1620,21ormore).

Unlesscodesaredevelopedandusedinthissection,itisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,togobackandfigureitoutlater.

Consideraddingacoupleofquestionstothissectionthatmaybeusedtoestablishtherespondentasajobcontentexpert.Forexample:

tenurewiththecompany,

numberofyearsincurrentjoborspentsupervisingindividualsinthetargetjob,and

asktherespondent,"Howwelldoyouunderstandtheworkactivitiesandcompetencyrequirementsofthejobyouarerating?"(e.g.,extremelywell,verywell,
somewhat,notverywell,notatall).

Inaddition,Ioftenconcludeamodelingquestionnairewithsomequestiondesignedtoevaluatethecomprehensivenessofthecontent.Forexample:"Towhatextentdo
theworkactivities(orcompetencies)presentedinthisquestionnairedescribeorfullyexplaintheworkperformedinthetargetjob?"(e.g.,96%orbetter,81%95%,
71%80%,51%70%,lessthan50%).AslightlyreconfiguredbackgroundinformationpagefromarecentprojectwithBANKONEservesastheillustrationinFig.
6.8.

Ifthissectionissoimportant,whyisitlast?Goodquestion.Isupposeitislargelyamatterofpersonalpreference,butthereasoningbehinditisthatitusuallymakes
sensetogetyourrespondentsintothemeatofthequestionnaire

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SECTION3:WORKCONTEXT

Thefollowingsectiondescribes18differentjobcharacteristicsorfeaturesthataretypicallyassociatedwithdifferentjobs.Use
the5pointscaledescribedbelowtoratetheextenttowhicheachcharacteristicsorfeatureispresentinyourjob.

5StronglyAgree
4Agree
3Neutral
2Disagree
1StronglyDisagree

Agreement

WORKITSELF

1.WorkVariety:Myjoballowsmetoperformavarietyofworkactivitiesthroughoutthedayandprovides
oppurtunitiestoparticipateindifferentinitiativesorprojectsthroughouttheyear.

2.Creativity:Myjobprovidessomeopportunitytotryoutnewideas,dothingsdifferently,orbecreativein
termsofhowworkactivitiesareperforemed.

3.Mentoring:Myjobincludestheopportunitytoteach,mentor,ordeveloptheskillsofothers.

4.Autonomy:Myjobprovidesmesomelatitudeanddiscretioninsettingdailygoalsandworkdirection.

5.Authority:Myjobprovidesmewiththeauthorityorresponsibilityneededtogettheworkdonequickly
andcorrectly.

WORKCONDITIONS

6.Mobility:Myjobrequiresmetophysicallymoveabouttheworklocationthroughoutthedayto
accomplishwork.

7.Structure:MyjobprovidesmewithmostofthepoliciesandguidelinesIneedtosolveproblems,interact
withcustomers,andsoon.

8.WorkStress:Myjoballowsmesomemeasureofcontrolovertheamountofworkactivitiesrequiredduring
theday,anditispossibletoadjustschedulestoeasetimepressurewhennecessary.

9.CustomerContact:Myjobrequiresproactiveinteractionwithcustomers,suchthaImustinitiatemuchof
thecontactversuspassivelywaitingforthemtocometome.

10.Accountability:Peopleinmyjobhavecleargoalstostriveforandareheldaccountableforresults.

11.Support:Peopleinmyjobreceivetheamountoftrainingandlevelofsupervisorysupporttheyneedto
succeed.

12.PerformanceTracking:Peopleinmyjobhavetheirperformancemonitoredcloselyandsupervisors
providealotofperformancefeedback.

WORKBENEFITS(INTRINSICANDEXTRINSIC)

13.Teamwork:Peopleinmyjobfeelasthoughtheyareanimportantpartofateam.

14.Development:Myjoboffersopportunitiestolearnnewworkactivitiesanddevelopnewskills.

15.CareerPlanning:Myjobispartofaseriesofjobsthatformaclearcareerpathforadvancementandclear
criteriaexistforwhatittakestoadvance.

16.Recognition:Peopleinmyjobarerecognizedfortheirworkefforts.

17.StrategicBusiness:Myjobispartofanexcitingbusinesswithaclearvisionforthefuture.

18.Compensation:Peopleinmyjobarepaidappropriatelyfortheworkperformed.

Fig.6.7.
Sampleworkcontextsection:Usedwithwhitecollaremployees.

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Fig.6.8.
Backgroundinformationsection:Afewgeneralworkrolesandmanydifferentworklocations.

quicklyandsavetheostensiblyancillarystuffforlater.Krautmadetheadditionalpointthatifthesebackgroundquestionsareplacedatthebeginningofthe
questionnaireandarespondentdoesnotwanttoanswerthem,heorshemaydecidetostoprightthereandnotansweranyoftheremainingquestionsei

 Page178

ther.29Oncerespondentshavecompletedthebulkofthequestionnaire,thethinkingisthattheywillbemorelikelytocompletethebackgroundsection,perhaps
omittingtheoneortwoitemsofconcern,andsenditback.

Whymighttherebeanyconcern?Ifthequestionnaireofferstherespondentsanonymity,thenaddingdemographicquestionscancauserespondentstofeelthatthey
could,withalittledetectivework,beidentified.Inthesesituations,takethetimetothinkthroughhowthesequestionswillbeperceivedbyrespondentsandbewilling
toscalebackthenumberofquestionsconsiderwhetheryoucangetbywithmakingtheneededcomparisonsatamoregenerallevelsoyoudonotscareoffthe
peopleyouneedtohearfrom.

SamplingPlan

Howmanypeopledoweneedtosendthemodelingquestionnaireto?Theinformationneededforjustaboutanyinterventioncanbemetbysamplingtheavailable
expertpoolratherthanrequiringeveryindividualtoparticipateinyourinformationgatheringprocessorcompleteyourdatagatheringtool.Appropriateinformation
canbecollectedandusedtodescribeworkonthebasisofinformationobtainedfromasample,andinferencescanthenbemadeabouttheworkperformedbythe
entirepopulationbasedontheinformationgainedfromtheresponsesofthesample.Furthermore,asIhopethediscussionfromtheInformationSourcessectionofthis
chaptermadeclear,therearemultiplepotentialexpertpoolsinanorganizationthataremoreorlessrelevantgiventheparticularquestion(s)oneisinterestedinasking.
ForaquestionaboutFutureImportance,theentireexpertpoolforanorganizationmightbejudgedtobefivepeople.Similarly,thenumberoftrueSMEsfor
questionsrelatedtothelevelofmasteryrequiredforfulljobperformanceorthedifficultywithwhichproficiencyincertaincompetenciesareacquiredmaybejudgedto
befairlysmall(e.g.,2050peopleeveninlargeorganizations).Althoughtheconceptofsamplingappliesinthesesituations,therealpayoffofsamplingoccurswhen
therearehundredsorthousandsofpotentialexperts.Inthesecases,itmakesagreatdealofsensetoidentifythatsubsetofpeoplewhowillessentiallyprovideyou
withthesameinformationyouwouldobtainifyouhadchosentosurveyallindividualsinthepopulation.

Thosesituationswherethepotentialexpertpoolislargetypicallyincludejobincumbentsandsupervisorsandtypicallyinvolvesurveysthataskquestionsrelatedto
CurrentImportanceorFrequency.Ofcourse,thisinformationisusuallythemostbasicanduniversallyusefulsetofdatacapturedinjobmodelingresearch(e.g.,
CurrentImportancedatahasthreestarsorisjudgedtobeessentialinformationforvirtuallyeveryapplicationlistedinTable6.3).Thus,althoughadiscussionof
techniquesfordeterminingtheappropriatesamplesizeforaparticularquestionnaireinamodelingprojectispertinentforallof

 Page179

thepotentialquestionslistedinTable6.4,itismostvaluablewithreferencetothepartoftheprojectthatusesquestionnairestocollectinformationabouttheCurrent
Importanceofworkactivitiesandcompetencies(andperhapstheFrequencywithwhichworkactivitiesareperformedorcompetenciesareutilized).

Unfortunately,fixedrulesguidingthenumberofindividualsneededtocompletejobmodelingquestionnairestargetingjobincumbentsandsupervisorsdonotexist.As
thesamplesizeapproachesthetotalsizeofthepopulationinthetargetjob,thesampledatabecomemorestableandaccurateinreflectingthedatathatwouldhave
beenobtainedifalltargetjobholderswereincludedintheresearch.Formanyyears,theonlyruleofthumbonwhichmostexpertswouldagreeisthis:Themorejob
incumbentstherewere,thesmallerthepercentageofthepopulationthatneedstobesampledtoobtainasufficientlylargesample.Forexample,Gaelsuggestedthat,
whenthereareupto300jobincumbents,thesamplesizemightbe100%iftherearefrom300to500incumbentsinaparticularjob,thesamplesizemightdropto
60%andifthereare1,000to4,000incumbentsinaparticularjobtobeanalyzed,thesamplesizemightdropdowntobetween30%and10%.30Draudenand
Peterson,31McCormick,32andRoleauandKrain33offeredsimilarrulesofthumb,althoughthepercentagesvary.Somewhatmorerecently,severalresearchefforts
suggestthatstableresultsmaybeobtainedwithsmallersamplesizes(between10and20foreveryconceivablecutorbreakoutofdatatobereported34,35,36).

Althoughbroadguidelinesbasedonpopulationsizeorthosefocusingentirelyontheminimumsamplesrequiredtoestablishnumericalreliabilityareuseful,itis
possibletotakethislineofthinkingacoupleofstepsfurther.Inotherwords,whenevaluatingtheadequacyofasample,thereareanumberofimportantfactors
beyondsimplyconsideringtherelationshipbetweensampleandtotalpopulationsize.Forexample,ajobmodelingeffortthatfocusesonahighlycomplexjobgroup
(i.e.,oneinwhichtherearemanyjobduties,theworkisdynamic,theresultsofworkarenotobservableandaredifficulttodefine)requiresalargersampleof
respondentsthananeffortexaminingajobinwhichtheworkislowincomplexity(i.e.,oneinwhichtherearefewjobduties,theworkisveryroutine,theresultsof
workareobservableandeasytodefine).Similarly,agreaternumberofindividualsarerequiredforthesampleifthejobmodelingresearchisbeingconductedina
settingwherethereisexpectedtobehighvariabilityinjobdutiesacrossworksettingsandlocationsratherthanasettingwherethereisexpectedtobelowvariabilityin
jobdutiesacrosssettingsandlocations.

Toillustratethissecondpoint,consideramodelingeffortthatwasundertakenforthepurposeofdevelopinganassessmentcenterfortheindividualbanking
departmentofFirstTennesseeBank.FirstTennesseehasalargecentralheadquartersandanumberofsmallerbranchoffices.Intermsofpersonnel,thesizeofeach
branchofficevarieddependingonthelocationandsizeof

 Page180

thecommunityitserved.Therefore,itwasconsideredquitelikelythatjobcontentwouldvarywithinjobtitlesacrossthebranches.Specifically,itwasexpectedthat
thedutiesperformedbyacustomerservicerepresentativeina30personmetropolitanbranchcanbefairlyspecificinnature,whereasthesamejobinarural,eight
personbranchrequirestheperformanceofanumberofdifferentworkactivitiesandfamiliaritywithabroaderrangeofservices.Thus,thepossibilityofvariationinjob
contentacrossbrancheshadimplicationsforhowthecontentofthejobswassampledhence,carewastakentodesignthesamplingplanaccordingly.

Obviously,thesimplestsolutionwouldhavebeentocompletetheprojectbycollectingalloftheinformationatthecentralheadquartersandthenmakinginferences
fromthisinformationaboutwhatpeopledidinjobsinthebranchoffices.Instead,wecategorizedbranchofficesintermsofsizeandlocationandmadesureeachof
thetitlesincludedinthejobmodelingeffortwereadequatelysampledsowecouldtestfordifferences.Eventuallywerolledtheinformationupanduseditforour
subsequentpurposeofdevelopingTestBudgetandAssessmentMethodMatricestoguidethecreationofsimulations.

Anotherfactorthatwouldincreasetheneedforalargerversussmallersampleisthelitigiousnatureoftheenvironmentinwhichtheresearchisbeingconducted.Ifthe
workisbeingconductedasaprecursortodevelopingaselectionsystemandistheresultofacourtorder,iftherehasbeenagreatdealofunionactivityandinterestin
theresearch,iftheorganizationhasahistoryofTitleVIIchallengesorifothersimilarfactorsexist,itisagoodideatoincreasethesamplesizetoincreasethesurface
acceptanceoftheresearch.Thisisnottosaythatinanonlitigiousenvironment,forpurposesotherthandevelopingselectionsystems(e.g.,developingspecifications
fortraining,developingastructureforaperformanceappraisalsystem,etc.),youcangetawaywithalessthanadequatesample.Thesuggestionhereisthatitmightbe
worththeefforttogobeyondthepointofdiminishingreturnstoincludemorepeoplethanwouldotherwisebedeemednecessary,eventhoughincreasesinthesample
sizearelikelytoresultinonlyslightimprovementsinthequalityofthedataobtained.Thesefactorsillustratethelogicalquestionsthatneedtobeaskedtodetermine
whetherthesamplesizeisadequate.

Althougheachsituationisdifferentandhasitsownrequirementsandvariablestobeconsidered,Table6.5providessomeguidepoststhatgobeyondaone
dimensionalruleofthumb.TheQuestionnaireSampleDeterminationTableworksinthesamewayastheInterview/FocusGroupSampleDeterminationTabledidin
chapter5.37Simplydeterminethenumberofincumbentsinthetargetjobgroupandidentifythebasenumberofquestionnairesrequired(i.e.,thenumberin
parenthesesandboldprint).Thenmultiplythebasenumberbythemultiplierassociatedwiththeappropriateresponsecategoryforeachoftheremaining12impact
variables.

 Page181

ReturningtotheBankPartners,Inc.casestudypresentedinchapter4,myassessmentofthesituationresultedinthefollowingnumbersofpeoplebeingaddedtothe
questionnairesampleateachstep:

 Page182

Q1 80people
Q2 40people
Q3 8people
Q4 32people
Q5 8people
Q6 12people
Q7 20people
Q8 60people
Q9 0people
Q10 60people
Q11 8people
Q12 60people
Q13 20people

Thenumberofsuggestedquestionnairerespondentsinthiscaseis408.Again,thisnumbershouldnotbeconsideredafixedvalue.However,itshouldprovideapretty
goodstartingpointnumbertoconsidergiventhecomplexitiesanddemandsassociatedwiththeparticularjobmodelingsituation.

ProjectManagementTips

ThereareonlyseveraltipsassociatedwiththisstepoftheCheshireStrategicJobModelingProcess,buttheyareimportant.Firstofall,beforewarnedthatyour
customer,despiteallyourhardworktodevelopawonderfultool,willlikelyreactfirsttothelengthofthequestionnaireandnotthecontent.Althoughthequestionnaire
needstobeaslongasitneedstobetoservetheintendedpurpose,lookforcreativewaystoformatthequestionnaireefficientlytominimizewastedspace.More
important,theremaybewaystodivideupthequestionnairecontentamongclearlydelineatedjoblevel,workfunction,process,andlinesinthetargetsample.For
example,unlessitisnecessarytomakespecificcomparisonsinworkcontentbetweenpurelyadministrativeandcustomerservicestaff,itmaymakesensetocreate
twoquestionnairesbyaprioricullingoutclearlyunrelatedcontent.Althoughthereistheaddedburdenofcreatingandmanagingdatafromtwoquestionnaires,your
customerrespondentswillhaveasmallerpilltoswallow.

 Page183

Eventhoughittakessomeselfdisciplinebecauseatthisstageoftheprojectyouareprobablyfrazzledfromtryingtokeepupwiththescheduledtimelinesbesure
tostopandpretestthequestionnaire.Ataminimum,askseveralpeoplewhoarerepresentativeofthetargetpopulationtoreadtheinstructionsandinventoryof
descriptorcontentforclarityandmeaningfulness.Betteryet,haveseveralpeopleactuallyrespondtothequestionnairesoyoucanverballydebriefthemandexamine
theirresponsesforanomalies.

Atleast90%ofyourcustomerswillwanttotalkaboutusingvariouskindsofadvancedcomputerortelecommunicationstechnologytoadministerorcollect
questionnaireresponses.Thehopeisthatusingsomeformofsophisticatedtechnologywillfacilitatetheprocess.Ofthisgroup,90%willcometotherealizationpretty
quicklythattheyarenotquiteready,fromatechnologicalperspective,tocapitalizeonthathope.Nevertheless,thereareincreasingopportunitiestotakeadvantageof
technologyinthispartoftheendeavor.Asyouconsultwithyourcustomerabouttheprosandconsofthedifferentmethods,Table6.6mayhelpputsomeofthe
potentialadvantagesanddisadvantagesinperspective.38

Ifyouwindupcreatingpaperversionsofthequestionnaire,itusuallymakessenseforthesurveystobedistributedbythecustomerorganizationforcredibility
reasonsifnothingelse.However,itusuallymakessensetoencloseareturnenvelopeandhavethequestionnairessentdirectlybacktosomeoneontheconsultant's
modelingteam.Ifthequestionnairesgooutthroughtheorganization'sowninternalmailanddistributionsystem,getanestimateofthetimeitwilltakefrompostto
deliveryandthendoubleit.Forexample,ifthecustomersaysinternalmailusuallytakes3daystogettothemostremotelocationsonthesystem,assumeitwilltake6.
Theinternalmailsystemneverworksasquicklyasthecustomerthinks,hopes,orpraysitwill.

Finally,whendecidinghowmanyquestionnairestointroduceintothesystem,besuretobuildintoyourthinkingtheresponserateyouexpecttosee.AlthoughIhave
notformallytrackedthisovertheyears,Isuspectthatareturnrateofbetween30%and60%isprettytypical.Ithelpsmattersifyouareabletoclearlyindicateonthe
questionnairethattheinstrumentistobecompletedoncompanytime.Arrangingforquestionnairestobecompletedinagroupadministrationformatisasignificant
plus,butalsofrequentlydifficulttoarrange.Donotforgetthatyouwilllikelylosebetween2%and5%ofyourreturnedsamplebecauseofproblemswithindividual
responsesidentifiedbythedatacleaningeffortsdescribedinthenextchapter.

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TABLE6.6
JobModelingQuestionnaireAdministrationandDataCollectionMethods

Paper&Pencil

PotentialAdvantages PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
+Lowcosttoproduceanddeploy(thoughmailcostscan Timetodistributeandretrievequestionnaires.Settingup
addup). groupadministrationisonewaytospeeduptheprocess.
+Recognizablemethodologythatisfamiliarandcomfortable Keepingtrackofthepapertrailofresponsesfromlarge
tomostpeople.Thisadvantageisdiminishedsomewhatif projectscanbeanadministrativechallenge.
scannableanswersheetsareused,whichcangivethe
questionnairethelookandfeelofa''test."
+Canbecompletedanywhereandreturnedfromvirtually Keypunchingdataforinclusioninelectronicfilesisanextra
anywhere. stepthat(a)takestimeand(b)introducesanotherwayfor
errorstocreepintodata.Usingaseparatescannableanswer
sheetcircumventskeypunchingandspeedsuptheentryof
responses,butexpectagreaternumberofratingerrorsas
respondentshavetoshiftbackandforthfromquestionnaire
pagestoanswersheetpage.
+Flexibilityinhandlingdifferentdisplayformatsandlast
minutechangestoquestionnairecontent(i.e.,atleastuntil
questionnairesareprinted).

Fax

PotentialAdvantages PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
+Lowcosttoproduceanddeploy(thoughphonecostscan Keepingtrackofthepapertrailofresponsesfromlarge
addupiftherearelongdistancechargestoconsider). projectscanbeanadministrativechallenge.Ifmultiplepage
answersheetsareused,thischangesfromchallengeto
nightmare.
+Canbecompletedanywhere.
+Flexibilityinhandlingdifferentdisplayformatsandlast Keypunchingdataforinclusioninelectronicfilesisanextra
minutechangestoquestionnairecontent. stepthat(a)takestimeand(b)introducesanotherwayfor
errorstocreepintothedata.
+Speedwithwhichquestionnairecanbeputinthehandsof Canbehardtoreadresponses,particularlyifresponses
respondentsandreturnedforanalysis. madeonafaxedquestionnaire,whichisfaxedbackfor
analysis.
Ifdataaretobecompletedindifferentlocations,evenyour
customermaybesurprisedtolearnjusthowmanysitesdo
nothavefaxmachinesorPCsequippedwithafaxboard.
Potentialconfidentialityrisksduetoidentificationstamp
whichincludesdatesentandnumberoforigin.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page185

(tablecontinuedfronpreviouspage)

TABLE6.6(continued)

AutomatedTelephone(PushButton,NotInteractiveVoiceResponse)

PotentialAdvantages
+Canbecompletedanywherethereisatelephone.
+Automatedretrievalofresponsesandinsertioninto
centralizeddatawarehouse.Thus,retrievaltime,
keypunchingcosts,andpotentialforkeypunchingerrorsare
alleliminated.
+Noveltyandhightechimage,combinedwithuserfriendly
technology,maylenditselftoahigherresponserate.
PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
Phonecostsforlongdistancecharges.
Programmingtimeandassociatedcostsforbuilding
deliverysystem.
Ifusingvoicedeliveryofthequestions,thenlong
questionnairescanbecometedioustolistento.Ifproviding
respondentswithahardcopyofthequestionnaireandonly
retrievinganswersusingphonenumberpad,usersatisfaction
stillrequiresashorterquestionnaire.
Respondentsneedtodealwithpasswords.

PCDiskettes

PotentialAdvantages PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
+Automatedretrievalofresponsesandinsertionintoa Timetodistributeandretrievediskettes.Settingupgroup
temporarydatawarehouse(i.e.,diskette).Thus,keypunching administrationmaybeanoptionthatcanspeedupthe
costsandpotentialforkeypunchingerrorsareeliminated. process.
+Noveltyandhightechimagemaylenditselftoasomewhat Physicaltransferofdiskettescreatespossibilityoflostor
higherresponserate(thoughPCtechnologyviewedasa damageddatafiles.
hurdlebysomepeople).
+Branchingcapabilitiescanbeprogrammedintothe Programmingtimeandassociatedcostsforbuildinga
softwarethatcreatesignificantefficienciesinthe deliverysystem(unlessuserneedscanbemetwithoffthe
administrationoflongandcomplexquestionnaires. shelf"shell"software).
Disksfail3%to5%ofthetime.

Respondentsneedtodealwithpasswords.

Ifonediskdesignedtobepassedaroundforcapturingdata
frommultiplerespondents,onepersoncanholdupthe
process.
Aswithfaxbasedmethods,yourcustomermaybe
surprisedtolearnjusthowmanytargetedrespondentsdonot
haveaccesstoPCs.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page186

(tablecontinuedfronpreviouspage)

TABLE6.6(continued)

EMail

PotentialAdvantages PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
+Lowdeliverycosts(unlessprogrammingnecessaryto Largeorganizationsmayhavedifferentemailtechnologies
integratemultipleemailtechnologiesacrossthe acrossthesystemrequiringintegrationandadditional
organization). programming.
+Speedwithwhichquestionnairecanbeputinthehandsof Potentialforquestionnairestogetlostinindividuals'email
respondentsandreturnedforanalysis. clutter.Thiscanbearealchallengeinorganizationswhere
thetechnologyhasevolvedtomonsterstatus,withmany
individualsreceivingupwardof100emailsaday.
+Easytotrackactualreceiptandopened/readdates.
+Reliabledatareturnvehicle.Returnedinformationcanbe Potentialconfidentialityrisks.
easilyharvestedandbuiltintofilesreadyforanalysis.Thus,
retrievaltime,keypunchingcosts,andpotentialfor
keypunchingerrorsarealleliminated.
+Nopasswordrequired.
+Hightechimagemaylenditselftoahigherresponserate
whendealingwithrespondentpopulationscomfortablewith
thetechnology.

Internet

PotentialAdvantages PotentialDisadvantages/Challenges
+Canbuild"help"functionalitytocoachandcoax Requirestechnologysophisticatedusers,otherwise
respondentsalong. detailedsupplementalinstructionswillbenecessary.
+Platformindependent,sothereshouldbenoproblems TargetedrespondentsmusthavePCaccess.Moreover,
involvingtheintegrationoftechnology. phonelinespeedandbrowsercapabilitynotalways
uniformlyavailableacrosstheorganization.
+Reliabledatareturnvehicle.Returnedinformationcanbe Ifquestionnairetobecompletedanonymously,thenthere
easilyharvestedandbuiltintofilesreadyforanalysis.Thus, arepotentialconfidentialityrisks.
retrievaltime,keypunchingcosts,andpotentialfor
keypunchingerrorsarealleliminated.
+Branchingcapabilitiescanbeprogrammedintothe Respondentsneedtodealwithpasswords.
softwarethatcreatessignificantefficienciesinthe
administrationoflongandcomplexquestionnaires.
+Hightechimagemaylenditselftoahigherresponserate
whendealingwithorganizationsandrespondentpopulations
comfortablewiththetechnology.

 Page187

References
1
Tufte,E.R.(1997).Visualexplanations.Cheshire,CT:GraphicPress.
2
EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission,CivilServiceCommission,DepartmentofLabor,&DepartmentofJustice.(1978).Uniformguidelinesonemployee
selectionprocedures.FederalRegister,43(166),3829538309.
3
Foramoredetaileddescriptionoftheseprocedures,seeSchippmann,J.S.,Hughes,G.L.,&Prien,E.P.(1988).Raiseassessmentstandards.PersonnelJournal,
67,6879.
4
Hughes,G.L.,&Prien,E.P.(1989).Evaluationoftaskandjobskilllinkagejudgmentsusedtodeveloptestspecifications.PersonnelPsychology,42,283292.
5
Vinchur,A.J.,Prien,E.P.,&Schippmann,J.S.(1993).Analternativeprocedureforanalyzingjobanalysisresultsforcontentorientedtestdevelopment.Journal
ofBusinessandPsychology,8,215226.
6
Brush,D.H.,&Schoenfeldt,L.F.(1980).Identifyingmanagerialpotential:Analternativeapproachtoassessmentcenters.Personnel,57,6876.
7
Schippmann,J.S.,&Prien,E.P.(1986).Psychometricevaluationofanintegratedassessmentprocedure.PsychologicalReports,59,111122.
8
Friedman,L.(1990).Degreeofredundancybetweentime,importance,andfrequencytaskratings.JournalofAppliedPsychology,75,748752.
9
Sanchez,J.I.,&Levine,E.L.(1989).Determiningimportanttaskswithinjobs:Apolicycapturingapproach.JournalofAppliedPsychology,74,336342.
10
Sanchez,J.I.,&Fraser,S.L.(1992).Onthechoiceofscalesfortaskanalysis.JournalofAppliedPsychology,77,545553.
11
Harvey,R.J.(1991).Jobanalysis.InM.D.Dunnette&L.M.Hough(Eds.),Handbookofindustrialandorganizationalpsychology(Vol.2,pp.71163).Palo
Alto,CA:ConsultingPsychologistsPress.
12
EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission,CivilServiceCommission,DepartmentofLabor,&DepartmentofJustice.(1978).Uniformguidelinesonemployee
selectionprocedures.FederalRegister,43(166),3829538309.
13
SocietyforIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology.(1987).Principlesforthevalidationanduseofpersonnelselectionprocedures(3rded.).CollegePark,
MD:Author.
14
Goldstein,I.L.,&Buxton,V.M.(1982).Trainingandhumanperformance.InM.D.Dunnette&E.A.Fleishman(Eds.),Humanperformanceandproductivity
(pp.135177).Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.
15
ThisprocedurewasconceptuallysimilartothetechniquedescribedbyFord,K.J.,&Wroten,S.P.(1984).Introducingnewmethodsforconductingtraining
evaluationandforlinkingtrainingevaluationtoprogramredesign.PersonnelPsychology,37,651665.
16
Morsh,J.E.,&Archer,W.B.(1967).ProceduralguideforconductingoccupationalsurveysintheUnitedStates.LacklandAFB,TX:PersonnelResearch
Laboratory,AerospaceMedicalDivision,PRLTR6711.
17
Prien,E.P.(1988).Jobanalysismanual.Unpublishedmanuscript.
18
Ammerman,N.L.,&Pratzner,F.C.(1977).Performancecontentforjobtraining(R&DSer.121125,Vols.15).Columbus,OH:CenterforVocational
Education.
19
Bendig,A.W.(1952).AstatisticalreportonarevisionoftheMiamiinstructorratingsheet.JournalofEducationalPsychology,43,423429.

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20
Bendig,A.W.(1953).Thereliabilityofselfratingsasafunctionoftheamountofverbalanchoringandthenumberofcategoriesonthescale.JournalofApplied
Psychology,37,3841.
21
Bendig,A.W.(1954).Reliabilityandnumberofratingscalecategories.JournalofAppliedPsychology,38,3840.
22
Finn,R.H.(1972).Effectsofsomevariationsinratingscalecharacteristicsonthemeansandreliabilitiesofratings.EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurement,
32,255265.
23
Reagan,R.T.,Mosteller,F.,&Youtz,C.(1989).Quantitativemeaningsofverbalprobabilityexpressions.JournalofAppliedPsychology,74,433442.
24
Bass,B.M.,Cascio,W.F.,&O'Connor,E.J.(1974).Magnitudeestimationsofexpressionsoffrequencyandamount.JournalofAppliedPsychology,59,313
320.
25
Jones,L.V.,&Thurstone,L.L.(1955).Thepsychophysicsofsemantics:Anexperimentalinvestigation.JournalofAppliedPsychology,39,3136.
26
Lodge,M.,&Tursky,B.(1981).Thesocialpsychophysicalscalingofpoliticalopinion.InB.Wegener(Ed.),Socialattitudesandpsychophysicalmeasurement.
Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.
27
Lodge,M.,Cross,D.,Tursky,B.,&Tanenhaus,J.(1975).Thepsychophysicalscalingandvalidationofapoliticalsupportscale.AmericanJournalofPolitical
Science,19,611649.
28 Spector,P.E.(1976).Choosingresponsecategoriesforsummatedratingscales.JournalofAppliedPsychology,61,374375.
29
Kraut,A.I.(1996).Planningandconductingthesurvey:Keepingstrategicpurposeinmind.InA.I.Kraut(Ed.),Organizationalsurveys:Toolsforassessment
andchange(pp.149176).SanFrancisco:JosseyBass.
30
Gael,S.(1990).Jobanalysis:Aguidetoassessingworkactivities.SanFrancisco,CA:JosseyBass.
31
Drauden,G.M.,&Peterson,N.G.(1974).Adomainsamplingapproachtojobanalysis.St.Paul,MN:StateofMinnesotaPersonnelDepartment.(Available
throughtheJournalSupplementAbstractService,CatalogueofSelectedDocumentsinPsychology,MS1447).
32
McCormick,E.J.(1979).Jobanalysis:Methodsandapplications.NewYork:AMACOM.
33 Rouleau,E.,&Krain,B.(1975,SeptemberOctober).Usingjobanalysistodesignselectionprocedures.PublicPersonnelManagement,pp.300304.
34
Pass,J.J.,&Robertson,D.W.(1980).Methodstoevaluatescalesandsamplesizeforstabletaskinventoryinformation(Tech.Rep.No.NPRDCTR80
28).SanDiego,CA:NavalPersonnelResearchandDevelopmentCenter.
35
Fletcher,J.,Friedman,L.,McCarthy,P.,McIntyre,C.,O'Leary,B.,&Rheinstein,J.(1993,April).Samplesizesrequiredtoattainstablejobanalysis
inventoryprofiles.PosterpresentedattheeighthannualconferenceoftheSocietyforIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology.
36
Beatty,G.O.(1996,April).Jobanalysissamplesize:Howsmallislargeenough?Posterpresentedatthe11thannualconferenceoftheSocietyforIndustrial
andOrganizationalPsychology,SanDiego,CA.
37
AswiththeInterview/FocusGroupSampleDeterminationtableinchap.5,theseimpactvariablesandassociatedweightsarebasedprimarilyonaresearcheffort
designedtoinvestigatethekeydecisionpointsinjobmodelingprojects.Schippmann,J.S.(1996).Keydecisionpointsinjobmodeling.Minneapolis,MN:Author.

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38
ThisexhibitextendssomeideaspresentedbyMacey,W.H.(1996).Dealingwiththedata:Collection,processing,andanalysis.InA.I.Kraut(Ed.),
Organizationalsurveys:Toolsforassessmentandchange(pp.204232).SanFrancisco,CA:JosseyBass.

 Page190

Chapter7
HowistheInformationAnalyzedandDisplayed?
youshouldmakeeverythingassimpleaspossible,butnotsimpler.
AlbertEinstein

InhisbookTheDiscoverers,historianDanielBoorstindiscussedoneofthegreatadvancesinlearningthatbeganintheCh'ineraofChina(221207b.c.).1 China
hadunifiedandtheChouemperorpresidedoveravastrealmwithmanyuniqueregions,manyofwhichwereuncharted.WhilethemastersofgeographyinEurope
weretrundlingalongintheireffortstomapoutearthlyspaceusingahodgepodgeoffantasyanddogma,thecartographictalentsinChinaweremarchingaheadtoward
aquantitativecartography.PheiHsui,MinisterofWorkstothefirstemperoroftheCh'inDynasty,wroteopenlyabouthissuccessfulmethods,whichincluded
providingerrorfreeandcomprehensivedescriptionsofthelandscapeusingaquantitativemeansformakinggraduateddivisions.Withouttheseingredients,hewarned,
"thereisnomeansofdistinguishingbetweenwhatisnearandwhatisfar."Theresultingmaps,whichprovidedmeaningfulreceptaclesinwhichthevirtuallyendless
territorycouldbediscernedanddescribed,"provedtobeanindispensableapparatusfortheempire"(i.e.,theywereasourceofcompetitiveadvantage).

TheleapfromwhattheChouemperorenvisionedandtheworkthatPheiHsuicompletedisnotasfarremovedfromtheworkofamoderndayjobmodelerasthe
interveningmillenniamightsuggest.Thelandscapeofworkandhumancapitalremainspoorlychartedandunderstoodinmostorganizationsand,asaconsequence,
fantasyanddogmaprevail.Thereareanumberofwaysajobmodelercanproceedatthispointtocapturethecontoursofworkperformedbythepeoplewho
populateanorganizationandconfigureanddisplaytheextensiveregionsofhumantalent.Althoughyourowncreativityandwillingnessto

 Page191

learnfrommistakeswillserveyoubest,myhopeisthattheapproachanddatabasedinformationdisplayspresentedinthischapterareusefulpointsofdepartureand
landmarks.

Thekeyisnottogetlostasonenavigatesthroughthevastexpanseofinformationthatexistsatthisstageinthemodelingresearch.Keepingyourbearingsiseasierif
yourememberthefourbasicstepstoanalyzingmodelingdatageneratedfromaquestionnaireprocess:(a)establishdataquality,(b)datareduction,(c)itemleveldata
analysis,and(d)datadisplay.

Theconceptualgistofthischaptercanbeunderstoodwithoutadeepunderstandingofmathematicsorstatistics.Idonotbelievethateveryonewhodrivestoworkin
themorningneedstohaveanunderstandingoftheinternalcombustionengine.NeitherdoIbelievethateveryonewhohasdatatoanalyzeneedstohavean
understandingofmatrixalgebra,statisticalnotation,andsoforth.Feelsafernow?Good.Thisdoesnotmeanthatarudimentaryunderstandingoffundamental
descriptivestatistics(e.g.,meanandstandarddeviation)andmeasuresofassociation(e.g.,correlation)wouldnothelp.Itwould.Forthisreason,aquickbrushupon
theseconceptsisprovidedaswemovethroughthechapter.Forthosewhoareinterested,inthoseplaceswherethediscussionleadsdownamoredifficultpath,some
technicalelaborationisprovidedinAppendixB.

Furthermore,perhapsthemostconvenientplatformsforusingthestatisticaltechniquesmentionedinthischapterarecontainedinpopularsoftwarepackagesof
statisticalprogramssuchasSPSS,2 SAS,3 andBMDP.4 Thesepackagesproviderelativecomputerneophytes(well,atleastnonprogrammers)withfairlyeasy
accesstosophisticatedstatisticalmethodsforresearchingawiderangeoftopicsrelevantforthosewhodealwithpeopleandbusinessdata.Thesepackagesalso
containafullarrayofdatascreeningandmanipulationmethodsthatcanmakepotentiallyverycomplicatedanalysesfairlystraightforward.Tosomeextent,theyalso
provideanintroductionanddescriptionofthestatisticalmethodstheycoverinassociatedmanuals,pocketguides,andnewsletters.Inaddition,anumberofreadable
statisticstextsareavailablethatprovideexamplesofhowthesesoftwarepackagesareusedtoanalyzevariousdatasets.5 ,6

EstablishDataQuality

Thefirstconsiderationatthisstepofthestrategicjobmodelingprocessistoevaluatethedataobtainedfromthequestionnairesample,includingjobincumbents,
supervisors,customers,orwhomever,todetermineifthedataarecleanandreliable.Thisisaqualitycontrolcheckestablishingthegoodnessofthedatabeforethey
areusedtoguidesubsequentdecisions(i.e.,decisionsaboutwhattoincludeinajobdescription,identificationofcriticalcompetenciestotargetinselection
specifications,andsoforth).

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DataCleaning

Errorsinthedataarelikesugarinthegastankofyourproject.Ifnotcaughtearly,theywillgumeverythingup,bringyoutoastandstillatsomepointdowntheroad,
andcostyoualotoftimeasyoulookunderthehoodtotryandfindtheproblem.Actually,theworstcasescenarioisthattheerrorswillgoundetectedandresultin
incorrectconclusionsthataretranslatedintoincorrectdecisionsoremphasesinthesubsequentHRapplications.So,oncequestionnaireresponseshavebeentyped,
scanned,orsomehowrecordedintoelectronicfiles,organizeahuntingpartytoidentifyrespondentanddatacodingerrors.

Okay.Grityourteeth.Itistimetointroduceseveralbasicstatisticalconceptsbeforewemoveforward.

Frequency: Whendatahavebeencollectedfromagroupofpersons,itbecomespossibleto
countthenumberofpeoplewhohavethesameresponsetoaparticularquestion.For
example,foraquestionthatusesa5pointresponsescale,howmanypeople
selectedaresponsevalueof3?Theansweristhefrequencyofthatresponse.
Distribution: Adatadisplaythatshowsthefrequencyornumberoftimesavalueoccursforeach
responseoptionacrosstherangeofpotentialresponsesforaparticularquestion.
Percentage: Frequenciescaneasilybetransformedintopercentagesinacoupleofways.First,
eachofthefrequenciesinadistributioncouldbemultipliedby100,thendividedby
thetotalnumberofcasesor"N."Second,itispossibletofindthequotientof100/N
tofourdecimalplacesandmultiplyeachfrequencybythisratio.
Mean: Theaverageresponse,whichisanindexofthecenteroftheresponsevaluesina
distribution.Themeaniscalculatedbyaddingupthevaluesofallthenumbersinthe
distributionanddividingbythetotalnumberofvalues(i.e.,thesumofthefrequencies
foreachquestionorresponsecategoryinthedistribution).
StandardDeviation: Ameasureoftheamountofvariationorspreadofresponsesaroundthemeanofa
distribution.Inotherwords,arealltheresponsestightlypackedaroundthemean
(i.e.,smallstandarddeviation)

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orareresponsesspreadoutacrossthefullrangeofresponsecategories(i.e.,large
standarddeviation)?Thismeasureiscomputedbysummingallthesquaredindividual
responsedeviationsfromthemeananddividingbyN,yieldingastatisticcalledthe
variance.Thesquarerootofthevarianceisthestandarddeviation.

Datacleaningcanbebestaccomplishedbyexaminingfrequencydistributionstoidentifyconfirmedoutliersorresponsevaluesthatfalloutsidethefeasibleresponse
rangeforaquestion.Forexample,ifwecalculatethefrequencywithwhicheachresponseoptionisendorsedforeachquestiononaquestionnairethatusesa05
ratingscaleandweidentifyseveral6sand7s,wehaveflushedoutsomeoutliers.Theseoutliersareconfirmedbecausetheirvaluesclearlyfalloutofboundsforwhat
weknowtobetherealdatarange.

Potentialoutliersareadifferentkindofanimalaltogetherandmuchmoredifficulttoferretoutanddealwith.Supposewecalculatedresponsefrequenciesfora
questionthataskshowfrequentlyaworkactivityisperformed.Onreviewofthedata,weseethat1personselectedavalueof1(i.e.,theactivityisneverperformed),
yettheother15respondentsinthegroup,allwiththesamejobtitle,endorsedthisquestionatthe4or5level.Haveweuncoveredsomeonewhoisusingtherating
scaleincorrectly?Oristhispersonaccuratelyportrayingwhatheorshedoesdoonthejobandthefactofthematteristhatheorshedoessomethingdifferent?

Asafirststep,itmakessensetoredflagthesepotentialoutliersand,onacasebycasebasis,investigatetheirotherresponsestoseeifthereareotheroddball
answersthatwouldleadustoconsiderexcludinganindividual'sdatafromfurtheranalysis.Ofcourse,ifthequestionnairewasnotcompletedanonymously,itisalways
possibletogobacktotheindividualandconfirmtheresponsesorcheckwithsupervisorstoseeiftheresponsescouldconceivablybecorrect.Despitethatafew
reallyoutofwhackvaluescandistortthemeasuresofgroupaverage(i.e.,mean)andagreement(i.e.,standarddeviation)usedtodisplaythefinalresults,itisbestnot
toexcludeanydataunlessyouaresureyouaredealingwithrandom,orotherwisebogus,responses.

Onetacticforidentifyingpotentialoutliersistousearandomresponsescale,inwhichitemsareincludedthatpeoplewoulddefinitelyendorseinaparticularwayifthey
wereactuallyreadingtheitemsandtakingthequestionnaireseriously.Forexample,severalitemsmightbeincludedintheworkactivitysectionofthequestionnairethat
weknowallrespondentsdo,infact,perform,andseveralitemsweknowallrespondentsdonot,infact,perform.Afewitemsofthistypeinthequestionnaireallows
onetocalculatearandomresponsescoreandthenexcludebadapplerespondentsbasedonsomeagreedoncriterionwithreferencetothisscale.7 ,8 ,9 ,10

 Page194

Anotherearlydetectiontechniqueistosimultaneouslycomparetwoormoredistributionsofdata.Forexample,ifthequestionnairecutsacrossjoblevelsinthe
organization,onemightbasedontheknowledgethatfemalesareunderrepresentedinhigherleveljobsinthisorganizationcrosstabulategenderandtwoorthree
breaksofjoblevel.Iftherepresentationoffemalesandmalesisnotwhatyouwouldexpecttoseeasyoumovefromlowertoupperjoblevels,itmightsignalthe
presenceofsomecongealedsweetstuffinyourproject'sgastank.

Finally,itsoundssotritethatIhesitatetosayit,butIwillbecauseitissoimportant:Understandyourdata!Thisimpliesanunderstandingoftheorganizationandthe
peoplecompletingthemodelingquestionnaire.Havingsomeideaofwhatyouexpecttofindintheresultsandcarefullycheckingthesebenchmarkexpectationswill
betterserveyouineffortstoidentifypotentialproblemsthanwillanylistofdatacleaningtechniques.

DataReliability

Fundamentally,reliabilityconcernstheconsistencyorrepeatabilityofameasure.Inatechnicalsense,thismeansthatthedataarefreefromrandomerrorvariability
resultingfrompeoplemisunderstandingaquestion,havingalapseinmotivationorfocusregardingtheratingtaskathand,beingdistractedforanyofathousand
reasons,andsoforth.AsAldousHuxleysoaptlyputit,theonlycompletelyconsistentpeoplearethedead.Thus,totheextentthatwelimitourselvestomodeling
researchwithlivepeople,ourdatawillhavesomebuiltinerror.Thequestionthenbecomes,howmuch?Foraconceptwithsuchapparentsimplicity,the
measurementofreliabilityinjobmodelingresearchisalittleconvolutedandsomehowoftenlessthancompletelysatisfying.

Letusstartwiththemoststraightforwardsituationfirst.Assumeimportanceratingsarebeingcollectedfromapanelofjobcontentexperts.Further,assumeallofthese
expertshaveaclearmentalpictureofthejoborrolebeingmodeled.Inthiscase,itispossibletolookatthedegreeofagreementintheirratings.Timetodefine
anotherstatisticalconcept:

CorrelationCoefficient: Anindexofthedegreeofassociationbetweentwoentities,suchasimportance
ratingsbyjobincumbentsforaworkactivityandratingsbysupervisorsforthe
sameactivity.Thecorrelationorrcoefficienthasapotentialmaximumvalueof+
1.0andapotentialminimumvalueof1.0,indicatingperfectlypositiveand
perfectlynegativerelationshipsrespectively.Apositivevaluemeanshighvalues
ononeentitytendtoberelatedtohighvaluesonthesecondentity.Whenthe
correlationisper

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fectlypositive(i.e.,+1.0butdonotholdyourbreath,thisisveryrare)thenthe
twoentitiescovaryinperfectunison.However,whenthereisnorelationship
betweentwoentities,thenr=0.Finally,anegativerelationshipmeansasvalues
ononeentitygoup,valuesonthesecondentitytendtogodown(i.e.,aninverse
relationship).

Inthesituationdescribedearlier,onecoulduseacorrelationcoefficienttoexaminethelevelofagreementamongallpossiblepairsofexpertjudgesintheirratings
acrossworkactivities,competencies,orwhatever.However,usingcorrelationsasameasureofreliabilitywiththiskindofratingjudgmentworksbestwhenthepeople
performingtheratingtaskhaveaclearunderstandingoftheworktobeperformed.

Forexample,ifimportancejudgmentsarebeingcollectedfromabroadrangeofjobincumbents,themeaningfulnessoflookingatcorrelationsamongratersisgreatly
reduced.Differentratingsfromindividualswiththesamejobtitlecanreflecterrorinratings.Ontheotherhand,inthiscontext,theycanalsoreflectmeaningful
differencesinworkperformedbypeoplewhojusthappentohavethesamejobtitle.Toanextent,thevalueofbetweenratercorrelationsasanindexofreliabilityis
enhancediftheyarecalculatedwithinconsolidatedjobgroups,aswouldbethecaseafterusingfactororclustermethodstoidentifyrelativelyhomogenous
subgroupingsofpositions.Eventhen,however,oneshouldproceedcautiouslyininterpretingtheresults.

Itisalsopossibletoreadministerthemodelingquestionnairetotheentirerespondentgroup,orasmallsubsamplethereof,andusecorrelationstoexaminethestability
oftheratingsacrosstwopointsintime.Becauseofthetimeandcostimplications,thisisseldomarealisticalternative.11,12Yetaswithmostthings,thecostwould
probablybelessofanissueifthegainwereworththepain.Unfortunately,thisisrarelythecasebecauseofdifficultiesininterpretingthesedataaswell.Brieftime
intervalsbetweenadministrationsmaymakethesecondinstallmentofratingsasmuchofatestofmemoryorrecallasanindependentcollectionofratinginformation.
AlthoughitiscertainlypossibletounderestimatethereliabilityofamodelingdatasetusingthiskindofTime1,Time2design,itislikelythatthemoretypicalsituationis
anoverestimationduetomemory.Ofcourse,iftheintervalbetweenadministrationsistoogreat,lowcorrelationscouldreflectlowreliabilityortruechangestothejob
orroleovertime.

Anintuitivelyappealingapproachtotappingreliabilityistorepeatasmallsampleofitemsinthequestionnaireandexaminetheconsistencyoftheratingsinthesame
administration.However,wheneverIhavedonethis(eitherintentionallyorunintentionally),ithasbeenpickeduponbytherespondentgroupandtheydidnotlikeit.
Thegeneralfeelingwasalongthelinesthatweweretryingtosneaksomethingpastthemandtheyslammedusforit.

 Page196

Thesplithalfmethodforassessingreliabilitycanalsobeemployedbasedononeadministrationofthemodelingquestionnaire.Thismethodisusefulwithlong,
multidimensionalquestionnaires,wherethegroupofitemsdefiningeachdimensionmaybedividedintohalvesandthescoresonthehalvescorrelatedtoobtainan
estimateofreliability.Theresultwouldbeacorrelationforeachsubgroupingordimensionofitemsinthequestionnaire.Inactuality,thesecorrelationswouldbethe
reliabilityofeachhalfoftheitemsinthedimensionversustheentiredimension.Therefore,astatisticalcorrectionisnecessarysothatanestimateofthereliabilityforthe
completedimensionsmaybefoundratherthanforeachhalf.ThisstatisticalcorrectionisknownastheSpearmanBrownprophecyformulaitwasderived,asluck
wouldhaveit,byacoupleoffellowsnamedSpearman13andBrown.14Usedinthiscase,whereeachsetofitemsinadimensionistwiceaslongaseachhalf,the
appropriateformulais:

rxx=2r/(1+r).

Inthisformula,rxxisthereliabilityforanentiredimensionofitemsandristhesplithalfcorrelation.

Cronbach'salphaisalogicalextensionofthesplithalfmethodthatdoesnotrequirethesplittingofitems.15Instead,alphadependsontheaverageintercorrelation
amongallofthedescriptoritemscomprisingaparticulardimension(i.e.,versuscalculatingalphafortheentireinventoryofitemsasawhole).Inotherwords,alphais
proportionatelyequivalenttothemeanofallpossiblecombinationsofsplithalfcorrelationsforaparticulardimension.Fromasomewhatdifferentperspective,alpha
canbethoughtofasanestimateoftheexpectedcorrelationbetweenonedimensionofratingswithahypotheticaltwinsisterdimensionwithadistinctsetofdescriptor
items.16

Unfortunately,receivinggooddataisnotaninalienableright,soproceedcarefully.Smalloversightsorflawsinyourthinkingearlyintheprocesscanbecomehuge
problemslaterintheproject.Protectyourselffrombuildingmodelswithdubiousdatabytakingthelittlebitofextratimeneededtolookatthereliabilityquestionfrom
acoupleofvantagepointsbeforemovingforwardandmakingdecisionsbasedonthedata.

DataReduction

Atthisstageofthegame,yourdatacanbelikeagushing,swollenriverand,ifyouarenotcareful,youwilldrown.Consequently,thenextstepinthisphaseofthe
projectistypicallysomeformofdatareductiontoreducethemassiveamountsofinformationintomorediscreteunits.Thefocusofthisdatareductioncanbeeither
thejob(assumingmorethanonejobisbeingmodeled)ortheindividualdescriptoritems.Eachisdiscussedinturn.

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ConsolidatingJobs

Asdiscussedinchapter2,apositioniseasilydefinedbecauseofitsassociationwithoneemployee.Therearejustasmanypositionsintheorganizationasemployees.
Althoughitmightnotseemsoatfirstglance,termslikejob,jobgroup,andjobfamilyaremoredifficulttoclearlydefine.Thisisbecause,abovethelevelofposition,
thetitlesweusetogroupclustersofjobsaremerelabelsthatmaychangebasedonthecompositionofthegroup,whichmaychangeforanyofanumberofreasons.
Infact,eventhemixofworkactivitiesandcompetenciesthatcomprisethematerialofajoborbundleofjobsismerelyacontrivancedesignedtosuittheneedsofthe
organization,andtheseneedscanchange.Asaresult,thenumberanddistinctivenessofjobsinmostorganizationsisterriblyunclear.17

Forexample,theworkperformedbyassistantstoremanagersofarecentclientinthegroceryretailbusinessvariedagreatdealdependingonthesizeoftheretail
outlet.Becausestoreassociateturnoverwasaveragingabout180%inthelargermetropolitanstores,whichisanotherstoryaltogether,assistantstoremanagersin
largestoreswereessentiallyworkingasstaffingandtrainingspecialists.Inthesmallerstores,whereboththebasenumberofstoreassociatesandthelevelofturnover
waslower,theywereperformingthesamerangeofactivitiesasstoremanagers.Theresultwastwoprettydistinctjobgroups,althoughthejobtitlewasthesame.To
furthercomplicatematters,anupdatedperformancemanagementsystemgroupedthestoremanagers,assistantstoremanagers,anddepartmentmanagersintoone
jobentrylevelmanagementversusthreedistinctjobs.Asthisexampleillustrates,thedefinitionanddelineationofjobscanbeamurkybusiness.

Hence,thepurposeofdatareductiontechniquesinthiscontextistodiscoverthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthesmallestnumberofmeaningfulgroupsofjobs.
Inthissense,thejobconsolidationeffortisbothaproductandaprocess.18Theproductisasmallerandmoremeaningfulsetofbundledjobs,whichisimportantfora
widerangeoforganizationallyrelevantreasons.Forexample,insteadofhavingtocreateuniqueselectiontoolsfordistinctjobgroups,thequestionnairedatacanbe
analyzedtodiscoverbroadgroupingsofjobsthatrequirethesamebasiccompetenciesandthatmayprofitintermsofenhancedscreeningoutcomesusingthesame
selectionprocedures.Insteadofhavingtodevelopanddeliverdifferenttrainingofferingstojobsindifferentbusinessunits,jobgroupingsmaybeestablishedthatcut
acrossbusinessunitboundaries,therebyincreasingtheefficiencyofthetrainingfunction.Further,insteadofcreatingperformanceappraisalformsuniquetoevery
positionintheorganization,meaningfuljobgroupsmaybeidentifiedthatcaptureimportantsimilaritiesand,asaconsequence,reducethesheernumberofuniqueforms
usedthroughoutthesystem.Theabsenceofameaningfulwayfororganizingworkandthinkingaboutjobsisamajorchallengetotheefficientselection,development,
anddeploymentofanorganization'shumancapital.

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Awiderangeofstatisticalprocedureshasbeenusedtosystematicallyarrangejobsintomeaningfulcategories,19includingrepeatedmeasuresanalysisofvariance
(ANOVA),20canonicalcorrelation,21andmultidimensionalscaling.22However,therearetwopredominantclassesofgroupingstatistics:factoranalysisandcluster
analysis.

Basedontheadviceofeverysinglepersonwhoreadtheoriginalversionofthischapter(10inall),severalofwhomweredownrightthreateninginthetoneoftheir
review,Idecidedtoculloutthedetaileddiscussionofthesetwogroupingstatistics.Insodoing,Ihavesmoothedoutthelevelofcomplexityofthechapter
immeasurably.However,thisissupposedtobeahowtobook.AsJeanValjeanlamentsinLesMiserables,''HowcouldIeverfacemyselfagain"ifIdidn'tfollow
throughonmypromise?Theansweris,Icouldn't.So,whatisawellintentionedauthortodo?Well,Isnuckitbackin.

Forthosereaderswhocanlivewithoutadetaileddiscussionofthetechnicalinsandoutsofthiscomplexstageofthemodelingprocess,thenextseveralpagesshould
suffice.Forthosewhoareinterestedinpursuingthetopicsfurther,scootthedogoutofyourfavoritereadingchair,turntothetechnicaldiscussioninAppendixB,and
settledownforanuninterruptedhourorso.

QFactorAnalysis

Factoranalysisreferstoafamilyofstatisticalgroupingtechniqueswhosecommongoalistotakesomelargeandconfusingmassofpotentiallyinterrelatedthingsand
boilthemdownintoamuchsmallerandunderstandablesetofthings.Thisbecomespossibleifweknowthedegreeofassociation(e.g.,correlation)or
interrelationshipsbetweenallpossiblepairsofthingsonewishestoanalyze.

Specifically,onewoulduseavariantoffactoranalysisthatrotatesthedatamatrixsothatindividualrespondentsareinthecolumnsandareconsideredthevariables,
whereasthequestionsofthequestionnairefromtherowsassumethepositionofsubjects.ThistechniqueiscalledQfactoranalysis.Forexample,suppose300
peoplerepresentingabroadmixofjobsinanorganizationeachcompleteda100itemquestionnaire.Thefirststepwouldbetouseoneofthestatisticalsoftware
packagesnotedatthebeginningofthischaptertocomputethecorrelationofeachperson'sresponseswitheveryother(i.e.,onepositionwithanother).Onemightthen
visuallyinspecttheresultingtableof44,850correlations.However,thismassofdataistoobigtotryandworkthroughvisuallytoidentifypatternsorbundlesof
positions.Instead,youwouldbemuchbetterservedturningtoyourfavoritestatisticalsoftwarepackageandsubmittingthe300300matrixofcorrelationstoa
factoranalysis.Actually,eachofthestatisticalsoftwarepackageslistedearliercalculatethecorrelationmatrixandrunthefactoranalysisinonefellswoop.

Thewayfactoranalysisworksistoanalyzethematrixofinterrelationshipsbetweenallpossiblepairsofvariables(i.e.,positionsinthiscase).Thematrixis

 Page199

Fig.7.1.
Generaldescriptionoffactoranalytictechniques(Note:the
thickertheconnectingline,thestrongertherelationship.)

actuallyanalyzedinaseriesofiterativepassesthroughthedatatoidentifyfactorsorgroupstowhicheachvariablecouldconceivablybelong.Inotherwords,this
approachallowsforoverlapbetweengroups,andvariablescanconceivablybegroupedintomorethanonefactor.ThisconceptisillustratedinFig.7.1,wherethe
circlesacrossthebottom(18)representindividualpositions.Wanttolearnmore?TakealookatthemoreelaboratediscussionandtheBANKONEcaseexample
presentedinAppendixB.

ClusterAnalysis

Clusteranalysisreferstoasecondclassofjobgroupingtechniques,andthedoubleentendrehereisbydesign.Oncereferredtoasthepoorman'sfactoranalysis
becauseofitscomputationalandconceptualsimplicity,23clusteranalysisisnowoneofthemorewidelyusedmethodsofjobconsolidation.24Thisdespitethatmost
clustermethodsaremerelyloosecollectionsofplausiblealgorithmsforcreatingclusteredgroupsofentities,whichisincontrasttotheextensivebodyofstatistical
reasoningsupportingfactoranalysis.25

Clusteranalysisproceduresworkinamannerthat,insomeways,isquitedifferentfromfactoranalysis.Clusteranalysisformsasymmetricmatrixofinterrelationships
betweenallpossiblepairsofvariables(whichiswhatfactoranalysisdoes),butthenitanalyzesthismatrixinaseriesofstepstocreatemutuallyexclusiveclustersor
groupingsofvariables(whichisdifferentfromfactoranalysis).TheideabehindthisapproachischaracterizedinFig.7.2.Again,thecirclesacrossthebottom
representindividualpositions.Thenumberofcirclesateach

 Page200

Fig.7.2.
Generaldescriptionofclusteranalysistechniques.

stagerepresentthenumberofclustersatthatstageoftheanalysis.Again,forthosewhodesireamoreelaboratediscussion,takealookatthecasestudypresentedin
AppendixB.

ConsolidatingItems

Asecondinformationreductioneffortfocusesontheindividualdescriptoritems.Frequentlythereareseveralhundredspecificworkactivity,competency,and/orsome
othertypeofdescriptorstatementstobeconsidered.Thegoalhereistoreducethetotalpoolofactivityitems,competencyitems,andsoontoasmallersetofbasic
categoriestoincreasethemeaningandusefulnessoftheresults.

Thisclassificationworkcanproceedonqualitativeorquantitativegrounds.Therationallybasedcontentanalysisproceduresdescribedinchapter5canbeusedhere
togroupworkactivityandcompetencyitemsfordisplaypurposes.Or,statisticalprocedures,suchasfactoranalysis,canbeusedtogroupsimilaritemstogether
basedondifferencesindegreewithrespecttosomequalitytheyhaveincommon(e.g.,usingfactoranalysistoderiveworkactivitydimensionsbasedonCurrent
Importanceratingsofspecificstatements).Actually,thistypeoffactoranalysis(Rfactorvs.Qfactor)isthemoreconventionalwaytousethesestatisticswhere
itemsserveasthevariablestobegroupedandnotpeopleorpositions.Clusteranalysisapproachesmayalsobeusedtoidentifygroupsof

 Page201

items,butmyviewisthattheseproceduresarebettersuitedforjobconsolidation,ratherthanitemconsolidationefforts.Forthisreason,theyarenotconsideredinthe
discussionherenoraretheycoveredinAppendixB.

ItemLevelDataAnalysis

Oncethejobtarget(ortargets)hasbeenclearlygroupedanddefined,andoncetheconfigurationorgroupingofdescriptorcontenthasbeenestablished,itistimeto
analyzetheitemlevelresponsestothequestionnaire.Statisticalanalysisoftheitemlevelratingsisusedtoidentifyanddescribevariousaspectsofjobs(e.g.,the
CurrentImportanceorDifficultyofworkdimensionsandthespecificstatementssubsumedineach).Typicallythisinvolvesusingmeans,standarddeviations,and
percentagescreatedfromtheratingsanddecisionrulesappliedtotheseindexestohighlightanddefinethesevariousaspects.Letusbeginwiththesimpleexamplein
Table7.1.Assumethatacomprehensiveworkactivitybasedquestionnairehasbeengiventoalargesampleofclericalworkersataconsumerelectronicscompany.
Amongotherjudgments,therespondentswereaskedtousea5pointratingscaletoevaluatetheCurrentImportanceofeachactivitystatement.Threeofthe
statementsarereproducedbelow,alongwiththeassociatedmeanandstandarddeviationfortheCurrentImportanceratingsandthepercentofrespondentswho
reportedperformingtheactivitiesabovea2onthe5pointratingscale.

Todeterminewhichactivitiesshouldbeusedtodescribetheworkperformedbytheseclericalrespondents,itbecomesnecessarytodecideonsomeminimum
statisticalcriteriathatmustbemettobeconsideredimportant.Tocontinuewiththeexample,onemightstipulatethataworkactivityitemmusthaveameanratingof
3.00orhigher.Thehigherthemean,themoreimportanttheactivityistothejob.Theexactpointyousetthecutoffshouldbetiedtothemeaningoftheinterval
definitionsofthescale.Insettingthecutoffat3.00,wearestatingthatweareinterestedinselectingonlythoseworkactivitiesthatare

TABLE7.1
SampleItemLevelPrintout
Activity Mean SD %>2
1.Checkformsorrecordsagainstdocumentsormasterformsto 4.34 .56 91.7%
ensureaccuracyandcompleteness.
2.Placeforms,records,andcorrespondenceincorrectlocationina 3.12 1.41 71.5%
systematicfile.
3.Notifyorremindcertainindividualsofmeetings,rescheduled 2.15 1.11 44.1%
dates,orspecificevents.

 Page202

clearly"importantforsuccessfulperformanceineitherthewholejoboramajorpartofthejob."Thelanguageofthisscaleislinkedtothelanguageexpressedin
theUniformGuidelines26andservesasanexternalstandard.Dependingontheintendedpurposeofthejobanalysisdataandthespecificsettinginwhichdataare
collected,youmightdecidetoadjustthecutoffdownward(e.g.,2.5)orupward(e.g.,3.5).Forthisexample,however,letusstickwith3.0.Thus,forthose
statementslistedearlier,ourcriterionforinclusionindicatesthatweshoulduseItems1and2todescribetheworkperformedbytheseclericalworkers.

Asecondcutoffpointmightrequirethataworkactivityhaveastandarddeviationof1.25orlower.Thelowerthestandarddeviation,thegreaterthedegreeof
agreementamongrespondentsintheevaluationsofimportance.Useofthisstandardneedstobecarefullymonitoredbecausevariationsinthenumberofrespondents
andthetypeofcontentbeingratedcanaffectthevalueofthestandarddeviation.Also,variabilityinratingscanrepresenteitherratingerrorsorrealdifferencesinjob
composition.Giventheseconsiderations,youmayormaynotwishtoincludethestandarddeviationasafixeddecisionrule.Inourexample,whenthestandard
deviationisusedincombinationwiththemeanCurrentImportanceratingof3.0orhigher,Statement2isdropped.Asaresult,onlyoneofthethreestatementsinthe
priorexampleisusedtodescribetheworkoftherespondents(Item1).

Athirdpossiblecriterionmightbethatmostrespondents(e.g.,75%ormore)mustagreethattheactivityisatleastsomewhatimportantforsuccessfuljob
performance(i.e.,ratingsof2.0orhigherusingtheCurrentImportancescaleinchap.6).Applyingthiscriteriontoourexample,Statements2and3wouldbe
excludedfromthedescriptionofwork.Atthispointintheexample,thisdoesnotchangethefinalresult,soonlyStatement1isretained.

Usingthesebasicstatisticsanddecisionrules(singlyorincombination),certainstatementsareretainedandaddedtootherstatementstobuildormodelvarious
descriptionsofworkcontent.Thedescriptionscanbeintermsofimportantworkcontent,asintheearlierexample,theFrequencywithwhichcertainactivitiesare
performed,theDifficultywithwhichcertaincompetenciesareacquired,andsoforth.Insummary,therespondents'answerstothesequestionsprovideinformationfor
thedefinitionofworkcontent.Thestatisticsanddecisionrulesthatareappliedtotheobtaineddataarethenusedtosummarizeinformationandcreatedisplaysthat
maybeusedtoguidefuturework(suchasselecting,developing,ormodifyingvarioushumancapitalmanagementprograms).

Thereisasubstantialamountofhumanjudgmentinvolvedineventhemosttechnicalaspectsofamodelingendeavour.AsDunnette,Hough,andRosseobserved,
"[we]knowofnomethodology,statisticaltechnique,orobjectivemeasurementthatcannegatetheimportanceofrationaljudgmentasanimportantelementinthe
processofderivingbehaviorandtaskinformationaboutjobsandofusingthatinformationtodeveloporjustifyhumanresource

 Page203

programs."27Thus,thequantitativeproceduresusedtocreateempiricallyderivedmodelsdonotremoveorsubjugatehumanjudgmenttheyonlypermitamore
systematicandenlightenedformofjudgmenttooccur.

DataDisplay

Firstandforemost,itisusefultodevelopahighlevelpictureofthebehavioralterrainbeingmodeled.Onewaytodothisistocreateamapoftheworkactivities,
competencies,and/orotherdescriptorcontentbeingmodeled.Ifthemodelingworkwasonlyconductedwithatargetedjobgroup,suchasstoremanagerjobs,this
mightmeanadimensionleveldescriptionormapoftheworklandscape.IfyoujumpaheadabittoTable7.4,youwillfindanexampledisplayingthecompetenciesfor
aregionalsalesdirector.

However,ifthemodelingprojectwasorganizationwideandcoveredallfunctionsandworklevels,themapmightbemoreinvolved.Amapofthecompetenciesfora
semifictitousretailconsumerelectronicscompanyappearsinTable7.2.Thereisnoonebestwaytodisplaytopologicalinformationofthiskind,soTable7.2should
beconsideredonlyonepossibilityversusaprescription.Inthisexhibit,thecompletelistofcompetencydimensionsidentifiedinthemodelingworkiscrossedbythe
fourprimarybusinessunitsoftheorganization.Further,theorganization'scompetencydictionary(i.e.,thecomprehensivelistofcompetencydimensions)issegmented
intothoseclassesofcompetenciesthatare:

coreororganizationwideandthatcutacrossallbusinessunits,joblevels,andjobfunctions

businessunitspecificandsupportthestrategiesofparticularbusinessgroups

linkedtojoblevelanddefinetheexpectationsofverticallyarrangedjobgroupsand

functionallyspecificanddefinethetechnicalknowledgeandskillsrequiredtoperformsuccessfullyindifferentfunctionalareasofthebusiness.

Table7.2alsomakesthedistinctionbetweengeneraltransferablecompetencies(i.e.,thefirstthreeclassesofcompetenciesdefinedintheexhibit)andtechnical(or
functionalspecific)competencies(i.e.,thelastcategorydefinedintheexhibit).TheXsinthetableindicatethataparticularsetofcompetenciesisimportantfor
performingworkforsomejoborclassofjobsinaparticularbusinessunit.Thisconceptualizationhelpsprovideabasisforidentifyingwhatiscommonacrossjobs
versussimplylookingatjobsandjobgroupsindividually.Inaddition,thisdisplaystructurepermitsanexaminationofthebroadersetsofworkerattributesthatmaybe
importantfororganizationalmatchaboveandbeyondjobfit.

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 Page205

Keepinmindthatthisisjustakindofsuperordinatemap,offeringviewsfrom20,000feet.Observationsclosertothegroundareusuallymoreusefulandmaybe
madeusingavarietyofmoredetaileddisplays.Thismapandthesubsequentsampledisplaysinthischapterfocusoncompetencyinformation.Thesameideasand
displaysmaybeusedwithworkactivitiesorothertypesofinformation.Infact,oftentwoorthreecomplementarymapsofinformationarerequiredto
comprehensivelydescribetheresultsofamodelingeffort.

Withreferencetomoreprecisedisplays,thereareavarietyofoptions.Broadlyspeaking,detaileddatabasedinformationdisplayscanbedevelopedfortwoprimary
purposes:(a)tocreatedisplaysformakingwithingroupcom

 Page206

WithinGroupDisplays
1.WithinGroupProfile
2.ItemList
3.JobDescription
4.PartofJobWheel Figure
AcrossGroupDisplays
5.GroupbyDimensionMatrix Table
6.GroupComparison
7.GroupEmphasisDistribution
TABLE7.3
DisplayOptions
Table Makeswithingroupcomparisonsatthedimensionlevel
7.4 andreportsagraphicdisplayanddimensionmeanaverages
(aggregatingacrossitemsinadimension).
Table Makescomparisonsattheitemlevelandreportsasorted
7.6 listingofitemsandvariousdescriptivestatistics.
Figure Createsanondatabaseddisplayofsortedandranked
7.3 dimensionsanditemsforactivities,competencies,orboth.
Displaystherelativeweight,intermsofapercentage,of
7.4 eachdimensioninvolvedinthedescriptionofagroup.
Makescomparisonsacrosstargetgroupsatthedimension
7.10 levelbyreportingmeanaverages.
Table Makesgraphicprofilecomparisonsformultipletarget
7.11 groupsatthedimensionlevel.
Table Makesacombineddataandgraphicdisplayjuxtaposing
7.12 therelativeemphasisweights(partofjoborrecruitmentand
selectionfocusortraininganddevelopmentfocus)for
multiplegroups.

parisons(wheregroupcanmeanajob,jobfamily,classofjobsinavaluechain,etc.),and(b)tocreatedisplaysformakingacrossgroupcomparisons.Asnapshot
descriptionofsomeofthedisplaysthatcanbeusefulindifferentsettingsappearsinTable7.3.Abriefwalkthroughdescriptionandexampleshouldhighlightthe
potentialvalueofeach.

WithinGroupProfile

Thisisprobablythemostbasicandwidelyapplicabledisplayofthedifferentsamplespresentedinthischapter.Buildingontheconsumerelectronicscom

 Page207

panyexample,Table7.4illustratesawithingroupprofilefortheregionalsalesdirectorjobfromtheDomesticMarketsbusinessunit.Thedisplayoffersaboxand
whiskergraph,whichisavariationoftheplotproposedbyTukey,28wherethevalueintheboxisthemeanandthewhiskerrepresentsonestandarddeviationon
eithersideofthemeanforthecompetencyitemsthatdefineeachcompetency.Inotherwords,alltheitemscomprisingaparticulardimensionareaggregatedandthe
averageratingandoverallstandarddeviationacrossallrespondentsinthegrouparereported.Thedisplayallowsforcomparisonsatthedimensionlevelfora
particulargroupofrespondentsapplyingsomeratingscale(suchasImportance)toacommonsetofitems.

Expandingouttogivethebigpictureview,Table7.5presentsthesameinformation,butdoessowithinthecontextoftheentirecompetencymap.Avalueof0ina
boxindicatesacompetencycategorythatclearlywasnotpartofthedefinitionofthetargetjob.Asaresult,itispartofasetofitemsthattherespondentgroup,
regionalsalesdirectorsinthiscase,neverevenrespondedtointheques

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 Page209

tionnaire.AnXinthisdisplayindicatesadimensionthatispartofthetargetjob,butthedataareprofiledelsewhereinthegraph.

ItemList

Thisdisplayliststhespecificitemsthatareratedbyquestionnairerespondentsandthatgetrolleduptoformthedimensionlevelresultsusedtocreatethewithingroup
profiledisplay.Thisdisplayshouldalsoincludealltherelevantdescriptivestatisticsassociatedwitheachitem.InthecaseoftheexampleinTable7.6,thisincludesthe
mean,standarddeviation,andpercentgreaterthan2foreachofthreequestionsusedinthestudy(i.e.,CurrentImportance,WhereAcquired,andDifficulty).Often
itmakessensetoprioritizeitemsbasedonsomecriteria.InTable7.6,itemsarepresentedindescendingorderbasedontheCurrentImportancedata.

 Page210

TABLE7.6
ItemList:SingleCompetencyDimension

Dimension:59SalesManagement(N=12)
Item Scale Mean SD %>2 Selection Training
Specifications Specifications
1.Knowledgeofmethodsfor Importance 5.00 0.00 100%
analyzingclientaccountsto WhereAcq. 2.25 1.14 42%
No Yes
determinefurtherpotentialfor Difficulty 3.75 1.06 92%
development.
2.Skillinevaluatingcompetitor Importance 5.00 0.00 100%
activityresultingfrom WhereAcq. 4.42 1.16 92%
intelligencegatheredfrom Difficulty 3.17 1.19 75% Yes No
customers,observingofferings
attradeshows,andsoon.
3.Skillinidentifyingmarket Importance 4.92 0.29 100%
trendsandgrowthpatternsin WhereAcq. 3.42 1.24 75%
Yes Yes
owngeographicareaof Difficulty 4.00 .74 100%
operation.
4.Knowledgeofprocedures Importance 4.83 0.39 100%
usedtoestablishterritory WhereAcq. 1.58 .65 8%
boundariesbasedon Difficulty 3.67 .78 No Yes
geographicalarea,customer
base,accessibility,volume,
andsalesstrategy.
5.Skillincommunicatingsales Importance 3.92 0.67 100%
strategiesandtacticstosales WhereAcq. 3.33 .78 92% Yes Yes
staff. Difficulty 3.17 .94 75%
6.Skillintailoringbusiness Importance 3.67 1.07 83%
unitsalesstrategytospecific WhereAcq. 3.67 1.23 83%
objectivesbasedonlocal Difficulty 4.33 .89 100% Yes No
market,economic,and
competitiveconditions.
7.Skillindevelopingbusiness Importance 3.25 1.48 67%
widesalesstrategiesthatare WhereAcq. 4.00 1.13 92%
No No
alignedwithcorporate Difficulty 4.42 .79 100%
businessplansandinitiatives.
8.Knowledgeofformatsfor Importance 2.58 0.67 67%
preparingstatusreportson WhereAcq. 1.50 .67 8%
pricingandtheimpactof Difficulty 1.58 .67 8% No No
specialprogramsforreviewby
management.

Acomplementtothisdisplaycanbeasimpleinterpretivetablestatinghowtheresultsaretobeused(e.g.,tocreateselectionspecifications,trainingspecifications,
etc.).Inthisexample,itemsareincludedintheselectionspecificationsifthemeanCurrentImportanceratingforanitemisgreaterthan3.0,thestan

 Page211

darddeviationislessthan1.25andpercentgreaterthan2is75orhigher,andiftheWhereAcquiredmeanratingis3.00orhigher(i.e.,indicatinganentrylevel
requirementforperformance).Thus,Items2,3,5,and6wouldbeincludedintheselectionspecificationsfortheregionalsalesdirectorjobandaYisenteredinthe
appropriateboxintheselectionspecificationscolumn.

Ontheotherhand,TrainingSpecificationsfocusesonthosecompetenciesthataresubstantiallyacquiredordevelopedonthejob.Criteriaforiteminclusionaremean
CurrentImportanceratingsgreaterthan3.0,standarddeviationslessthan1.25,percentgreaterthan2valuesof75orhigher,andWhereAcquiredmeanratingsof
3.5orless.ThebandofinclusionaroundtheWhereAcquiredmeanratingsoftenoverlapswiththeselectionbandtocovercompetencycontentthatmaybepartof
theselectionfocusandyetmay,inpart,befurtherdevelopedorhonedwhileonthejob.Also,notethattwoitemsfromtheSalesManagementDimension(7and8)
arenotincludedineithertheselectionortrainingspecificationsbecausetheyfailedtomeetatleastoneofthecriteriaforinclusion.

JobDescription

Thiskindofdisplay,whichisbasedonthedatayetnarrativeinnature,isoftenusefulforgeneralcommunicationpurposes.AsFig.7.3illustrates,thisdisplaymaylook
alotlikeatraditionaljobdescriptionminusthesectiononminimumqualifications.Whenusedwithcompetencies,thedisplaycanbesegmentedintocore,business
unitspecific,joblevelspecific,andfunctionalspecificcompetencies.Withineachdimension,itisoftenmeaningfultosorttheitemsintoaprioritizedorder.Inthiscase,
itemsaresortedintermsofoverallimportancetothejob,ascanbeseenbyexaminingtheitemslistedunderSalesManagementandreferringbacktotheCurrent
ImportancemeansprovidedforthissamedimensioninTable7.6.

PartofJobWheel

Thisdisplayisusefulforillustratingtherelativeweightintermsoftheimportanceofeachdimensioninvolvedinthefinalcompositionofamodeledjoborgroupofjobs.
Continuingwiththeregionalsalesdirectorexample,takealookatthedatainTable7.7,which,forthemostpart,areanextensionofthesameCurrentImportance
ratinginformationfoundinTable7.6.

Theadditionalinformationisfoundinthelasttwocolumnsoftheexhibits.ThePartofJobValueinthesecondtolastcolumniscalculatedforeachdimensionby
multiplyingthedimensionmeanratingbythedifferenceofthestandarddeviationfromacontrolvalueof3.0(thepurposeofthisstepistocreateanumberthatgets
biggerasthestandarddeviationgetssmaller).Theproductofthisstepisthenmultipliedbythepercentgreaterthantwovalue.Thelogicbehindthecalculationsisthat
themostimportantdimensions(i.e.,basedonCurrentImportancemean),whicheverybodyagreesareimportant(i.e.,smallerstandard

 Page212
Page213

Fig.7.3.
Jobdescription(competencybased)forregionalsalesdirector,domesticmarkets.

 Page214

TABLE7.7
DimensionLevelDataUsedtoDeterminePartofJobforRegionalSalesDirector,DomesticMarkets
ImportanceRating
Competency Mean SD %>2 PartofJobValue PartofJob(%)
1.Analyze 4.10 1.01 82% 6.69 7.8
Issues
A. 2.Innovation 2.32 1.18 44% 1.86 2.2
3.Verbal 3.36 1.29 65% 3.73 4.3
Communication
6.Customer 4.88 0.20 100% 13.66 15.8
Orientation
B.
7.Negotiation 4.53 0.58 98% 10.74 12.5
Skills
10.Champion 2.55 1.34 38% 1.61 1.9
Change
C.
11.Provide 4.01 0.62 84% 8.02 9.3
Direction
17. 4.24 0.84 86% 7.88 9.2
Management
Accounting
56.Sales 3.25 1.10 66% 4.08 4.7
Prospecting
D. 57.Sales 4.23 0.74 88% 8.41 9.8
Presentation
58.Overcoming 4.64 0.70 96% 10.25 11.9
Objections
59.Sales 4.15 0.57 90% 9.08 10.6
Management

 Page215

deviation),shouldbeemphasizedinweightingthedifferentaspectsofthejob.Thefinalmultiplierintheequation(i.e.,percentgreaterthanvalue)isacombined
measureofimportanceandrateragreement.TheactualPartofJobPercentageindicatedinthelastcolumninTable7.7isfoundbydividingeachdimension'sPartof
JobValuebythesumofthePartofJobValues(86.01inthiscase).Onewaytodisplaytheresultsofthisanalysisistousethedoughnutwheelinamannersimilarto
thatfoundinFig.7.4.Fromapracticestandpoint,performanceevaluationandcompensationfortheregionalsalesdirectormightbeweightedalongthelinesoutlinedin
thisdisplay.

AnextensionofthisdisplayformatmaybeusedtohighlightthedegreeoffocusforcontentusedwithotherHRinterventions.Forexample,thesamebasiccalculations
couldbeusedtocreatearecruitmentandselectionfocuswheel,whichiswhatwehaveinTable7.8usingthedatafromFig.7.5.Theonerealdifferenceisthatthe
WhereAcquiredversusCurrentImportanceratingsareusedinthecalculations.Thelogichereisthatwewanttoidentifythosefacetsofthejobthatmustbefully
presenttoperformthetargetjobfromDay1.ThisisaccomplishedbydividingtheRecruitment/SelectionPointValueforeachdimensionbythesumtotalofpoint
values.Allthatislefttodoisappropriatelyweightthe

Fig.7.4.
Partofjobwheel:Graphicdisplayforregionalsalesdirector,domesticmarkets.

 Page216

TABLE7.8
DimensionLevelDataUsedtoDetermineRecruitmentandSelectionFocusforRegionalSalesDirector,DomesticMarkets
WhereAcquired
SelectionRating Recruitment/Selection Recrtmt./Selection Recruitment/Selection
Competency Mean SD %rsg2 EmphasisPointValue Value(%) Emphasis(%)
1.AnalyzeIssues 3.89 1.42 74% 4.55 7.2 7.5
2. 4.37 0.89 95% 8.76 13.8 8.0
A. Innovation
3.Verbal 3.19 1.27 63% 3.48 5.5 4.9
Communication
6.CustomerOrientation 4.07 1.02 88% 7.09 11.2 13.5
B. 7. 3.62 1.10 79% 5.43 8.5 10.5
Negotiation
Skills
10.ChampionChange 3.57 1.33 84% 5.01 7.9 4.9
C. 11. 3.86 1.21 82% 5.67 8.9 9.1
Provide
Direction
17.ManagementAccounting 4.15 0.70 92% 8.78 13.8 11.5
56.Sales 2.84 1.42 47% 2.11 3.3 4.0
Prospecting
57.Sales 2.71 1.27 49% 2.30 3.6 6.7
Presentation
D.
58. 3.99 0.98 87% 7.01 11.0 11.5
Overcoming
Objections
59.Sales 3.08 1.34 65% 3.32 5.3 7.9
Management

 Page217

Fig.7.5.
Recruitmentandselectionwheel:Graphicdisplayforregionalsalesdirector,domesticmarkets.

pureselectiontargetsintermsofrelativeimportancetothejob,whichisaccomplishedbysimplyaveragingtheRecruitment/SelectionvaluepercentageswiththePart
ofJobpercentagesfromFig.7.4.TheresultisanEmphasispercentage,whichincludesbothCurrentImportancetothejobandWhereAcquiredperspectivesinthe
calculations.Again,thedoughnutwheelcanbeusedtographicallypresenttheresultsofthisanalysis.

Similarly,thesamebaseofinformationcouldbeusedtoguidethecreationormodificationoftraininganddevelopmentprograms.ThedatainTable7.9andthevisual
displayinFig.7.6arebothvirtuallyidenticaltotheRecruitmentandSelectiondataanddisplaysintheprevioustwosetsofexhibits.Theoneexceptionisthatthe
WhereAcquiredmeansusedinthecalculationshavebeentransposedsothatlowernumbersbecometheirhighernumbercounterpartsandviceversa(i.e.,5sbecome
1s,1sbecome5s,etc.).Therationalebehindthistranspositionistoappropriatelyweightcompetenciesthatareoften(ormustbe)acquiredafterjobentry.Therestof
thecalculationsusedtocompleteFig.7.6areexactlythesameasthoseusedtodetermineRecruitmentandSelectionEmphasispercentages.Althoughnotbuiltinto
thisexample,itcanoftenbeusefultoincorporatetheDifficultylevelofthecompetenciesintothecreationofaTrainingandDevelopmentFocusDisplay.

 Page218

TABLE7.9
DimensionLevelDataUsedtoDetermineTrainingandDevelopmentFocusforRegionalSalesDirector,DomesticMarkets
WhereAcquired
TrainingRating TrainingEmphasis TrainingValue TrainingEmphasis
Competency Mean SD %>2 PointValue (%) (%)
1.AnalyzeIssues 2.11 1.42 26% 0.87 6.5 7.1
2. 1.36 0.89 7% 0.20 1.5 1.8
A. Innovation
3.Verbal 2.81 1.27 27% 1.31 9.7 7.0
Communication
6.CustomerOrientation 1.93 1.02 14% 0.53 3.9 9.8
B. 7. 2.38 1.10 21% 0.95 7.1 9.8
Negotiation
Skills
10.ChampionChange 2.43 1.33 16% 0.65 4.8 3.4
C. 11. 2.14 1.21 18% 0.69 5.1 7.2
Provide
Direction
17.ManagementAccounting 1.85 0.70 11% 0.47 3.5 6.4
56.Sales 3.16 1.42 53% 2.65 19.7 12.2
Prospecting
57.Sales 3.29 1.27 51% 2.90 21.6 15.7
Presentation
D.
58. 2.01 0.98 13% 0.53 3.9 7.9
Overcoming
Objections
59.Sales 2.92 1.34 35% 1.70 12.7 11.7
Management

 Page219

Fig.7.6.
Traininganddevelopmentwheel:Graphicdisplayforregionalsalesdirector,domesticmarkets.

GroupbyDimensionMatrix

Thisdisplaypresentsthemeanaverageratingsforalldimensionscomprisingsomemixofjobsorjobgroups.Inotherwords,ajobbydimensionmatrixisformedand
eachcellofthematrixcontainstheoverallaverage(i.e.,aggregatingacrossitemsbydimension)foraparticularjobgroupanddimensionpair.Table7.10showshow
thisdisplaycanprovideanicewaytojuxtaposeandcompareasetofjobsbasedonsomevalue.Thisvaluecanbeanyofyourchoosing,althoughtheCurrent
Importancedataareoftenusedforobviousreasons.

GroupComparison

AsTable7.11illustrates,thegroupcomparisondisplaysimplytakesthedatafromthegroupbydimensionmatrixdisplayandcreatesagraphicprofile.Inourexample,
theprofilesforregionalsalesdirector(domesticmarkets)andregionalsalesdirector(globalmarkets)areprofiled.Thiskindofdisplaycangetvisuallybusyvery
quickly.However,fortwoorthreeheadtoheadcomparisons,itdoesthejobnicely.Havingthecapabilitytoprintthedisplayincolorletsoneaddanotherprofileor
twotothedisplaywithoutitbecomingtoomessytoread.Thiskindofdis

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playisalsoagreatwaytocomparedifferencesinratingsforthesamejob(e.g.,profilingCurrentImportanceandFutureImportancedata).

GroupEmphasisDistribution

Makesacombineddataandgraphicdisplaybyjuxtaposingtherelativeemphasisweights(e.g.,PartofJoborRecruitmentandSelectionsFocusorTrainingand
DevelopmentFocus)formultiplegroups.Table7.12,whichisbasedonadisplaysuggestedbyMcCormick,29offersonesuchexampleandcomparestheregional
salesdirector(domesticmarkets),regionalsalesdirector(globalmarkets),andstoremanagerjobs.Itshouldbenotedthatthesametypeofemphasisdistribution
displaymaybeusedtohighlightsimilaritiesanddifferencesinemphasisacrossdifferentHRinterventions.Table7.13providesanillustrationofhowthismightlook.

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 Page224

Summary

Thetotalmeaningofathingissimplertounderstandandusethanthemultitudeofsmallerpiecesthatcompriseit.However,thetotalpackageshouldgiveonecluesas
tothemakeupoftheconstituentparts.Thisisthewholeideabehindcreatingmodelingmapsfromdifferentvantagepoints,startingwiththehighestelevationfirst.
However,itquicklybecomesapparentthatnosinglemodelingmapisevercomplete.Eachmapshouldleadtoandcomplementothermapsthatemphasizedifferent
partsoftheconceptualinformation.Thisispartofthepoweroftheapproach,knowingthateachpartisrelatedinamean

 Page225

ingfulwaytothewhole.ThisinturnguidestheconnectionsandintegrationofthepiecesoftheHRsystem.Furthermore,thepersonallyexcitingaspectofthepracticeis
knowingthatnosinglemaporsetofmapswillsatisfyallsituationsorcustomerrequirements.Newsituationsandexistingmapconfigurationsmeetandbreedmore
maps.ThekeyingredientstosuccessfulHRmapmusingaregoodinformationandcreativity,withahealthydoseofpracticalitystirredintothemix.Donotbe
constrainedbytheideasandillustrationsthathavebeenpresentedinthischapter.

ProjectManagementTips

SomeofthemostimportantsuggestionsIcanofferatthisstageoftheballgamerevolvearoundtheprojectfeedbackmeeting.Onetrickofmineinpreparingfora
feedbackmeetingisthis:BeforeIstartpullingmaterialstogether,IlookintoamirrorandrepeattheKISSmantraseveraltimes:''KeepItSimple,Stupid.KeepIt
Simple,Stupid.KeepItSimple,Stupid."Sometimespoundingonthemirrorandyellingatthetopofmyvoicehelpsdrivetheconcepthome,thoughthisfrequentlyhas
theaccompanyingeffectofstoppingworkanddrawingtheattentionofothersintheoffice.Keepitsimple!Easiersaidthandone,however.

Whyisthis?Well,youhavejustspentanumberofweekstalkingtoandworkingwithsomefascinatingpeoplefromyourcustomer'sorganization.Mostrecently,you
havespentmanyhourspouringovertheresultsofquestionnairesandanalyzingdata.Youarenowinapositiontorecognizeallkindsofinterestingtrendsand
discrepanciesinthedata.Youarealsoinapositiontomakeallkindsofelegantandinsightfulcomparisons.Further,ifyouarelikeme,youwillbetemptedtodothese
thingsandtrytoshareallthiswonderfulknowledgewiththeclient.Itistheirdata.Theywillbejustasenamoredwithalltheintricaterichnessasweare,right?

Well,mostofthetime,thisprobablyisright.However,itisstillthewrongthingtodo.Youaregoingtohavesomehighpoweredpeopleintheroomandyouare
goingtohavetheirattentiononlyforafiniteperiodoftime.Thereareseveralkeyobjectivestoaccomplishandonecannotaffordtospendtheentiremeeting
discussingthedata.Moreover,themoreinvolvedandcomplexthepresentationoftheresults,thewideryouopenthedoorforendlessquestionsaboutthe
methodologyandinterpretation.

Ratherthanspendingtheentiremeetinginadetaileddiscussionaboutthedata,considerspendingnomorethanthefirst25%ofthemeetingreportingdetailedresults.
Thenmoveintoyourrecommendations(e.g.,howjobsshouldberedesigned,discussinghowjobsshouldbegroupedforjobevaluationpurposes,whattofocusonin
screeningversustraining,etc.).Thisshouldbethemeatofthemeeting.Discusswhatthedatameanandhowtheyshouldbeused.Thisiswhereyoudowanttogetthe
peopleintheroomreactingtowhatyouaresayinganden

 Page226

gagedinsomeproblemsolvingwithyouregardingthetoughissues.Roughly50%ofthemeetingshouldbespentworkingthroughyourrecommendations.

Atthehalfwaymarkofthisdiscussion,stopandformallycheckinwiththoseinattendancetoensuretheirneedsarebeingmet.Forexample,comerightoutandask,
"Areyougettingtheinformationyouwant?"or"Howcanwemakebestuseoftheremainderofourtime?"Atthispoint,youwillbehalfwaythroughthediscussionof
recommendationsandhalfwaythroughtheallottedtimeforthemeetingenoughtimeforthemtogetaclearindicationofhowthingsaregoingandenoughtimefor
youtoshiftgearsandrecoverifnecessary.

Afterthediscussionofrecommendations,theremaining25%ofthemeetingshouldbeusedtoaddressanyconcernsthathavesurfacedandtodiscussnextsteps.If
youdonotspecificallyleavetimeforthisactivityattheendofthemeeting,youmayfindthemostimportantdiscussionwindsuptakingplace,andsubsequentdecisions
beingmade,whileyouarebackatyourdesk,ontheplaneflyinghome,orwhatever.Everyone'spurposesarebetterservediftherealdiscussiontakesplacewithyou
intheroomandinapositiontoaddvaluetothedecisionsbeingmade.

Theprojectisnotcompleteuntilthemodelingprocessandresultshavebeendocumentedandpresentedinawaythatthetargetaudiencefindsuseful.Withrespectto
presentation,donotforgetthat,fromapracticalstandpoint,howyoustatetheresultsisasimportantastheresultsthemselves.Keeptheneedsofthetargetaudience
clearlyinmind.

Ofcourse,themodelingworkmaynotconstituteastandalonereport,butmaybeasectionofareportdescribingthedevelopmentofaparticularHRapplication.
However,forbroad,multifacetedefforts,themodelingworkwarrantsitsownreport.Withthisbroadereffortinmind,aproposedreportformatfollows.

TitlePage:
ExecutiveSummary:
ModelingContext:
Shouldpresentabrieftitlethatcapturesthefocusofthemodelingresearch.
Thetitlepageshouldalsoclearlyidentifywhothereportis"submittedto,"
whoitis"submittedby,"andincludeastatementofconfidentiality(if
required).
Aonepagesummaryofthemodelingcontextandkeyresults.Thisisthekind
ofdescriptionthatcapturesthehighlightsforsomeonewhoneedsanupdate
butnotintimatedetails.Itisalsoadescriptionthatmaybedroppedintoa
companynewsletterforbroadercommunicationpurposes.
Shouldincludeadescriptionoftheorganizationalissueswhichpromptedthe
needformodelingandoutlinestheprojectscope.Itmaybeusefulto
reproduce


ProjectApproach:
AnalysisProceduresandResults:
Page227
afigureliketheoneinFig.2.1andusearrowsorshadingtopointoutthe
levelofdifferentiationintheworldofworkhierarchyandthelevelofdetailin
therelevantjobandsituationdescriptionhierarchiesthatisintended.
Shoulddetailtheproceduresfollowedinconductingthework.Dependingon
thetypeofproject,thispartofthereportmayincludeall,orsomesubsetof,
thefollowingsubsections.
PreliminaryResearch:Descriptionoftheworkthatwasconductedto
understandtheorganization'sbusinessandculture,previousmodelingwork
withthetargetjobgroup,relevantmodelingworkthatmaybedrawnoninthe
publishedliterature,etc.
Interview/FocusGroupMethods:Specifiessampleselectioncriteria(e.g.,
fulltime,atleast1yearincurrentjob,twoconsecutiveperformancereviews
at"Excellent"level),samplingplan,listofparticipants(includingname,title,
locationanddateofinterview/focusgroup),andadescriptionofthe
proceduresfollowedintheinterviews/focusgroupsandtheresults.
QuestionnaireMethods:Specifiessampleselectioncriteria,samplingplan,
relevantbreakdownsoftheobtainedsample(oftenexpressedintermsofa
percentoftotalnumberofavailablerespondentsbybreakout[e.g.,
geographiclocation,businessunit,gender,ethnicgroup]),andadescriptionof
theproceduresused.
Descriptionoftheanalysisproceduresusedinthemodelingeffort,whichmay
bethequalitativecontentanalysisproceduresusedtosortdescriptorcontent,
oritmaybethedataanalysisproceduresusedtoempiricallyevaluaterater
reliability,techniquesforconsolidatingjobsoritems,orboth.Asastandard
toshootfor,oneoughttobeabletopickupthissectionofthereport5years
downtheroadandclearlyrecon

 Page228

structwhatwasdoneandhowtheanalysisledtothesubsequentresults.The
majorpartofthereportwilllikelyconsistofthedescriptionofyourresults
andthedisplaysforsummarizingthekeyfindings.
ImplicationsofResultsandConclusions:
Theinformationintheprevioussectionofthereportisavirtualroadmap
leadingtomanyvaluablehumancapitalinitiatives,andthisisthesectionwhere
yououtlinehowtheinformationmaybeusedtorealizetheseobjectives.In
addition,ifthereareissuesorquestionsraisedbytheresults,thisiswhere
theyshouldbeoutlined.
Bibliography: Shouldincludeacompletelistofthepublicationsanddocumentsconsultedor
referredtoduringthemodelingprojectandnotedinthereport.
Appendices: Shouldincludecopiesofalltoolsandinstruments(e.g.,focusgroupleader's
guide,modelingquestionnaire)usedduringtheproject.

Youarestillnotquitefinished.Doyourselfafavorintermsofyourlongtermdevelopmentandtakethetimetodoaprojectdebriefanddocumentthelessonslearned.
Takestockofwhatworkedorwentwellandwhatdidnot.Ifyouhavereadthisbookthroughtothispoint,I'llbetmodelingworkismorethanaonetimeeventfor
you.Alessonslearnedmemoforyourpersonaldevelopmentfileisagreatwaytomakesureyoutakefulladvantageofyourexperience.Okay.Nowyouarefinished.
Takethetimetopatyourselfonthebackforajobwelldoneandcelebrateyouraccomplishment!

References
1 Boorstin,D.J.(1983).Thediscoverers.NewYork:RandomHouse.
2
SPSS,Inc.(1986).SPSSuser'sguide(2nded.).NewYork:McGrawHill.
3
SASInstitute,Inc.(1985).SASSRuser'sguide:Statistics,version5edition.Cary,NC:Author.
4 Dixon,W.J.(1985).BMDPstatisticalsoftware:1985printing.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
5
Stevens,J.P.(1996).Appliedmultivariatestatisticsforthesocialsciences.Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.
6
Tabachnick,B.G.,&Fidell,L.(1989).Usingmultivariatestatistics.NewYork:Harper&Row.
7
Green,S.B.,&Stutzman,T.(1986).Anevaluationofmethodstoselectrespondentstostructuredjobanalysisquestionnaires.PersonnelPsychology,39,543
564.
8
Green,S.B.,&Veres,J.(1990).Evaluationofanindextodetectinaccuraterespondentstoataskanalysisinventory.JournalofBusinessandPsychology,5,47
61.

 Page229
9
Pine,D.P.(1995).Assessingthevalidityofjobratings:Anempiricalstudyoffalsereportingintaskinventories.PublicPersonnelManagement,24,451460.
10
Locklear,T.S.(1992).Theexplorationandevaluationofanindextodetectinaccuraterespondentstostructuredjobanalysisquestionnaires.Dissertation
AbstractsInternational,53(5B),2572.
11
Cragun,J.R.,&McCormick,E.J.(1967).Jobinventoryinformation:Taskandscalereliabilitiesandscaleinterrelationships.(PRLNo.TR6715).
LacklandAirforceBase,TX:PersonnelResearchLaboratory.
12
Wilson,M.A.,Harvey,R.J.,&Macy,B.A.(1990).Repeatingitemstoestimatethetestretestreliabilityoftaskinventoryratings.JournalofApplied
Psychology,75,158163.
13
Spearman,C.(1910).Correlationcalculatedfromfaultydata.BritishJournalofPsychology,3,271295.
14
Brown,W.(1910).Someexperimentalresultsinthecorrelationofmentalabilities.BritishJournalofPsychology,3,296322.
15
Cronbach,L.J.(1951).Coefficientalphaandtheinternalstructureoftests.Psychometrika,16,297334.
16
Nunnally,J.C.(1978).Psychometrictheory(2nded.).NewYork:McGrawHill.
17
Katz,D.,&Kahn,R.L.(1978).Thesocialpsychologyoforganizations(2nded.).NewYork:Wiley.
18
Fleishman,E.A.,&Quaintance,M.K.(1984).Taxonomiesofhumanperformance.Orlando,FL:AcademicPress.
19
Foragreatdiscussionoftheissuesinvolvedincreatingjobfamilies,seePearlman,K.(1980).Jobfamilies:Areviewanddiscussionoftheirimplicationsfor
personnelselection.PsychologicalBulletin,87,128.
20
Arvey,R.D.,Maxwell,S.E.,Gutenberg,R.L.,&Camp,C.(1981).Detectingjobdifferences:AMonteCarlostudy.PersonnelPsychology,34,709730.
21
Cornelius,E.T.(1983).Canonicalcorrelationasajobclassificationtechnique.PaperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheAmericanInstituteofDecision
Science,SanAntonio,TX.
22
Sackett,P.R.,Cornelius,E.T.,&Carron,T.J.(1981).Acomparisonofglobaljudgmentvs.taskorientedapproachestojobclassification.Personnel
Psychology,34,791804.
23 Tryon,R.(1939).Clusteranalysis.NewYork:McGrawHill.
24
Harvey,R.J.(1986).Quantitativeapproachestojobclassification:Areviewandcritique.PersonnelPsychology,39,267289.
25
Aldenderfer,M.S.,&Blashfield,R.K.(1984).Clusteranalysis.NewburyPark,CA:Sage.
26
EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission,CivilServiceCommission,DepartmentofLabor,&DepartmentofJustice.(1978).Uniformguidelinesonemployee
selectionprocedures.FederalRegister,43(166),3829538309.
27
Dunnette,M.D.,Hough,L.M.,&Rosse,R.L.(1979).Taskandjobtaxonomiesasabasisforidentifyinglaborsupplysourcesandevaluatingemployment
qualifications.InG.T.Milkovich&L.Dyer(Eds.),Affirmativeactionplanning.NewYork:HumanResourcePlanningSociety.
28
Tukey,J.W.(1977).Exploratorydataanalysis.Reading,MA:AddisonWesley.
29
McCormick,E.J.(1979).Jobanalysis:Methodsandapplications.NewYork:AMACOM.

 Page231

III
THEFUTUREOFSTRATEGICJOBMODELING

 Page233

Chapter8
FinalCommentsandPrognostications
youdon'tneedaweathermantoknowwhichwaythewindblows
BobDylan

BoudreauandRamstadhaveinitiatedafascinatinglineofworkthatinvestigatesthedifferentinformationsystemsassociatedwithdifferenteconomicperiodsthroughout
humanhistory.1 Wrappedupinthisdiscussionisanattempttohighlighttheconstrainedresourcesandcriticalassetslinkedtosuccessineacheconomicphase.Table
8.1,whichisanadaptationoftheiroriginalwork,outlinessomeoftheseideas.Theideaisthattheconstrainedresourcesforeachoftheseperiodsaretheprimary
avenuesofopportunitythatleadtosuccess.Similarly,theassociatedcriticalassetsarethekeyingredientsrequiredtoturntheseopportunitiesintorealityduringeach
sliceofhumanhistory.

Acoupleofthingsareintriguingaboutthisconceptualization.Firstofall,after200,000generationsoftheTribalPeriod,400generationsoftheAgriculturalPeriod,and
soon,today'sHomoSapiensfindthemselvesintheearlystagesoftherapidlychangingInformationAgewithonlytwogenerationsbehindthem.ThismeanstheTribal
Agehashad20,000timesmoreinfluenceontheevolvinghumanDNAblueprintandgeneticmakeupthantheIndustrialAgeand100,000timesmoreinfluencethan
theInformationAge.2 Inotherwords,youandIarelivinganachronismsbecauseourbiologicalmachineryhasbeenbredforadifferentage!

Second,andmoretothepoint,thisworknicelyoutlinestheadvanceofthe"bravenewworld"ofbusiness,wheretheconstrainedresourcethatmustbemanagedis
notsomethingphysicallikegrain,ships,orfactories.Inthisnewage,successinbusinessandindustryistheproductofknowledgeandknowhow,andthecritical
assetispeople.3 ,4

 Page234

MeasurementSystemsAssociatedWithDifferentEconomicPhases
EconomicPhase
TribalPeriod(1,500,000B.C.to
8,000B.C.)
AgriculturalPeriod(8,000B.C.to
2,000B.C.)
TradePeriod(2,000B.C.to1700
A.D.)
IndustrialPeriod(1700to1960)
Information/Services/Intangible
Period(1960toPresent)
TABLE8.1
Measurement/Information
ConstrainedResource CriticalAsset Systems
Food,shelter,safety Weaponsandtools
Food Cropland Weatherrecords,landsurveys,
agriculturaluniversities
Distribution Transportationsystems Roadmaps,railroadtimetables,
timezones
Tangiblegoods Capital SecurityandExchange
Commission/FinancialAccounting
standard
Intellectualcapital People Thenextgenerationof
managementinformationsystems
willmeetthisemergingneed

Considerthevariancebetweenthemarketvalueandbookvalueofmanyoftoday'scompanies.AlthoughMicrosoftproducesrevenuesof$5.9billionandGeneral
Motors$140billion,MicrosoftwouldlikelybesoldformorethanGeneralMotors.Why?Itshighermarketvaluereflectstheideasandknowhowcreatedbyits
living,breathing,thinkingassets.Theintellectualcapitalthesepeoplehavecreatedisthestuffthatcontinuestoshapeanentireindustry.5

Infact,itmaybemoreappropriatetothinkoftheInformationAgeasyesterday'snews,havingbeeneclipsedbytheIntelligenceAge.IntheIntelligenceAge,rather
thanjusttheabilitytocreatenewideas,whatdifferentiatesorganizationalwinnersfromloserswillbetheabilitytoextractmeaningquicklyandefficientlyfromthe
oceanofinformationthatdoesexist.Why?Becausewithoutthisability,organizationswillbeunabletorecognizeandrespondtothequicklychangingmarket
conditionsthatcharacterizetoday'sbusinesslandscape.Morethanever,peoplearelikelytoemergeasthehardassetsofbusiness.

Thinkthisisaninteresting,butsomewhattangential,topic?Well,thinkaboutthis.Ofallthemeasurementsystemsavailabletoprovideinputtotheinformationbaseof
theThirdMillenniumEnterpriseandofallthemetricsusedtotrackandmanagetheimportantassetsofanorganization(e.g.,land,physicalstructuresandmachines,
financialcapital),theoneareathatisinitsevolutionaryinfancyinvolveschartingthehumancapitaloftheorganization.AsIhavetriedtoestablishthroughoutthis
discussion,thisiswidelybecomingrecognizedasthemostimportantone!

 Page235

EntertheHRprofessional,stageright.Decisionsabouthowtobestleveragehumancapitaltoaccomplishorganizationalobjectiveswillbecomepreeminentconcerns,
andHRmanagerswillbeonthespot.Relativelynewpartnerstothemanagementteam,theseindividualswillneedtomakesenseofcomplexstreamsofinformation
andmakerecommendationsandchoicesthathaveabroadandtellingimpact.Theywillrisetothechallengeandsucceedinthisnewrole,buttheywillsucceedthrough
newapproachesappliedtoachangingandmorecomplexbusinesslandscape.

Further,Isubmitthatoneofthesenewapproacheswillbethenextgenerationofjobanalysismethods.AsmuchODasjobanalysis,thejobmodelingmethodology
presentedinthisbookprovidesanapproachforchartingandleveragingoneaspectofthehumancapitalinformationsystemthatwillbeacornerstoneoftheThird
MillenniumEnterprise.Theinformationcreatedandcapturedusingthisapproachrepresentstheplutoniumpowercellsthatfeedthethermonuclearenginethatdrives
andguidesthehumanmightoftheorganization.

Fromanapplicationsperspective,whetherthegoalistodevelopaselectionsystemtobringhighcaliberperformersintotheorganization,anassessmenttoolfor
identifyingtraininganddevelopmentneeds,aperformancemanagementsystemfocusingonrelevantorganizationalbehaviors,andsoforth,thefirststepistostartwith
acleardefinitionofeffectiveperformanceandanunderstandingofthehumancapabilitiesneededtoachieveitnowandinthefuture.Firmsthatbankrollexpensive
HRinitiativeswithouttheseinformationmodelsattheircorehaveHRsystemsthatarelikehuge,muscleboundgiantswithlittlepeabrainsontop:cluelessand
uncoordinated.Ifyoutakeoneofthesegiantsandgivehimtheintellectualhorsepowertowieldhismighteffectively,thenyouhaveachampionacompetitiveasset
thatcanbeworthmorethannaturalresources,machines,factories,andfinancialcapital.

NowIwouldliketocallyourattentiontothattremendousroaryou'veheardbuildingoveryourleftshoulderforthepastcoupleofyears.Goahead,takealook.Do
youseeit?Thatisthesoundofthesecondgenerationofnetworkedclient/servercomputertechnologiesrumblingacrossthebusinessterrain.Donotrunaway.Donot
trytohide.Thereisnowheretogowhereyouwillnotbefound.Youmightaswellturntofacethestampedingherd.

Thisbreedofcomputersystemsusesdesktoppersonalcomputerslinkedtogetherintosocalledclient/servernetworkstoprocesscomplexsetsofinformationinfar
moreefficientways.Atthehubofeachnetworkistheserveracomputerdedicatedtocontrollingusertrafficonthenetworkandstoringinformationonsophisticated
relationaldatabases.Theextensionsaroundtheperipheryoftheserveraretheclientcomputersdesktoppersonalcomputersusedbyindividualstoaccomplisha
widerangeofinformationentryandanalysisactivities.

 Page236

Newerandmorepowerfulsuperservers,coupledwithclientcomputersusingfarsimplergraphicaluserinterfaces(i.e.,iconsvs.arcanecomputercode),arereducing
torubblethefortresslikewallsthatkeptallbutasmallclanofinformationsystemwizardsfromtakingfulladvantageofthepoweroftheorganization'sprograms.6 ,7
Intranet,internet,andwirelesscommunicationstechnologieswillcontinuetheassaultuntilthewallsarecompletelyobliteratedandeventhesmallestbusinessenterprise,
andeventhetiniestdepartmentswithinthelargestorganizations,areconnectedandintegrated.

Anotherinterestingsidetopic,yousay?Maybe.However,whenoneconsiderstheexplosivedevelopmentsininformationtechnology,thingslikeopen,networked
client/serversystems,whicharebothworkableandaffordable,yougetthefeelingweareonthebrinkofsomethingbig.Myinclinationistothinkitwillbeabigstepup
towardtherealizationoftheintegrated,informationdriven,highperformanceThirdMillenniumEnterpriseversusabigdropintoaspiralingabyssofvaliantand
expensivenonsense,althoughIsupposethelatterisapossibility.

Whytheoptimismonmypart?KeepinmindthatHRisthatpieceoftheorganizationthatistrulyenterprisewide,spanningapplications,functions,workprocess
groups,businesssegments,geographicregions,andjoblevels.Probablymoresothanotheremerginginformationsysteminterventionsfocusingonareaslike
manufacturing,logistics,andfinance,theemergingHRsystemshavebeenhamstrungbythenumerousandvariedcomputingplatformsthatexistinevensmall
organizations.IntranetandfledglingInternetsolutionsareeffectivelylevelingtheplayingfieldandwillallowopenaccesstoeventhemostremote(eitherintermsof
distanceorplatformcompatibility)usersintheThirdMillenniumEnterprise.8 Thus,visionsofhumanresourcesinformationsystems(HRIS)thatholdthepromiseofa
humancapitalmanagementarchitecture,whichisasingle,integrated,crossapplication,crossfunctional,crossbusinessgroup,crossregional,crossworkgroup,
crossjoblevelinformationsystem,isnowmoreasubstantiverealitythanmerelyanetherealhope.

Ofcourse,manyofthecurrentHRISpseudosystemsfocusprimarilyontheadministrativeaspectsofHRthingslikepayrollandbenefitinformation,employeeand
applicanttracking(e.g.,name,address,phonenumber,workhistory,recruitmentsource),andthelike.Nice,useful,butlessthanearthshatteringstuff.Thesecond
generationHRISsystemswillstartmakinginroadstomanaginginformationthattrulyreflectthevalueoftheorganization'shumancapital.Theseversion2.0HRIS
systemswillconcernthemselveswiththemanagementofthemorevaluabledatarelatedtotheHRapplicationsdescribedinchapter4(HRplanning,recruitment,
selectionclassificationandplacement,training,performancemanagement).Thisiswherethetieinwithjobmodelingoccurs.Thenextgenerationofjobanalysis
methodswillberequiredtoprovidetheunderlyingdatawarehousingandinformationaccessarchitecturefortheHRISsystemsthatwillservethehighperformance
ThirdMillenniumEnterprise.The

 Page237

HRprofessionalwhounderstandstheideasandtechniquesofstrategicjobmodelingwillfindhimselforherselfatthevortexofaprofoundchangeeventthatwillbe
responsibleforrecastingtheveryroleofHR.

Conclusion

Nobookcancovereveryoption.Nosinglemethodologycanprovidealltheanswers.Nothinginbusinessalwaysworks.Ibelievethesewordstobetrue.Thatsaid,
IalsobelievethebasicideasandmethodspresentedbetweenthecoversofthisbookarecentraltothesuccessofHRintheThirdMillenniumEnterprise.Myhopeis
thatitwillquicklybecomeoneofthemostthumbedthrough,dogeared,writteninreferencebooksonyourbookshelfasyouadaptandexpandonthecontentsto
suityourjobmodelingneedsinyourorganizationorconsultingwork.

References
1
Boudreau,J.W.,&Ramstad,P.M.(1997).Measuringintellectualcapital:Learningfromfinancialhistory.HumanResourceManagement,36,343356.
2
Ramstad,P.M.,Janz,T.,&Neumann,D.(1998).Survivingtheshifttoahumanasseteconomy.Unpublishedmanuscript.
3
Brooking,A.(1996).Intellectualcapital.London:InternationalThompsonBusinessPress.
4
Stewart,T.A.(1997).Intellectualcapital:Thenewwealthoforganizations.NewYork:Doubleday/Currency.
5
Hamel,G.(1995,October).Tomorrowday1995.PaperpresentedattheMastersForum,Minneapolis,MN.
6 Greengard,S.(1994).Thenextgeneration.PersonnelJournal,73,4046.
7
Greengard,S.(1995).CatchthewaveasHRgoesonline.PersonnelJournal,74,5468.
8
Cortese,A.(1996,February26).HerecomestheIntranet.BusinessWeek,pp.7684.

 Page238

AppendixA
WorkActivityandCompetencyTaxonomiesforManagement
Idon'tthinkIcantellyouwhatamanageris.ButIknowonewhenIsee'em.
Anonymous

AbroadtaxonomicdescriptionofmanagementworkactivityandcompetencydomainsarepresentedinParts1and2ofthisappendix,respectively.Inthemain,these
twotaxonomiesaretheresultofSchippmann,Prien,andHughes'researcheffort,whichincludedasystematicreviewof35yearsofresearchonthecontentof
managementworkandusedtheresultsof32independentstudiesasinputforanalysis.1 Specifically,thetaxonomicstructuresanddescriptorstatementsinthesetwo
appendixeswereguidedbytheresultsofthese32studiesandinvolvedaninitialpoolof358workdimensions,over5,500descriptorstatements,andinputandratings
frommorethan6,000managersinawidevarietyofdifferentorganizations.Enhancementstotheoriginalworkactivityandcompetencytaxonomieshavebeenmade
asaresultofrecentadditionstothemanagementliterature.2 ,3 ,4

Thereareseveralreasonsforreproducingthesetwotaxonomies.Thefirstistoprovideadetailedframeofreferenceforillustratinganumberoftheideaspresentedin
thebook.Forexample,thesetwosolutionsprovideexamplesof(hopefully)wellwrittenworkactivityandcompetencyitems.Theyalsoshowhowtheconceptof
factorsmayserveastheorganizingstructurefordimensionsanddimensiontheorganizingstructureforitems.

Second,thehopeisthatthesetwosolutions,whichleveragetheresultsofworkbymanyresearchers,mayprovideameaningfulstartingpointforjobmodelerswho
aredoingworkwithmanagementpopulations.Althoughtheinformationpresentedheremaybetoogeneralforsomeinterventionsandtoodetailedforothers,itshould
provideausefulinitialsolutioninmanycontexts.


Part1:ManagementWorkActivities
FACTORS
PeopleManagement
GeneralOperationsManagement
FunctionalManagement
Page239
DIMENSIONS
I.Staffing
II.SupervisePeople
III.PeopleDevelopment
IV.PersonnelAdministration
V.LaborRelations
VI.ExternalRelations
VII.SuperviseWorkOperations
VIII.MaterialsManagement
IX.InformationManagement
X.Facilities&SafetyManagement
XI.InternationalBusinessManagement
XII.Research&DevelopmentManagement
XIII.Accounting&FinancialManagement
XIV.Marketing&SalesManagement
XV.StrategyDevelopment
XVI.InternalConsulting

 Page240

I.Staffing

1.Examinestrategicbusinessobjectivestoidentifystaffingissuesrelatedtoachievingtheseobjectives.

2.Reviewtheorganizationstructure(e.g.,reportingrelationships,responsibilityflowcharts)ofaworkgroupordivisiontoensureitsupportsthebusinessvisionand
strategy.

3.Identifyemployeesinowndepartmentorotherpartsoftheorganizationwhoarebackupstoreplacekeyindividualswhomaybepromoted,leavetheorganization,
andsoforth.

4.Identifytherelevantworkactivitiesandassociatedskills,knowledge,andexperiencesneededtosuccessfullyperformaroleorjob.

5.Evaluatethecostandeffectivenessofrecruitingeffortstoguidechangesinrecruitingfocus,sources,strategies,andsoforth.

6.Conductscreeningoremploymentinterviewstocollectinformationrelevantforatargetroleorjob.

7.Monitorstate,federal,andlocallegislation,bulletins,andguidelineupdatesforchangesthataffectthestaffingprocess.

II.SupervisePeople

8.Assignworkassignmentsandprioritiestoemployeestoensurethebestdistributionofindividualtalents.

9.Establishperformancestandardsforemployeestoclarifygoalsandperformanceexpectations.

10.Designindividualand/orworkgroupgoalsthataremutuallysupportivetoencouragecooperationanddiscouragecompetition.

11.Meetwithemployeestodiscusstheirperceptionsoftheworktheydotoclarifyrolerequirementsandworkresponsibilities.

12.Measureemployees'progresstowardgoalsorassignmentcompletiontoevaluateindividualperformanceandprovideperformancerelatedfeedback.

13.Identifyopportunitiesforrewardingpositiveworkbehaviorandoutcomestoreinforceactivitiesthatarealignedwiththegoalsoftheworkgroupandthe
organization.

III.PeopleDevelopment

14.Conductinformalorformalorientationofnewhirestoprovidenewemployeeswithanoverviewoftheorganization'spolicies,workrules,roleorjob
responsibilities,andsoforth.

 Page241

15.Reviewthecurrentjobassignmentsofemployeesand,withreferencetotheirindividualperformance,identifyassignmentsorworkexperiencesthatwillbe
challengingandrequiregrowthanddevelopment.

16.Identifyperformancedeficienciesortrainingneedsofindividualemployeestoguidecoachingefforts,traininginterventions,andcreationofindividualdevelopment
plans.

17.Selecttrainingcoursesordevelopmentalinterventionsforindividualsorgroupsofemployeesthataddresscompetencygapsresultingfromtheintroductionofnew
technology,newworkprocesses,redesignedjobs,andsoforth.

18.Delivertrainingcourses,seminars,orworkshopsdesignedtodevelopajobrelatedexpertise,skill,orawareness.

19.Evaluatetheeffectivenessoftrainingcourses,workshops,orotherdevelopmentalinterventionsthathavebeendesignedtoaddressthetrainingneedsofindividuals
orgroupsofemployees.

IV.PersonnelAdministration

20.Explainpersonnelpolicies,programs,procedures,rules,andsoon,foremployeestoensureunderstanding.

21.Conductexitinterviewstoidentifyreasonsfortheseparation.

22.Conductpersonnelresearch(e.g.,turnoverorjobclassificationanalyses)designedtoprovidebroadermanagementwithinformationforuseinevaluating
organizationpractices,interventions,policies,andsoforth.

23.Developandadministerpoliciesrelatedtoworkinghoursandabsences,workandvacationschedules,andsoforth.

24.Conductjobevaluationresearchandcompensationsurveystoevaluatewageandsalaryequityandmakerecommendationstobroadermanagement.

25.Administerandmonitorexpendituresforvariousbenefitprogramssuchasworkman'scompensation,unemploymentcompensation,layoffincomebenefits,andso
forth.

26.Maintainemployeefilestosystematicallydocumentinformationrelatedtoemployeeperformance,compensation,development,andsoforth.

V.LaborRelations

27.Investigateemployeegrievances(e.g.,collectfacts,identifyissues,researchorganizationpolicies)tobuildabasisfordiscussions.

28.Developnegotiationstrategiesfordealingwithuniondemandsbasedonresearchofunionexpectations,grievanceanalyses,contractanalyses,andsoforth.

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29.Developrelationswithemployeerepresentativesfromunions,professionalgroups,andsoon,tolaythegroundworkforfuturenegotiations.

30.Reviewlaborcontractproposalstoidentifyimplicationsandbargainingpointshavingtodowithissueslikejobsecurity,compensation,workingconditions,
grievancesprocedures,andunionsecurity.

31.Representtheorganization'sinterestsandstrategyinnegotiationswithemployeebargaininggroups.

32.Monitorstateorfederallegislation,professionalregulations,andsoon,tostayabreastofchangesthatmayaffectemployeerelationsactivities,contracts,and
negotiations.

VI.ExternalRelations

33.Provideboardofdirectorsorotherexternaladvisoryoroversightgroupswithverbalorwrittenupdatestocommunicatetrendsordeviationsfromplansand
highlightfinancialchangesoroperatingresults.

34.Developaportfolioofregularcontactswithinthefinancialcommunity(e.g.,securityanalysts,financialpress)todevelopafinancialpublicrelationsprogram.

35.Communicateplannedorganizationactions(e.g.,expansions,acquisitions,changesinoperationalfocus,personnelchanges)tolocalpress,radio,andtelevision
outlets.

36.Representtheorganizationatcommunityaffairsandpublicfunctionstopromoteawarenessandcreategoodwill.

37.Developand/oradministercorporategivingpolicies(i.e.,relatingtocharities,fundraisers,donationstofoundations)designedtopromotegoodwillandcreatea
senseofpositivecorporatecitizenship.

38.Respondtoinquiriesorrequestsforinformationfromexternalsourcessuchasthepressorrepresentativesfromotherorganizationsinterestedinbenchmarking.

39.Consultwithcommunityandgovernmentalrepresentativesorothereconomicpartnersonwaystoimprovethebusinessclimate.

VII.SuperviseWorkOperations

40.Coordinateworkwithothergroupstoensuresmoothprogressandaseamlessintegrationofeffort.

41.Developflowchartsthatdescribetherelationshipofoneprocesstoanotherviavisualdescriptionsoftheworkcycletoguidethecreationofnewworksystemsor
procedures.

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42.Identifyinefficienciesorroadblocksinworkprocedurestoguidechangeinworkflow,physicallayoutoftheworkarea,workprocesses,andsoforth.

43.Chartbusinessmeasuresoftimeliness,quality,quantity(e.g.,salesbilled,ordersreceived,productsreturned)forworkgroupsordepartmentstohelpunderstand
variationsandtheircausesandtocommunicateinformationtoothers.

44.Settimetablesandintermediatecheckpointsforotherstofollowtokeeptrackofprogresstowardobjectives.

45.Preparereportsofbusinessactivitiesorprojectsinownareaofresponsibilitytoupdatemanagement.

46.Conductcostbenefitanalysestodeterminetheproductivityandefficiencypayoffofpurchasingnewtechnology,updatingexistingequipment,purchasingadditional
equipment,andsoforth.

VIII.MaterialsManagement

47.Evaluatepotentialvendororsupplieroptionstoidentifyagreementsthatmatchneedsoftheorganizationintermsofprice,delivery,service,technicalassistance,
andsoforth.

48.Monitorthedeliveryofmaterialsandsuppliestocountercheckamountsagainstrequisitions,ensurequalityofdeliverables,overseeproperstorageandplacement,
andsoforth.

49.Developinventorymonitoringsystemstotrackstock,material,orresourceavailability,allowforchecksofperpetualinventories,andsoforth.

50.Monitortheflowofmaterialsorthedeliveryofservicesthroughoutthelogisticssystemtoaudittheefficiencyandcosteffectivenessofmaterialsmovementor
servicedelivery.

51.Developinventorycontrolpoliciestoholdinventoryinvestmentswithinboundsconsistentwithefficientoperation.

52.Createmasterschedulesforproduction,processing,orservicedeliverytoguideworkloaddistribution,efficientpurchasingofmaterialsorsupplies,identify
subcontractingneeds,andsoforth.

53.Conductcapacityutilizationanalysestoidentifybottlenecksinproduction,processing,orservicedeliverycenters.

IX.InformationManagement

54.Conductinformationneedsanalysestodeterminetheinformationandreportingrequirementsofanindividualmanager,department,businessarea,andsoforth.

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55.Utilizecomputeraidedsoftwareengineering(CASE)productstofacilitatedatamodelingandthedesignofdatabasemanagementsystems.

56.Interpretbusinessdataforthepurposeofidentifyingpatterns,trends,andvariancesincompanyoperations.

57.Createdataflowdiagramstoillustratebusinessproceduresorprocessesandflowsamongtheseprocedures/processes.

58.Developdatabasestrategicplansthatmapspecificsubjectdatabasesagainsttheirprospectiveusesforsupportingmanagement'smonitoring,analyzing,and
planningactivities.

59.Monitorinformationprocessingsystemsandspecificprocessingoutputstoensuredataquality.

X.Facilities&SafetyManagement

60.Monitorfacility/store/plantoperationstoassesscompliancewithindustryregulations,stateorfederallaws,orcompanypolicies.

61.Reviewqualitycontrolandreliabilitydatatoensureproceduralcomplianceandidentifyareasinneedofimprovement.

62.Developand/ormonitortheimplementationofpoliciesdesignedtopromotesafetyorsecurity,reduceaccidents,andcontrolworkhazards.

63.Inspectbuildings,facilitylayoutandfunctioning,andsoon,todeterminetheirsoundness,operationalstatusconformitytosecurityguidelines,andsoforth.

64.Researchpotentialfacility/store/plantlocationsitestomaximizesalesandproductivity,minimizelaborandtransportationcosts,andsoforth.

65.Designfacility/store/plantphysicallayoutstoaccommodateoptimumproduct/processflow,maximizespaceutilization,incorporaterequisitehandingand
transportationequipment,andsoforth.

XI.InternationalBusinessManagement

66.Identifycommunicationstechnologythatmaybeusedtofacilitatethetransmissionofdataandideasacrossinternationalboundaries.

67.Negotiatelicenseagreementtermstoachieveinternationalobjectivesforpenetratingforeignmarkets.

68.Conductimportproductanalysestodevelopcostofbusinesscomputationsthattakeintoaccountfindingfees,FOBandfreightcosts,U.S.duty,wharfage,
cartage,warehouseexpenses,andsoforth.

69.Investigateculture,education,andbusinesstrainingvariablestodeterminethefeasibilityofdelegatingmanagementfunctionstoforeignnationals.

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70.Researchissuesrelatedtofinancingfacilitiesforshorttermcreditorequitycapitalneeds,trademarks,licenses,tradenames,patents,copyrightsandother
intangibleassetswhenconductingbusinessabroad.

71.Evaluatethepolitical,social,economic,andcompetitiveconditionsandlongrangerequirementsofapotentialhostcountrytoassesstheattractivenessofinvesting
inorrelocatingallorpartofabusiness.

XII.Research&DevelopmentManagement

72.Evaluatethestrategicfitofresearchanddevelopmentprojectswiththeorganization'sobjectivestoguidetheallocationofhuman,financial,andtechnological
resources.

73.Generateandinventorybasicandappliedresearchideastodevelopaportfoliooffuturebusinesspossibilities.

74.Identifynewproducts,productuses,processes,processorsystemimprovements,waystoutilizebyproductsandwaste,andsoon,thatmaycontributetoan
organization'sexistingstableofofferings.

75.Evaluatethetechnicalfeasibilityofresearchanddevelopmentideastoguiderecommendationsconcerningtheallocationofhuman,financial,andtechnological
resources.

76.Overseeresearchanddevelopmentworkconductedbyoutsidefacilities,suchasindependentlaboratories,researchinstitutes,academicinstitutions,consultants,
tradeassociations,andsoforth.

XIII.Accounting&FinancialManagement

77.Usespreadsheetorspecializedfinancialsoftwareprogramstoanalyzecashflow,salesforecasts,budgetforecasts,staffingprojections,andsoforth.

78.Developbudgetorannualprofitplan,includingplannedoperations,timeschedules,utilizationoffunds,anticipatedfinancialposition,andsoforth,tobeusedin
broadermanagementplanningandcontrol.

79.Monitorexpenditurestoidentifytrendsandevaluatevariancesinrelationtoanestablishedbudget.

80.Reviewsubdepartmentalbudgetstoreconciledifferencesandmakesurethatanoverallbudgetincludescomprehensivedatafordetermininggeneralcostsforitems
suchassupplies,staffpersonnel,facilitiesmanagement,andsoforth.

81.Reviewcontracts,purchaseagreements,andotherfinancialarrangementstoensurecompatibilitywithbusinessgoalsandexpectationsaboutprofitability.

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82.Forecasttheimpactofbusinessdecisionsandexpectedoutcomesonoverallfinancialresults.

83.Monitorfinancialandeconomicinformationtoidentifytrendsandindicatorsthatmayimpactbusinessoperations,planning,investments,andsoforth.

84.Evaluatetheprofitabilityofnewinvestmentstoguidedecisionmakingusingstandardmeasuresofinvestmentworth,suchaspaybackperiod,bookreturnonbook
investment,internalrateofreturn,andcontributiontonetpresentworth.

XIV.Marketing&SalesManagement

85.Researchcustomerproductorserviceneedstodevelopproposals,makerecommendationsforchangeinexistingproductorservicelines,andsoforth.

86.Monitorcompetitorpricingofequivalentproductsorservicestohelpothersmakepricingdecisions.

87.Evaluatepackaging(i.e.,bothfunctionalandmerchandising)andbrandingrecommendationsforspecificproductsorservices.

88.Researchmarkupandcostfactorsofaproductorservicetoguidepricesetting.

89.Developadvertisingorpromotionalstrategiesdesignedtoattractcustomers,competesuccessfullywithothercomparablebusinesses,promotecompanyimage,
buildemployeemorale,andsoforth.

90.Evaluatethesalesperformanceofgroupsorregionstoidentifyareasinneedofadditionalcoverage,training,realignment,specialsalesactions,andsoforth.

91.Preparestatusreportsonsales,resultsofpromotionalprograms,impactofpricingchanges,andsoon,toupdatemanagement.

XV.StrategyDevelopment

92.Reviewstatisticaldataandothereconomic,political,andmarketinformationtoidentifyopportunitiesandrisksassociatedwithpotentialbusinessdecisions.

93.Establishprofitobjectives(e.g.,profitgrowth,level,andstability)forabusinessorbusinessunittoguidelongrangeplanning.

94.Evaluatethegrowthofabusinessenterprisetoidentifyacourseofcompetitiveactionformovingintothefuturebyconsideringvariableslikemarketsizeand
scope,marketmaturity,competitorrivalry,changesinproductdemand,accesstocapital,andsoforth.

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95.Evaluatethehuman,technological,infrastructure,financial,andculturalstrengthsandweaknessesofanorganizationorbusinesstoseewhatthereistoworkwith
whenrespondingtoopportunitiesandthreatsintheexternalenvironment.

96.Revieworproposebusinessstrategiesdesignedtoachievetargetedreturnsforshareholders,owners,employees,customers,andsoforth.

97.Identifyspecificrevenuegeneratingorcostsavinginitiativesinone'sownfunctionalareatobringbusinessoperationsinalignmentwiththebroaderorganizational
strategy.

XVI.InternalConsulting

98.Readmanuals,books,technicaljournals,researchpublications,andsoon,tostayabreastofnewdevelopmentsinownareaofexpertise.

99.Researchtherelevantliterature(e.g.,manuals,books,technicaljournals,researchpublications)tofindinformationforansweringspecificquestionsortobuilda
baseofinformationforsupportingaspecificactionordecision.

100.Provideprofessionaladviceorspecializedassistanceandtechnicalinstructiontootheremployeeswithquestionsinone'sownareaofexpertise.

101.Attendconferences,seminars,professionalassociationmeetings,andsoon,tostayinformedaboutindustryandcompetitorpractices.

102.Investigateproblems(involvingequipment,hardware,businessprocessesoroperations,etc.)requiringtheapplicationoftechnicalorsophisticatedprocedures,
tools,analysistechniques,andsoforth.

103.Monitortheorganization'spracticesoroperationswithreferencetolaws,regulations,guidelines,industrypractices,andsoon,toassesscompliance,risk,and
exposure.

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Part2:ManagementCompetencies

FACTORS DIMENSIONS
Thinking I.AnalyticalAgility
II.Creativity
III.ShortTermPlanning
IV.StrategyDevelopment&Deployment
V.BusinessSpecificKnowledge
Communications VI.VerbalCommunications
VII.WrittenCommunications
VIII.ListeningSkills
IX.PublicSpeaking
Inter/Intrapersonal X.BusinessRelationship/Teamwork
XI.InfluencingSkills
XII.Adaptability
XIII.Dependability&Trust
Leadership XIV.SupervisorySkills
XV.MotivationSkills
XVI.Decisiveness
XVII.WorkCommitment
GeneralOperationsManagement XVIII.MaterialsManagement
XIX.Facilities&Security
XX.InformationManagement&Computers
XXI.InternationalOperations&Alliances
FunctionalBusinessKnowledge XXII.Economics
XXIII.Accounting&Finance
XXIV.Marketing&Sales
XXV.HumanResources

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I.AnalyticalAgility

1.Skillinbreakingdownissuesorproblemsintocomponentpartstoidentifyunderlyingissues.

2.Skillinrecognizinggapsinexistinginformationthatisimportantforfullyunderstandinganissueorproblem.

3.Skillinquicklygainingjobrelatedknowledgeandusingnewlyacquiredknowledgetohelpunderstandissuesorsolveproblems.

4.Willingnesstoreflectonandanalyzeownmistakestolearnfromexperience.

5.Skillingraspingthecomplexitiesandunderstandingintricaterelationshipsamongissuesorproblems.

II.Creativity

6.Skillinanalyzingissuesorproblemsfromdifferentpointsofviewtoidentifyalternativecoursesofaction.

7.Skillingeneratingideasandsolutionsinresponsetobusinessissuesandproblems.

8.Skillinmakingintuitive,inferentialleapsinthinkingthatarelogicallygrounded.

9.Willingnesstodevelopsolutionsorconsiderproposalsthatchallengestatusquoassumptionsorproformaoperations.

10.Willingnesstofacechallengesorproblemswithanopenmindandsenseofcuriosity.

III.ShortTermPlanning

11.Skillinanalyzingtheworkflowtoensureexistingprocessesfacilitate,ratherthanhinder,theaccomplishmentofwork.

12.Skillintranslatingbusinessorworkgroupstrategiesintospecificobjectivesandtactics.

13.Skillinbalancingdaytodayactivitieswithlongtermobjectives.

14.Skillinestimatingthetimeandresourcesrequiredtocarryoutaworkobjective.

15.Skillincoordinatingtheactivitiesofmultipleworkgroupstoeliminateduplicationofeffortandinefficienciesingettingworkaccomplished.

16.Skillinidentifyingthemostappropriatesequenceinwhichactivitiesshouldbeconductedtoefficientlycompleteaproject.

IV.StrategyDevelopment&Deployment

17.Skillinidentifyingthemostprobablelongtermconsequencesofanactionordecisiongivenalargenumberofpossiblefutureoutcomes.

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18.Skillinrecognizingthebroadorlongtermimplicationsofbusinessdecisionsandplans.

19.Skillinrecognizingstrategicbusinessopportunitiesresultingfromchangesintheeconomic,technological,political/legal,orsocialenvironments.

20.Skillinseeingtherelationshipbetweenone'sownworkgrouporbusinessunitandotherdepartmentsorfunctionsintheorganization.

21.Skillinrecognizingalliances,eitherinternalorexternaltotheorganization,thatarecomplementaryandbenefitthecompetitivepositionofmultipleparties.

22.Knowledgeofthemicroenvironmentvariablesthatcanimpactthestrategicmanagementprocess(e.g.,buyerswitchingcosts,concentrationofcustomers,
competitorbusinessstrategies).

23.Knowledgeofvariablesintheorganizationenvironmentthatcanimpactcompetitivepositioningandlongtermbusinessplanning(e.g.,moraleandcommitmentof
keytalent,technologicalassetsavailabletotheorganization,organizationalstructure,anddecisionmakingstyles).

V.BusinessSpecificKnowledge

24.Knowledgeofcompetitors'products,strategies,andbusinessphilosophies.

25.Knowledgeoftheorganization'smission,goals,product,servicelines,associatedcompetitivestrengthsandweaknesses,andsoforth.

26.Knowledgeofhowotherpartsoftheorganizationfunction(e.g.,inotherfunctionalorgeographicdivisions,practiceareas,businessunits).

27.Knowledgeoftheperspectivesandagendasofkeydecisionmakersintheorganizationthatmayimpactprojectplanning,policydevelopment,resource
distribution,andsoforth.

28.Knowledgeofwhointheorganizationneedstobeinvolvedifdecisionsaretobewellreceived.

VI.VerbalCommunications

29.Skillinorganizingthoughtsorfactsinverbalcommunicationsinsuchawaythattheyfacilitateunderstanding.

30.Skilladaptingspeakingstyle(e.g.,enthusiasmandexpressiveness)tofitthesituationandaudience.

31.Skillinselectingwordsthatconveytheintentofaverbalmessagepreciselyandwithoutambiguity.

32.Skillinusingnonverbalbehavior(e.g.,gesturesandeyecontact)tounderscoreimportantpointsinverbalcommunications.

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33.Skillinusingquestionsandverbalprobestoelicitinformationorclarifyissueswithothers.

VII.WrittenCommunications

34.Skillinpreparingwrittencommunicationsthatexpressinformationclearlyandconcisely.

35.Knowledgeofbasicrulesofgrammar,punctuation,andsentencestructure.

36.Skillinscanningreports,memos,orotherdocumentstoidentifykeypoints.

37.Skillincreatingwrittenmaterialthathasalogicalflowofthoughtsandideas.

38.Skillinreviewingreports,memos,orotherwrittenmaterialforflawsinlogicorunsupportedrecommendations.

39.Skillinpreparingreports,manuals,orotherdocumentsthatcontaincomplexinformationandareintendedtobereadbyotherswithoutatechnicalbackground.

VIII.ListeningSkills

40.Skillininterpretingthenonverbalmessages(e.g.,crossedarms,facialexpressions)thataccompanyaspeaker'sverbalcommunications.

41.Skillinusingopenendedverbalprobestogetotherstoopenupandelaborateonatopic.

42.Skillinusingparaphrasingandsummarizingtechniquestoclarifythecontentofaspeaker'sverbalcommunications.

43.Willingnesstolistentoanddemonstrateempathyfortheconcernsofothers.

44.Willingnesstolistentoothersexpressdisagreementsinanefforttounderstandissuesorexploreanotherpointofview.

IX.PublicSpeaking

45.Skillinanticipatingtheinterestsandexpectationsofanaudiencewhenpreparingapresentation.

46.Skillindemonstratingconfidenceandpoiseduringlargegroupdiscussionsorformalpresentations.

47.Skillincontrollingthetimingandsequenceofeventsduringaformalpresentation.

48.Knowledgeofvariousvisualaids(e.g.,slides,flipcharts,videos,computerpresentationsoftware)thatmaybeusedtoaugmentapresentationandan
understandingoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeach.

49.Knowledgeofsocialcodesandstandardsgoverningbehaviorinbusinessorsocialsettingswhereoneisidentifiedwiththeorganization.

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50.Skillin''thinkingquicklyonone'sfeet"and"handlingquestionsfromthefloor"duringlargegroupdiscussionsorformalpresentations.

X.BusinessRelationships/Teamwork

51.Willingnesstobeproactiveandworkatconnectingwithandbuildingcooperativerelationshipswithothers.

52.Willingnesstoignorepersonallikesanddislikesinworkrelationshipsandfocusontheworkathand.

53.Willingnesstoconsiderthefeelingsorconcernsofotherteammemberswhenmakingdecisions.

54.Skillatanticipatingthereactionsofotherpeopleinresponsetocommentsandfeedback,decisions,andsoforth.

55.Willingnesstodemonstrateaninterestintheworkrelatedandpersonalconcernsofotherteammembers.

56.Willingnesstoconfrontracist,sexist,ethnocentric,orotherinsensitivebehaviorintheworkplace.

57.Willingnesstopromoteworkpoliciesandstructuresthatpromoteteamworkorenhancethefunctioningofworkteams.

XI.InfluenceSkills

58.Skillinassertivelypresentingone'sownpointofviewwithoutoffendingoralienatingothers.

59.Skillinbuildingastronglogicalargumentandcompellingrationaletosupportone'sideasandrecommendations.

60.Knowledgeofeffectivenegotiatingtacticsandtechniques(e.g.,reframevs.rejectoutrightanotherparty'sposition,specifyhowobjectiveswillbenefittheother
party).

61.Skillininvestigatingandunderstandinganotherperson'sneedsornegotiatingpositiontoguidethedevelopmentorframingofone'sownargument.

62.Skillincreatingastrongpersonalpresencethatcommandsattentionandrespectingroups.

XII.Adaptability

63.Skillinadjustingone'sworkpacetokeepupwithrapidlychangingevents.

64.Skillinshiftingone'sattentionbetweenmultipleactivitiesandcompetingdemands.

65.Willingnesstoacceptcriticismwithoutoverreactingorbecomingdefensive.

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66.Willingnesstoremainopentoandassimilatenewinformationordatathatimpactapreviousdecision,courseofaction,andsoforth.

67.Skillinkeepingacoolheadandpositivefocusinstressfulsituations.

XIII.Dependability&Trust

68.Willingnesstofollowthroughoncommitmentsandpromises.

69.Skillincommunicatinginformationinanopenandsinceremannerthatpromotescredibility(e.g.,honestanswerstotoughquestions).

70.Willingnesstoactcarefullyandresponsiblywithsensitiveorclassifiedinformation(e.g.,compensationfiguresorproprietarytechnicalinformation).

71.Willingnesstoacceptresponsibilityforownmistakes.

72.Knowledgeoftheoriesandtechniquesforenhancinganorganization'sethicalandmoralconsciousness.

73.Knowledgeofsocialresponsibilityconceptsinbusinessandindustry(e.g.,conceptsofrelativismandstakeholderanalysis).

XIV.SupervisorySkills

74.Skillinconveyingasenseofurgencytootherstohelpteammembersfocusonalimitedsetofpriorities.

75.Willingnesstofocusonemployeedevelopmentandtrainingactivitiesdespitethedailyrushtogetworkdone.

76.Knowledgeofexistingdevelopmentresourcesthatcanbeusedtosupporttheskilldevelopmentofteammembers(e.g.,books,seminars,trainingprograms).

77.Skillinidentifyingassignmentsdesignedtostretchanddevelopothers'capabilities.

78.Willingnesstomonitorworkassignmentstostayontopofworkprogress.

79.Skillincommunicatingthegoalsofaworkgrouporbusinessunittoteammemberssothatindividualworkbehaviorisalignedwithbroaderstrategies.

80.Skillinsettingprioritiesandworkdirectionsforotherssotheyhaveaclearideaofperformanceexpectation.

81.Skillinassigningtheappropriatelevelofauthoritytocoincidewithdelegatedworkactivities.

XV.MotivationSkills

82.Knowledgeofbasicprinciplesofmotivationandtheoriesofworkbehavior.

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83.Skillincreatinganenergeticandenthusiasticworkenvironmentwherepeoplehavepositiveattitudesabouttheirwork.

84.Willingnesstotakethetimetotrackandreinforcepositiveworkbehaviorsinothers.

85.Skillinconveyingtoothersthefeelingthattheirworkisvaluedandthattheyareimportantmembersoftheteam.

86.Willingnesstoinvolveothersinplanninganddecisionmaking.

XVI.Decisiveness

87.Willingnesstotakeastandonimportantmatterswhenfacedwithdifficultdilemmasordecisions.

88.Willingnesstomakedecisionsinthefaceofuncertaintyorwhentoughchoicesarerequired.

89.Skillinsettingprioritiesanddevelopingaworkdirectioninambiguoussituations.

90.Skillindeliveringclearandactionorientedinstructionsincrisissituationsrequiringquickaction.

91.Willingnesstostepforwardandchampionnewinitiativesandimprovementsintheorganizationthatrequirebroadcommitmentorchange.

XVII.WorkCommitment

92.Willingnesstopersistinthefaceofdifficulties(e.g.,whenworkbecomescomplex,intellectuallychallenging,andpoliticallycomplicated).

93.Skillinmaintainingahighenergyleveltokeepupwiththepaceofdailyworkactivities.

94.Willingnesstosethighstandardsofpersonalperformance.

95.Willingnesstotaketheinitiativeinseekingoutnewworkchallengesandincreasethevarietyandscopeofone'sjob.

96.Willingnesstobringissuestoclosurebypushingforwarduntilaresolutionisachieved.

97.Skillatstayingfocusedonworkprioritiesandworkingthroughoraroundfrequentinterruptions.

98.Willingnesstopursuecontinuouslearningtostaycurrentwithadvancesinownareaofexpertise.

XVIII.MaterialsManagement

99.Knowledgeofpurchasingfundamentalsandtechniques(e.g.,forecastingtechniques,purchasingcontrolprocesses,proceduresforestablishingandmaintaining
vendorrelations).

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100.Knowledgeofstorageandinventoryconcepts(e.g.,methodsfordeterminingstoragelayout,codingandmarking,balancingandcontrollinginventorycosts).

101.Knowledgeoforderprocessing(e.g.,methodsforenteringorders,invoicingorders,measuringcustomerservice).

102.Knowledgeoflogisticsengineering(e.g.,proceduresformeasuringreliabilityandmaintainability,analyzingsystemfunctions,analyzinglogisticssupport).

103.Knowledgeofworkprocessplanning(e.g.,jobdesignconcepts,workmeasurementprocedures,variablesimpactingcapacityplanningandfacilitieslayout).

104.Knowledgeofprocessdesignandimplementation(e.g.,productionandservicedesigns,qualityimprovementconcepts,projectmanagementandcontrol).

105.Skillinsettingclearprioritiesandworkdirectionsforothers.

106.Skillincommunicatingthegoalsofaworkgrouporbusinessunittoindividualsonone'steam.

XIX.Facilities&Security

107.Knowledgeoffacilitiestacticalplanning(e.g.,generalsite/locationanalysis,basicergonomics,regulatorylawsgoverningfacilities).

108.Knowledgeofpreventivemaintenanceguidelinesandproceduresforequipmentandfacilities.

109.Knowledgeofstartupproceduresandfacilityimplementation(e.g.,proceduresformonitoringequipmentandfurnitureinstallation,obtainingmunicipalitypermits,
contractingoutsideservices).

110.Knowledgeofproceduresforestablishingphysicalsecurity(e.g.,intrusionpreventiontechniquesanddevices,fireprotectiontechniquesanddevices,disaster
recoveryplans).

111.Knowledgeofproceduresforestablishingpersonnelsecurity(e.g.,backgroundinvestigationprocedures,monitoringtechniquesandtools,checksandbalances,
andseparationofduties).

XX.InformationManagement&Computers

112.Knowledgeofinformationsystemsandinformationmanagement(e.g.,techniquesfordefininguserrequirementsanddatastructures,statisticalproceduresfor
analyzingsystemfunctioning).

113.Knowledgeofdatabasemanipulationandmanagement(e.g.,techniquesfordesigningdatabases,storageandaccessmethodsincomputersystems,CASEtools,
datamodeling).

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114.Knowledgeofprojectmanagementtoolsandtechniques.

115.Knowledgeofdecisionsupportandexpertsystemsininformationmanagement(e.g.,neuralnetworks,platformdesignfeatures,compatibilityissues).

116.Knowledgeofcomputerhardwareandperipheraldevices(e.g.,storagemediasuchastapedrives,imagingdevices,fileserversetupandconfiguration).

117.Knowledgeofcomputeroperationsandsupporttools(e.g.,softwareutilities,jobschedulers,datatransfertools).

118.Knowledgeofcomputernetworkmanagementtools(e.g.,wirelesstechnology,LANsandWANs,systemnetworkarchitecture).

119.Knowledgeofcomputerinformationsystemdevelopmenttools(e.g.,programdevelopmentstandards,compilersandlinkers,automateddebuggingandtesting
tools).

XXI.InternationalOperations&Alliances

120.Knowledgeofinternationaleconomics(e.g.,variablesimpactinginternationaltradeandcapitalflows,productionmobilityfactors,tradepolicyassessment).

121.Knowledgeofinternationalmarketing(e.g.,businesscustomsandpracticesinglobalmarketing,exporttrademechanicsandlogistics,internationaldistribution
systems).

122.Knowledgeofglobalhumanresourcesmanagement(e.g.,ethicalissuesininternationalmanagement,impactofdifferentvaluesystemsondecisionmaking,cultural
diversityinfluences,organizationalbehavior).

123.Knowledgeofinternationalcorporatefinance(e.g.,currencytradingandparityrelationships,economicandpoliticalriskevaluation,internationalmonetary
arrangements).

XXII.Economics

124.Knowledgeofbasiceconomicconceptsandtheories(e.g.,marginalcostandbenefitevaluations,productionandconsumptionrelationshipsandmeasurement).

125.Knowledgeofmicroeconomics(e.g.,variablesinvolvedinunderstandingconsumerbehavior,proceduresfordeterminingoptimalinputcombinationsandcost
functionsforanorganization).

126.Knowledgeofmacroeconomics(e.g.,commodityandcreditmarkets,factorsimpactingcapitalaccumulationandeconomicgrowth,variablesimpactingthe
demandformoney).

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127.Knowledgeoflaboreconomics(e.g.,wagedeterminationtables,stagflationconcepts,tradeunionorganizationandfunctioning).

128.Knowledgeofeconometrics(e.g.,descriptivestatistics,linearregressionmodels,disequilibriummodels).

129.Knowledgeofeconomicdevelopment(e.g.,socialaspectsofdevelopment,tradepoliciesofdevelopingcountries,agriculturepolicyandrelationshipsto
economicdevelopment).

130.Skillinusingeconomicindicatorstoforecasttrendsandbusinesscycles.

XXIII.Accounting&Finance

131.Knowledgeoffinancialstatementsandanalysis(e.g.,balancesheets,cashflowstatements,equityanalysis).

132.Knowledgeofmanagementaccountingprocedures(e.g.,costvolumeprofitanalysis,returnoninvestmentcalculations,capitalbudgeting).

133.Knowledgeofauditingprocedures(e.g.,payrollandpersonnelcycles,salesandcollectioncycles,divisibleprofitcalculations).

134.Knowledgeofbasicprinciplesoffinance(e.g.,calculatingnetpresentvalue,riskassessment,assetpricingmodels).

135.Knowledgeofcorporatefinanceprinciples(e.g.,debtfinancing,creditandcashmanagement,methodsforevaluatingmarketefficiency).

136.Knowledgeofcorporateinvestmentmanagement(e.g.,taxshelters,contrarianinvestmentstrategiesandstockreversals,diversificationconcepts).

137.Knowledgeoffinancialmarkets(e.g.,primaryandsecondarymarkets,monetaryandfiscalpolicy,securityanalysis).

138.Knowledgeoffinancialriskmeasurementandmanagement(e.g.,volatilityforecasting,riskcapitalcalculations,creditriskmanagement).

139.Skillinanalyzingfinancialstatementstoevaluateanorganization'sfiscalhealthandlocatecausesofvarianceinbusinessoperations.

XXIV.Marketing&Sales

140.Knowledgeofmarketingresearchandanalysis(e.g.,salesforecasting,productandpricingresearch,marketingresearchdesigns).

141.Knowledgeofproductdesignandmanagement(e.g.,newproductdevelopmentstrategies,productlifecycleconcepts,marketsegmentationandpositioning).

142.Knowledgeofretailmarketingandmerchandising(e.g.,techniquesformodifyingstoreimage,planogramusesandmisuses,pricingandpromotionstrategies).

 Page258

143.Knowledgeofconsumerbehavior(e.g.,marketingcommunicationsthatimpactconsumerbehavior,economicandpsychologicaltheoriesaboutconsumer
behavior,socioculturalfactorsaffectingconsumerbehavior).

144.Knowledgeofsalesmanagement(e.g.,methodsforanalyzingexistingaccounts,techniquesforestimatingsalesbasedontrends).

145.Knowledgeofterritorymanagement(e.g.,proceduresusedtoestablishterritoryboundaries,methodsformonitoringterritoryperformance).

146.Skillinevaluatingwhatconstitutesdesirablefeaturesoroptionsinaproduct/servicewithreferencetopotentialcustomerbaseortargetmarket.

147.Skillinidentifyingcustomerneedsandcareaboutsandmatchingormodifyingproducts/servicesaccordingly.

XXV.HumanResources

148.Knowledgeofstrategichumanresourceplanning(e.g.,techniquesforinventoryinginternallaborsupplies,modelingpersonnelflows,forecastingresource
requirements).

149.Knowledgeoflaborlawsandgovernmentregulationsimpactinghumanresourcemanagement(e.g.,EEOCandOFCCPregulations,CivilRightslaws,laborlaws
suchastheWagnerActandTaftHartleyAct).

150.Knowledgeofjobmodelingtechniquesandoutputs(e.g.,interviewandquestionnaireapproaches,creatingmodelsofworkforjobsorgroupsofjobs).

151.Knowledgeofemployeeselectionandplacementmethods(e.g.,interviewingbestpractices,abilityandpersonalitytesting,validatingdecisionmakingprocesses).

152.Knowledgeofemployeecompensationandrewardsystems(e.g.,strategiesfordesigningpaysystems,conductingpaysurveys,creatingincentiveprograms).

153.Knowledgeofperformanceappraisalapproachesandmethodsfortrackingindividualperformance(e.g.,requirementsofarelevantappraisalsystem,prosand
consofdifferentmethods,potentialusesandmisusesofappraisaldata).

154.Knowledgeoftrainingprogramsandtechniques(e.g.,onthejobmethods,useofsimulations,trainingevaluationmethodology).

155.Knowledgeofproceduresandtechniquesfororganizationanalysisanddevelopment.

156.Knowledgeofemployeeandhealthandsafetyissuesandregulations(e.g.,healthprogramsforemployees,OSHAstandards,reportingandenforcement,
workers'compensationanddisabilityprograms).

 Page259

References
1
Schippmann,J.S.,Prien,E.P.,&Hughes,G.L.(1991).Thecontentofmanagementwork:Formationoftaskandjobskillcompositeclassifications.Journalof
BusinessandPsychology,5,325354.
2 Borman,W.C.,&Brush,D.H.(1993).Moreprogresstowardataxonomyofmanagerialperformancerequirements.HumanPerformance,6,121.
3
Johnson,J.W.,Schneider,R.J.,&Oswald,F.L.(1997).Towardataxonomyofmanagerialperformanceprofiles.HumanPerformance,10,227250.
4
Spreitzer,G.M.,McCall,M.M.,&Mahoney,J.D.(1997).Earlyidentificationofinternationalexecutivepotential.JournalofAppliedPsychology,82,629.

 Page260

AppendixB
DataReductionTechniquesinJobModeling
eachstatisticbyitselfcanbealittledaunting,butmassthemtogetherandtheyareterribleindeed.
Unknown

Welcometothetechnicalappendix,youadventuroussoul!Iamgoingtotrymydarndesttoshowthatyouhavenotmisplacedyourfaithinmebyventuringdeepinto
thehinterlandofthisbook.

Therearethreesubsectionstothisappendix.Thefirsttwo,QFactorAnalysisandClusterAnalysis,concerndatabasedtechniquesforconsolidatingjobs.Thethird
subsection,RFactorAnalysis,involvesabriefdiscussionofadatabasedtechniqueforconsolidatingdescriptorcontentoritems.Readytoforgeaheadintothe
forebodingmist?Screwyourcouragetothestickingplace,keepyoureyesonthepathinfrontofyou,andI'llbetyoumakeitthroughunscathed!

QFactorAnalysis

Asnotedinchapter7,factoranalysisreferstoabroadfamilyofstatistics.However,whenusingQfactortechniquestoguidetheconsolidationofjobs,onewoulduse
exploratoryfactoranalyticstatisticstoseeifmeaningfulsubdivisionsoccur(asopposedtoconfirmatoryfactorapproaches,whichmaybeusedtotestspecific
expectationsabouttheunderlyingjobstructure).Donotbethrownbytheuseofthetermexploratory.Thisdoesnotmeanthatwedonotknowsomethingabout
whatwearelookingfororwhatwemightfind.

Ingeneral,regardlessofthespecificprocedure,thefirststepinafactoranalysisinvolvesdecidingwhethertouseprincipalcomponentorcommonfactortechniques.In
thestrictestsense,principalcomponentsanalysisissomewhat

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distinctfromfactoranalysisandyieldsgroupsofcomponentsversusfactors.However,notmuchislostinthetranslationifonesimplifiesmattersandconsidersbothto
befactoranalyticapproachesthatproducehomogenousgroupingsofwhateveristargetedbytheanalysis(i.e.,positionsinthiscase).Thissaid,thepurposeof
principalcomponentsanalysisistocreatefactorsinsuchawaythattheresultinggroupsarecompletelyindependent.Incontrast,commonfactorapproachescreate
factorsthatonlyapproximateindependence.

Furthermore,thereareanumberofwaystoextracttheinitialgroupingsolutionusingthecommonfactorapproachprimarilymaximumlikelihoodandleastsquares
techniques.ThesebasicideasarerepresentedinTableB.1,whichisastatisticalanalysischeatsheetthatmaybereferredtowhenfacedwithquestionsabout
consolidatingjobs.Thetoprowofthistablereferstofactoranalyticproceduresanddecisionpoints.Actually,thetophalfofTableB.1referstoQfactoranalysis,
which,asnotedinchapter7,isavariantofthemoretraditionalRfactoranalysis.MoreontheRversusQdistinctionlater.

Fromajobconsolidationperspective,boththeprincipalcomponentandcommonfactorapproacheshavetheirsupportersanddetractors.1 ,2 However,mostofthe
debateisrootedinatheoreticalbrouhahaabouttheunderpinningsoftheanalysesandimpactofthesefoundationaldifferencesontheinterpretabilityoftheresults.In
fact,dozensofpersonaleffortsexaminingthecomparabilityoftheresultswithvarioussetsofrealdata,combinedwithsimilarfindingsfromthereportedresearchof
others,3 ,4 ,5 leadmetoconcludethereislittlepracticaldifferencebetweenthetwo(unlessoneisinterestedininvestigatingthetheoryunderlyingtheresultingsolutionor
generalizingthegroupingoutcomestoothersettingsorsituations6 ,7 ,8 ).Forthesereasons,theremainingdiscussionislimitedtoprincipalcomponentsanalysis,although
thereaderwhoisinterestedinlearningmoreaboutcommonfactorapproachescanturntoanumberofexcellentsources,startingwithWeiss,9 movingontoKimand
Mueller,10,11andprogressingtomoreinvolveddiscussionsbyOverallandKlett12andGorsuch.13UsingyourfavoriteWebbrowsertosearchforkeywordslike
factoranalysiscanalsolinkyouuptonumeroushomepageswithusefulinformation,workingexamples,andsoon.

Thesecondstepinafactoranalysis,asillustratedinTableB.1,istodeterminehowmanygroupingsorcomponentsbestorganizethetotalnumberofthingsbeing
analyzed(inthiscase,individualrespondentsrepresentingspecificpositions).Thedeterminationofthenumberofgroupsthatbestorganizetheentitiesbeinggroupedis
typicallybasedonacombinationofstatisticalandjudgmentaldecisions.Fromapurelystatisticalvantagepoint,onemightusetheKaisercriterion,14which
recommendsretaininggroupswitheigenvaluesgreaterthanone,particularlywhenthereisalarge(e.g.,10to1)ratiobetweensubjectsandvariables,15which
translatestoitemsandrespondentsorpositionsinaQfactorsituation.Eigenvalue,yousay!Justwhatisaneigenvalue?Inshort,thisisthetotalamountofvariabilityin
thematrixofcorrelationsexplainedby

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 Page263

eachfactorthefirstfactoraccountsforthelargestamountofvarianceinthesampleandsuccessivefactorscontributeprogressivelysmalleramountstoexplainingwhat
groupingsexistinthedata.

ConsiderthefollowingsubsetofdatafromaprojectwithBANKONE,afullserviceconsumerandcommercialbankwithmorethan1,500bankingoffices.The
projectinvolvedanalyzingquestionnaireresponsesfromsixjobsintheretailbankingpartofthebusiness:BankingCenterManager(BCM),BankingCenterAssistant
Manager(BCAM),RelationshipBanker(RB),andCustomerServiceAssociate(CSA)I,II,III.Thequestionnaireaskedjobincumbentstoratetheimportanceof
112workactivitiesusinga5pointratingscale.Asanillustration,30caseshavebeenselectedfromamuchlargersetofprojectdatafivecasesrepresentingeach
job.Thisminidatasetwassubmittedtoaprincipalcomponentsanalysis,yieldingtheinitialsetofextractionstatisticsinTableB.2.Thisexhibitliststhetotalnumberof
extractedfactors(whichequalsthenumberofvariablesbeingfactored),associatedeigenvalues(i.e.,totalvarianceexplainedbythefactor),correspondingpercentof
variance(i.e.,thepercentageoftotalvarianceattributedtoeachfactor),andthecumulativepercent(i.e.,therunningtotalofexplainedvarianceasonemovesdown
thelistfromlargertosmallerfactors).

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Inthisexample,theresultsofwhichmirrortheresultsfromtheactualstudy,foureigenvaluesaregreaterthanone,suggestingafourfactorsolution.Oftenthisrulefor
identifyingthebestnumberofunderlyinggroupshasbeencriticizedforproducingtoomanyfactors.Althoughnottrueinthiscase,itfrequentlyproducesasmany
factorsasonethirdofthenumberoforiginalvariables.

AmorejudgmentalmeansofidentifyingthebestnumberofgroupingstoretainisCattell'sscreetest,16wherescreeisthegeologicaltermreferringtotheloosestones
anddebristhataccumulatesatthebaseofarockymountainslope.Thisrulesuggestsidentifyingthatpointwheretheeigenvaluesbegintosmoothoutandforma
gradualslope(i.e.,thescreeordebristhatlittersthebaseofthemainmountainoffactors).UsingtheBANKONEdata,Fig.B.1illustratesascreeplot,which
suggestsacoupleofbreaksinthedataaclearoneatthreeandasecondsmalleroneatfour.Itisatthesepointsthatourrockclimber,superimposedonthescree
plotinFig.B.1,wouldhavetobreakouthistoolsandclimbversuscontinuingtowalkupanincliningslope.

Thereareotherfactordeterminationtechniquesoutthere,suchasparallelanalysis,17minimumaveragepartialcorrelationprocedures,18testsoftheequalityofthelast
eigenvalues,19,20andothers.21However,nosingleendall,beatall

Fig.B.1.
Screeplot

 Page265

methodhasemerged.Infact,mysenseisthatmostpractitionersendupusingmultiplecombinationsofrulestoreachasatisfactorysolution.Furthermore,because
thereissomeevidencetosuggestthatitisbettertoerronthesideofoverestimatingversusunderestimatingthebestnumberofgroups,22,23,24anumberofwriters
suggestthatawisestrategyistostartwiththelargestsolutionfirstandworkdownuntilthebestcategorizationisfound.25,26Infact,somepractitionersidentifythe
numberoffactorssuggestedbythetechniqueofchoiceandthenadd2.Whenthefactorproceduresarererun,theseplus2factorsoftenactasthefactoranalytic
equivalentsofacoupleofgarbagecansandcollectthestatisticallitterfromvariablesthatdonotfitinthetargetedfactors.Thesetwogarbagefactorsarethenleft
uninterpretedandtheassociatedvariablesareexcludedfromfurtheranalysis.Insummary,thebestsolutionisratherabstractlydefinedasthecategorizationthatismost
reasonablegiventhedatainhandandthepracticalrealitiesthatareinterwovenwiththemodelingcontext.

Thethirdstepintheprincipalcomponentsanalysisistoimprovethemeaningfulnessoftheinitialfactorsolutionbyrerunningthefactoranalysistothespecifiednumber
ofextractedfactorsandthensubmittingtheresultingfactormatrixtoafollowupanalysiscalledrotation.Therotationstephastwoprimaryoptionsorthogonal
rotationorobliquerotation.Inthesimplestterms,orthogonalrotationproducesfactorsthataresubstantivelyuncorrelated(i.e.,emphasizesdistinctnessinthe
groupings),whereasobliquerotationallowsthefactorstobecorrelated.Here,too,itispossibletofindproponentsanddetractorsofthedifferentmethods.
Championsoftheorthogonalapproachhighlightthemethod'ssimplicityandconceptualclarity.27Fansoftheobliqueapproachclaimthattheadditionalcomplexityisa
smallpricetopayforsomeaddedprecisioninexplanatoryvalue.Whenusedinjobmodelingworktoconsolidatejobs,Ithinkarguingaboutthebestrotational
methodiskindoflikearguingaboutwhomakesthebestbarbecue.Itdependsonwhoyouask(althoughformymoneyitisawonderfullittleplacecalledInterstate
BBQinMemphisifyoufindyourselfintownanddecidetostopby,besuretotrythebarbecuespaghetti).Therereallyisnooverwhelmingsupportforeitherside
thereisonlyachoicebetweenthiswayofdoingthingsandthatwayofdoingthings.

Atthispoint,afinalfactorsolutionexistsandoneislefttothebusinessofinterpretingtheresultinggroupingsofpositions.Interpretationtypicallyinvolveslookingat
boththepositiveandnegativefactorloadingsbasedontheideathattheresultinglabelsaremoremeaningfulwhentheyconsiderbothwhatisandisnotinthefactor.28
Timetodefineanotherterm:

FactorLoadings: Describethecorrelationsbetweenfactorsemergingfromafactoranalysisandthe
originalentitiesusedtocreatethefactors.InaQfactoranalysisthismeansa
correlationbetweenindividualrespondentsorpositionsandthesmallersetofjob
factors.

 Page266

Conventionalpracticeissuchthatonlyentitieswithloadingsgreaterthan.30or.40shouldbeconsideredpracticallysignificant.Tocreatedistinctclassifications,one
mightgoonestepfurtherandonlyselectpositionstorepresentagroupifthefactorloadingsare.40orhigheronagivenfactorandallotherloadingsontheremaining
factorsarelessthan.30.

TakealookatthematrixoffactorloadingsinTableB.3.Eachrowcontainsthecorrelations(inthecaseofuncorrelatedfactorssuchasthoseresultingfromaprincipal
componentsanalysis)betweenvariables(i.e.,persons/positions)andtheresultingfactors.WhenusingQfactorprocedurestoclassifypersons/positions,itisusually
mostmeaningfultoassociateeachrespondentwithoneandonlyonefactor.Thisisdonebyusingeachindividual'shighestfactorloadingasthecriterionforbelonging
toanexclusivegroup.

InspectionofthematrixoffactorloadingsinTableB.3withthesimpleexclusivitycriterioninmindindicatesareadilyinterpretablebreakdownintermsoffactor
composition(i.e.,groupmembershipinthissituation).Factor1isclearlyaRelationshipBankingjobgroup.ItmayappearalittleconfusingtoseetheCSAIIpositions
loadinghighlyonthisfactor.TheconfusionclearsupwhenoneunderstandsthatBANKONE,atthetime,usedthisjobasthetraininggroundformovingintothemore
salesorientedRelationshipBankerjob.Ratherthanperformingabroadrangeofcustomerserviceactivities,CSAIIswerereallyservingasaRelationshipBanker
understudy.

Factor2iscomposedofalltheCSAIandIIIs.Althoughthereweresomedifferencesintheperformanceexpectationsbetweenthesetwojobtitles,theemployees
weresubstantivelyperformingthesamekindsofactivities.Thus,subsequentworktocreateselectiontools,trainingprograms,andsoon,mightproceedmost
economicallybyconsideringthesetwoclassesofemployeesasagroup.However,BankingCenterManagersandBankingCenterAssistantManagersbrokeout
separatelyasFactors3and4.Consequently,thesetwoclassesofemployeesmightbeconsideredasacollectivejobgroupinfutureeffortstobuildvariousHR
applications,rollupdataforreportingvariouskindsofoperationaldata,andsoforth.

Insummary,QFactorprincipalcomponentsanalysisisawonderfultoolformakingsenseofthemanyandvariedinterconnectionsamongjobsinmostorganizations.
AlthoughIamnotawareofanydatatosupportthepoint,Isuspectitisthepreferredmethodamongpractitioners,particularlywhenthepositionsofinterestare
expectedtobehighlycorrelated.ThisviewhasreceivedsomerecentempiricalsupportbyColihanandBurger,29whoconductedaseriesofstudiesthatindicatethe
techniqueissuperiortoitsclosestcompetitorclusteranalysisinrecoveringknowngroupings.Nevertheless,clusteranalysisisapopulartechnique,andour
discussionwouldbeincompleteifitwerenotalsocovered.Tobefair,I'llbetthat,although

 Page267

TABLEB.3
MatrixofFactorLoadings

Person/Position Factor1 Factor2 Factor3 Factor4

Person21/RB .88340 .16237 .03807 .00201
Person19/RB .84093 .09126 .15115 .11375
Person27/RB .83452 .19953 .23421 .04411
Person20/RB .82187 .21716 .01560 .03987
Person08/CSAII .81660 .24054 .09311 .04797
Person30/RB .80972 .04328 .02767 .11303
Person24/CSAII .80580 .19102 .12161 .14996
Person07/CSAII .80363 .21882 .21140 .06357
Person05/CSAII .77013 .36467 .05682 .04141
Person06/CSAII .72204 .36094 .17992 .15222
Person23/CSAI .06798 .84373 .05005 .04862
Person02/CSAI .20975 .84114 .17734 .09290
Person29/CSAI .21696 .82799 .04806 .06213
Person25/CSAIII .27173 .80942 .03767 .01625
Person04/CSAI .17249 .80017 .20347 .08954
Person03/CSAIII .14540 .78676 .16408 .15378
Person22/CSAIII .02621 .75748 .16971 .27362
Person26/CSAI .25310 .73782 .16290 .14085
Person01/CSAIII .42666 .65392 .03003 .17841
Person28/CSAIII .33906 .63211 .18986 .10312
Person16/BCM .05072 .19551 .86074 .14124
Person15/BCM .20494 .10436 .85856 .09561
Person14/BCM .05611 .24343 .84198 .12860
Person18/BCM .13285 .10931 .81131 .36395
Person17/BCM .04269 .01076 .77785 .37380
Person09/BCAM .06498 .04186 .15520 .85825
Person11/BCAM .05230 .14268 .07768 .82007
Person12/BCAM .06434 .35415 .15909 .76295
Person13/BCAM .03661 .27250 .34889 .71570
Person10/BCAM .05044 .07720 .39231 .70934

 Page268

many,ifnotmost,practitionersmaystartwithafactoranalysis,theyendupdoingaclusteranalysisaswellandcomparetheresults.Harveytookthisapproachastep
furtherandsuggestedemployingahybridtechniqueinwhichamatrixoffactorloadingsissubmittedtoaclusteranalysis.30

ClusterAnalysis

Aswithfactoranalysisandperhapsevenmoreso,aconsiderablevarietyofclustermethodsareavailable.31,32,33Thesemethodsmaybeclusteredthemselvesinto
fivemajorfamiliesoftechniques:hierarchicalagglomerative,hierarchicaldiversive,iterativepartitioning,densitysearch,andfactoranalysisvariants.Ofthefive,
hierarchicalagglomerativeisthemostfrequentlyusedoverall34andmostcertainlythemostpopularforjobconsolidationpurposes.

Withinthehierarchicalagglomerativefamily,thereareanumberofspecifictechniques,althoughalluseahierarchicalprocedureforgroupingpurposes.Ineach,thefirst
stepoftheanalysisstartsbyconsideringallvariables(i.e.,persons/positions)asseparateclusters.Thatis,atgroundzero,thereareasmanyclustersasthereare
variables(i.e.,personsorpositions).AtStep2,twovariablesarecombinedtoformasinglecluster.AtStep3,eitherathirdcaseisaddedtotheexistingtwovariable
clusterortwonewvariablesarecombinedtoformanewcluster.Thiscontinuesonuptheladder,asillustratedbythedendrogramortreediagraminchapter7.

Unlikefactoranalysis,theinitialsolutioncreatedbytheclusterprocedureistheonlysolution.Inotherwords,thereisnosecondaryanalysis,likerotation,usedto
sharpenuptheresults.Thus,selectingthebestmethodrightoutofthechuteisimportant.

Inaterrificpaperdesignedtomakesenseoftheprosandconsofthevarioustechniquesinthisfamily(e.g.,averagelinkagecorrelation,averagelinkagedistance,
Ward'sminimumvariance),Garwood,Anderson,andGreengartcomparedtheusefulnessofthedifferenttechniquesforgroupingpositionsfromdifferentkindsofdata
sets.35TheirresultsandrecommendationsserveastheprimaryinformationsourceforthebottomhalfofthestatisticalanalysischeatsheetinTableB.1.

Thenestedtreestructureofadendrogramisthepreferredmethodfordisplayingtheresultsofaclusteranalysis.FigureB.2presentstheAverageLinkageCorrelation
DendrogramfortheBANKONEmicrodataset.Kindofinteresting,right?Justhowmanymeaningfulclustersarerepresentedinthisprettypicture?Well,aswith
factoranalysis,therearenofixeddecisionrules.Probablythemostprevalentprocedureisasubjectivedecisiononwheretoprunethetreebasedonthelengthofthe
branches.36Thelongertheline,thebiggerthedifferencebetweenthetwoentitiesthatgetgroupedtogetherataparticularstep.

InFig.B.2,wemightstartatthetopandworkourwaydown.AtLevel16therearetwolargegroups,oneconsistingofBCMsandBCAMsandonecom

 Page269

Fig.B.2.
Averagelinkagecorrelationdendogram.

prisedofRBsandCSAI,II,andIIIs.Belowthispoint,therearelongbranchesallthewaydowntoLevel10andbeyond,suggestingsomedistinctclustersof
position.Ifweexaminetheseclusters,weseeBCMsandBCAMsbreakingoutseparatelyfromthehigherlevelclusterontheleftandRBs/CSAIIsandCSAI/IIIs
breakingoutassubgroupsfromthehigherlevelclusterontheright.Atthispoint,wehavethesamesolutionasthatprovidedbythefactoranalysis.Clearlythis
procedureisjudgmentalthefinaljudgmentislikelytobebetterthemoreoneunderstandsthedataandhasasenseofwhatthecorrectgroupingofpositionsislikelyto
looklike.

Asomewhatmoredatabasedtechniqueforderivingthebestnumberofclustersistoexamineand/orplottheamalgamationcoefficients,whichisthesquared
Euclideandistancebetweentwovariables,orvariableclusters,whicharecombinedataparticularstep.Putsimply,theamalgamation(i.e.,linkage)coefficientisa
numericalvaluethatrepresentsthepointatwhichvariablesmergetoformacluster.Morespecifically,itisthevalueofthedistancebetweenthetwomostdissimilar
pointsoftheclustersthatarebeingmerged.Byexaminingalistofthesevalues,asseeninTableB.4usingtheBANKONEdata,itispossibletoidentifyjumpsinthe
valueofthecoefficient.Ajumpmeansthattwodissimilarclustershavebeencombinedandsuggeststhatthenumberofclusters

 Page270

priortothecombinationisapossiblesolution(kindoflikeexaminingthelengthofabranchinadendrogram).Jumpsoccurbetweentwoandthreeandbetweenfour
andfive.

AsThorndikeoriginallysuggested,itisalsopossibletoplottheamalgamationcoefficientsinamannerthatissimilartothescreetestinfactoranalysis.Aflatteningin
thistypeofplotsuggeststhatnonewinformationiscontributedbythefollowingclustercombinations.37

Insummary,clusteringapproachestojobconsolidationhavetheiradvocates.38Apotentiallynicefeatureoftheclustermethodsisthattheyclearlyputeachvariable
(i.e.,person/position)intoone,andonlyone,group.Thus,thereisnoneofthisbusinessofexaminingfactorloadingsacrossmultiplefactors.Onthedownside,thisalso
meansthatpotentiallyusefulinformationisunavailable.Furthermore,thefactthatdifferentclusteringmethodscan,anddo,yielddifferentresultscanbedisconcerting.
Then,too,thereisthelimitationthatclusterroutinesmakeone,sequentialpassthroughthedatatogeneratearesult.Asaconsequence,poordecisionsbythe
statisticalalgorithmstomergevariablesearlyinthepassthroughthedatacannotbeundoneorreconsideredasadditionalinformationischanneledintotheanalysis.
Thismeansthatsimplyreorderingthevariablesinthedatasetcanimpactwhatthefinalsolutionlookslike.

Finally,thepresentationformatofmostclustermethodsmakesitdifficulttoreallyseewhatisgoingoninlargedatasets.Imagineadendrogramlike

 Page271

theoneinFig.B.2with150variablesversus30.Nevertheless,itstilloftenmakessensetogenerateaclustersolutionafterfactoringadatasettoconfirmtheresults
and,insomecases,evenaddalittleprecisionininterpretation.

RFactorAnalysis

WearenotgoingtogetintoafullblowndiscussionofRfactoranalytictechniques.Muchofwhatisimportanthasalreadybeencoveredinthesectionon
consolidatingjobinformationusingQfactormethods.

AgoodexampleofaquantitativelybasedclassificationsystemusingjobanalysisquestionnairedataisHemphill'sworkwithmanagementjobs.39Hemphill's
questionnairecontained575activityitemsthatwerefactoranalyzedusingprincipalcomponentstoproduce10separatedimensionsofmanagementwork.Researchof
thiskindusesfactoranalysisondatasetsinwhichthestatementsaretreatedasvariablesandtheresponsesfromraterscompletingthequestionnairearetreatedas
observations.Thebasicdataarecastinaworkactivity(orcompetency)byratermatrix,asopposedtotheraterbyactivity(orcompetency)matrixusedinQmode
factoranalysis.

Usingfactoranalysiswithitemcontentfrommodelingquestionnairesisawidespreadactivity.However,itshouldbenotedthatfactoringimportanceratingscanbe
misleadingwhentheratingshavebeencollectedwithreferencetoasinglejob.40Theargumentisthatifasinglejobistargeted,andassumingtherewasperfect
agreementamongtheratersaboutthevalueofthejobcharacteristicsbeingrated,theirresultingpatternsofdisagreementwouldreflectresponsebias,idiosyncratic
valuesystems,andunreliability,ratherthananytruedifferencesinjobcontent.Asaresult,factoranalysesofratingsinthissituationwouldcapturespuriouspatternsof
disagreementandnotmeaningfulpatternsofrelationshipsamongsetsofquestionnaireitems.Inthisisolatedcontext,whenasinglejobisstudied,thisargumentrings
true.Farmoretypicalinpracticalmodelingsituations,however,areoccasionstomodeltheworkspanningmultiplejobs.

Furthermore,fortheresultsfromafactoranalysistosupplantthestructureobtainedfromthecontentanalysis,alargesamplesizeisrequired.Somewritershave
suggested541or1042timesasmanyratersasitems.Althoughrecentworksuggeststhatsmallersamplesizesandratertoitemratiosyieldmeaningfulresults,43,44,45
asageneralruleoneshouldhaveatleasttwotimesasmanyratersasitems.Unfortunately,suchlargesamplesizesarenotalwaysavailable.Consequently,theresults
ofthecontentanalysisoftenhavedrivinginfluenceindeterminingthestructureofwork(i.e.,classifyingactivitiesandcompetenciesintosubsetsofitemsthatare
similar).

 Page272

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Gorsuch,R.L.(1997).Exploratoryfactoranalysis:Itsroleinitemanalysis.JournalofPersonalityAssessment,68,532560.
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Kenny,D.A.(1979).Correlationandcausality.NewYork:Wiley.
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31
Anderberg,M.(1973).Clusteranalysisforapplications.NewYork:AcademicPress.
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Gorsuch,R.L.(1974).Factoranalysis.Philadelphia,PA:W.B.Saunders.
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43
Gorsuch,R.L.(1997).Exploratoryfactoranalysis:Itsroleinitemanalysis.JournalofPersonalityAssessment,68,532560.
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Guadagnoli,E.,&Velicer,W.F.(1989).Relationofsamplesizetothestabilityofcomponentpatterns.PsychologicalBulletin,103,265275.
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AUTHORINDEX
Numbersinparenthesisarereferencenumbersandindicatethatanauthor'sworkisreferredtoalthoughtheauthor'snameisnotcited.Numberinitalicsshowthepage
onwhichthecompletereferenceislisted.

Ackerman,L.,123,(22,27),151

Ackerman,P.L.,123(19),151

AgeDiscriminationinEmploymentActof1967,6(27),13

Aldenderfer,M.S.,199(25),229,268(34,36),270(37),273

AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,7(34),13

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActof1990,6(29),13

Ammerman,H.L.,73(34),115,139(34),152

Ammerman,N.L.,168(18),187

Anderberg,M.,268(31),273

Anderson,L.E.,268(35),273

Andrews,A.O.,4(20),13

Archer,W.B.,168(16),187

Arnowitz,S.,x(9),xvi,117(4),150

Arrindell,W.A.,261(5),272

Arthur,J.B.,4(13),12

Arthur,W.,73(25),115

Arvey,R.D.,198(20),229

Ash,R.A.,5(24),13,123(16),151

Ashkenas,R.,117(1),150

Asimov,I.,3(1),12

Baehr,M.E.,9,10,11,120(13),151

Baird,L.,4(9),12

Barrett,G.V.,73(25),115

Barrett,R.S.,21(5),32,104(7),114

Bartel,A.P.,4(6),12

Bartlett,M.S.,264(19,20),272,273

Bass,B.M.,168(24),188

Beatty,G.O.,179(36),188

Beatty,R.W.,72(11),74(44),114,116

Becker,B.E.,4(12,18,19),12,13

Bendig,A.W.,168(19,20,21),187,188

Bernardin,H.J.,73(38),116,120(10),151

Biderman,M.,72(20),115

Blashfield,R.K.,199(25),229,268(32,34,36),270(37),273

Bloom,R.,72(16),115

Boese,R.R.,9,10,11

Bolino,M.C.,7(39),14

Boorstin,D.J.,190(1),228

Borgen,F.H.,9,10,11

Borman,W.C,120(7),123(22,27),150,151,238(2),259

Boudreau,J.W.,3(2),12,233(1),237

Boyatzis,R.E.,20(3),32

Bridges,W.,x(8),xvi,117(3),150

Brooking,A.,233(3),237

Brown,W.,196(14),229

Brush,D.H.,120(7),150,159(6),187,238(2),259

Bucklan,M.A.,139(37),152

Burger,G.K.,73(28),115,266(29),273

Burns,T.,37(4),67

Butler,S.K.,8(52),14

Buxton,V.M.,162(14),187

Camp,C.,198(20),229

Campbell,D.T.,71(1),114

Campion,M.A.,123(31),152

Carron,T.J.,198(22),229

Carson,K.P.,74(44),116

 Page290

Cascio,W.F.,168(24),188

Caskey,D.T.,120(14),151

Cattell,R.B.,264(16),265(26),272,273

Christal,R.E.,9(57),10,11,14

CivilRightsActof1991,6(28),13

Cohen,S.A.,123(25),151

Coleman,S.C.,72(11),114

Colihan,J.,73(28),115,266(29),273

Colton,D.,72(23),115

Comrey,A.L.,265(23),273

Conley,P.R.,123(30),152

Cook,T.D.,71(1),114

Cordery,J.L.,123(18),151

Cornelius,E.T.,123(17),151,198(21,22),229

Cortese,A.,236(8),237

Cosgrove,H.R.,54(27),68

Cragun,J.R.,195(11),229

Cranny,C.J.,271(40),273

Cronbach,L.J.,196(15),229

Cronshaw,S.,x(5),xvi,72(17),115

Cross,D.,168(27),188

Cunningham,J.W.,9,10,11

D'Aveni,D.,36(1),50(22),67

David,F.,36(1),67

Davids,M.,42(13),67

Davidson,W.N.,4(17),12

Davis,L.E.,72(10),114

Dawis,R.V.,9,10,11

Dean,J.W.,Jr.,4(16),12

DeCotiis,T.A.,73(33),115

Delery,J.E.,4(14),12

DepartmentofJustice,104(6),114

DepartmentofLabor,54(28),68

Descartes,R.,7(41),14

DiFazio,W.,x(9),xvi,117(4),150

Dixon,W.J.,191(4),228

Doherty,M.E.,271(40),273

Dorsey,D.,123(22,27),151

Doty,D.H.,4(14),12

Doverspike,D.,73(25),115

Drauden,G.M.,9,10,11

Drucker,P.F.,43(15),67

Duncan,R.B.,37(5),67

Dunnette,M.D.,120(12),151,203(27),229

Edgell,S.L.,123(16),151

EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission,6(31,32),7(33),13,157(2),161(12),187,202(26),229

Estes,C.,72(23),115

Fahey,L.,41(12),67

Faley,R.H.,7(36),13

Feild,H.S.,8(48),14,72(15,19),115

Ferguson,L.W.,7(45),8(46),14

Fidell,L.,191(6),228

Fine,S.A.,7(44),8(47),9(58),10(66),11,14,15,72(17),115

Finn,R.H.,168(22),188

Flanagan,J.C.,8(50),9,10,(64),11,14,15,26(9),32

Fleishman,E.A.,5(23),9(56),10,11,13,14,17(1),32,197(18),229

Flesch,R.,140(40),152

Fletcher,J.,179(35),188

Ford,K.J.,163(15),187,261(1),265(25),272,273

Fox,J.B.,4(17),12

Fraser,S.L.,7(38),13,160(10),187

Friedman,L.,160(8),179(35),187,188

Fry,L.W.,73(37),116

Gael,S.,8(49),9,10,11,14,72(13),114,120(15),139(35),151,152,179(30),188

Garwood,M.K.,268(35),273

Gatewood,R.D.,8(48),14,72(15,19),115

Gerhart,B.,4(12),12

Gerhart,F.,4(5),12

Ghemawat,P.,52(26),67

Gilbreth,F.B.,7(43),14

Gilbreth,L.E.,7(43),14

Goldstein,I.L.,9(61),10(68),11,15,73(31,35),115,116,162(14),187

Gorsuch,R.L.,261(6,13),271(41,43),272,273,274

Green,S.B.,193(7,8),228

Greengard,S.,236(6,7),237

Greengart,B.J.,268(35),273

Guadagnoli,E.,271(44),274

Guertin,A.A.,265(22),273

Guertin,W.H.,265(22),273

Guion,R.M.,21(6),32,71(2),114

Gunning,R.,140(41),152

Gutenberg,R.L.,198(20),229

Hakstian,A.R.,265(26),273

Hamel,G.,50(24),58(33),67,68,234(5),237

Harvey,R.J.,8(52),14,73(29),104(8),114,115,160(11),187,195(12),199(24),229,268(30),273

 Page291

Hemphill,J.K.,9(59),10(65),11,14,15,271(39),273

Henderson,R.I.,73(39),116

Hicks,J.,73(40),116

HooversBusinessPressStaff,54(29),68

Horn,J.L.,264(17),272

Hough,L.M.,203(27),229

Howard,A.,x(7),xvi

Hughes,G.L.,73(24,40),115,116,144(43),146(45),152,157(3,4),187,238(1),259

Humphreys,L.G.,123(19),151

Hunter,J.E.,123(20),151

Huselid,M.A.,3(3,4),4(19),12,13

Jackson,D.N.,261(2,4),264(21),272,273

Janz,T.,233(2),237

Jeanneret,P.R.,9(54),10,11,14

Jick,T.,117(1),150

Johnson,C.M.,74(45),116

Johnson,J.C.,123(26),151

Johnson,J.W.,238(3),259

Jones,L.V.,168(25),188

Kahn,R.L.,197(17),229

Kaiser,H.F.,261(14),272

Kalleberg,A.L.,4(7),12

Kane,J.A.,120(11),151

Kane,M.T.,72(23),115

Katz,D.,197(17),229

Katz,M.,54(30),68

Kenny,D.A.,261(8),272

Kerr,S.,117(1),150

Kesselman,G.A.,9(62),10,11,15,72(22),115

Kim,J.O.,261(10,11),272

Kimbrough,W.W.,123(24,28),151

Kingsbury,C.,72(23),115

Kirton,J.,42(14),67

Kleiman,L.S.,7(36),13,72(20),115

Klett,C.J.,261(12),272

Knoke,D.,4(7),12

Konz,A.M.,38(11),67

Koopman,R.F.,261(7),272

Krain,B.,179(33),188

Kraut,A.I.,178(29),188

Landy,F.J.,71(3),72(21),114,115,123(21,23),151

Langeland,K.L.,74(45),116

Latham,G.P.,73(37),116

Lawrence,P.R.,37(6,7),67

Lawshe,C.H.,139(36),152

LengnickHall,C.A.,4(10),12

LengnickHall,M.L.,4(10),12

Lepak,D.P.,4(16),12

Levering,R.,54(30),68

Levine,E.L.,5(24),8(53),13,14,160(9),187

Levonian,E.,265(23),273

Linn,R.L.,261(7),272

Lischick,C.W.,36(1),67

Locklear,T.S.,193(10),229

Lodge,M.,168(26,27),188

Lofquist,L.H.,9,10,11

London,M.,74(41),116

Lopez,F.E.,9(62),10,11,15,72(22),115

Lopez,F.M.,9(62),10,11,15,72(22),115

Lorsch,J.W.,37(6,7),67

LozadaLarsen,S.R.,7(37),13

Lyness,K.S.,123(17),151

MacCallum,R.C.,261(1),265(25),272,273

MacDuffie,J.P.,4(15),12

Macey,W.H.,9(61),10(68),11,15,183(38),189

Macy,B.A.,195(12),229

Mahoney,J.D.,238(4),259

MarshallMies,J.C.,17(1),32

Mawhinney,T.C.,74(45),116

Maxwell,S.E.,198(20),229

McCall,M.M.,238(4),259

McCarthy,P.,179(35),188

McClelland,D.C.,20(2),32

McCormick,E.J.,9(54),10,11,14,179(32),188,195(11),222(29),229

McEwen,W.J.,37(9),67

McIntire,S.,139(37),152

McIntyre,C.,179(35),188

McLagan,P.A.,ix(6),xvi

McLaughlin,B.L.,36(1),67

McLaughlin,D.J.,36(1),67

McLaughlin,G.H.,140(42),152

McMahan,G.C.,4(11),12

Mecham,R.M.,9(54),10,11,14

Meshoulam,I.,4(9),12

Micklethwait,J.,58(32),68

Milkovich,G.T.,4(5),12

Milligan,G.W.,268(33),273

Mintzberg,H.,37(8),58(31),68

Mitchell,T.W.,5(21),13

Mobley,W.H.,270(38),273

Morano,R.A.,73(33),115

Morf,M.E.,264(21),273

Morgan,R.B.,72(18),115

Morgeson,F.P.,123(31),152

Morsh,J.E.,168(16),187

Moskowitz,M.,54(30),68

 Page292

Mosteller,F.,168(23),188

Motowildo,S.J.,120(12),151

Mueller,C.W.,261(10,11),272

Mullins,W.C.,123(24,28),151

Mumford,M.D.,5(22),13

Murphy,W.F.,140(39),152

Narayanan,V.K.,41(12),67

Neeb,R.W.,9,10,11

Neumann,D.,233(2),237

Nunnally,J.C.,196(16),229,265(27),271(42),274

O'Connor,E.J.,168(24),188

O'Leary,B.,179(35),188

Orban,J.A.,120(13),151

Osborne,A.F.,136(33),152

Ostroff,C.,73(26),115

Oswald,F.L.,238(3),259

Overall,J.E.,261(12),272

Page,R.C.,72(12),114,120(14),151

Pass,J.J.,9,10,11,179(34),188

Peacock,A.C.,261(4),272

Pearce,J.A.,36(1),67

Pearlman,K.,198(19),229

Peterson,N.G.,5(22),9,10,11,13,179(31),188

Pine,D.P.,193(9),229

Plato,ix(1),xv,7(40),14

Porter,M.E.,43(16,17),50(21),67

Prahalad,C.K.,50(24),58(33),67,68

Pratzner,F.C.,168(16),187

Prien,E.P.,9(60,61),10(68),11,14,15,72(14,16),73(24,36,40),114,115,116,157(3,4,5),159(7),168(17),187,120(6,9),139(38),144(43),146(45),
150,152,238(1),259

Primoff,E.S.,7(44),8(47),9(55),10(67),11,14,15

Quaintance,M.K.,5(23),13,197(18),229

Ramsey,R.S.,270(38),273

Ramstad,PM.,233(1,2),237

Rath,G.,145(44),152

Raymark,PH.,21(6),32

Reagan,R.T.,168(23),188

Reddon,J.R.,271(45),274

Reilly,M.E.,9(56),10,11,14

Rheinstein,J.,179(35),188

Rifkin,G.,52(25),67

Rifkin,J.,x(10),xvi,117(5),150

Robbins,S.,261(15),272

Robertson,D.W.,179(34),188

Rogers,W.T.,265(26),273

Ronan,W.W.,9(60),14

Rosenberg,S.,146(46),152

Rosse,R.L.,203(27),229

Roth,P.L.,45(19),67

Rouleau,E.,179(33),188

Rozell,E.J.,4(8),12

Rugman,A.M.,42(14),67

Rummel,R.J.,265(24,28),273

Sackett,P.R.,123(30),152,198(22),229

Sanchez,J.I.,ix(4),xvi,7(38),13,160(9,10),187

SASInstitute,Inc.,191(3),228

Sayles,L.,10(63),11,15

Schippmann,J.S.,45(19),67,72(14),73(24,27,36),88(5),105(9),114,115,116,126(32),144(43),146(45),152,157(3,5),159(7),180(37),187,188,238
(1),259

Schmit,M.J.,21(6),32

Schmitt,N.,71(3),73(26),114,115,123(25),151

Schneider,B.,37(10),38(11),67

Schneider,R.J.,238(3),259

Schneier,C.E.,72(11),114

Schoenfeldt,L.F.,159(6),187

Scott,D.,139(37),152

Sedlack,Z.,146(46),152

Senge,P.M.,48(20),67

Sevastos,P.P.,123(18),151

Silverman,S.B.,123(26,29),151,152

Sistrunk,F.,5(24),13

Sloan,E.,21(8),32

Smalley,M.D.,73(36),116

Smith,J.E.,72(18),115

Snell,S.A.,4(16),12

SocietyforIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology,7(35),13,161(13),187

Soloway,J.A.,42(14),67

Sparks,C.P.,6(30),13

Spearman,C.,196(13),229

Spencer,S.,20(2),32

Spreitzer,G.M.,238(4),259

SPSS,Inc.,191(2),228

Stalker,G.M.,37(4),67

Steiner,G.,44(18),50(23),67

 Page293

Stevens,J.P.,191(5),228

Stewart,G.L.,74(44),116

Stewart,T.A.,233(4),237

Stoyanoff,K.,145(44),152

Stutzman,T.,193(7),228

Super,D.E.,8(51),14

Swanson,R.A.,76(4),114

Switzer,F.S.,45(19),67

Tabachnick,B.G.,191(6),228

Tait,M.,261(1),265(25),273,274

Tanenhaus,J.,168(27),188

Taylor,F.W.,7(42),14

Thompson,J.D.,37(9),6

Thurstone,L.L.,168(25),188

Tinsley,H.E.A.,9,10,11

TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964,6(25),13

Tryon,R.,199(23),229

Tucker,L.R.,261(7),272

Tufte,E.R.,153(1),187

Tukey,J.W.,207(28),229

Tursky,B.,168(26,27),188

Uhlman,C.E.,17(1),32

Uhrbrock,R.S.,ix(2),x v

Ulrich,D.,117(1),150

UnitedStatesCivilServiceCommission,73(32),115

UnitedStatesDepartmentofLabor,6(26),13

vanDeVroot,D.M.,72(12),114

vanderEnde,J.,261(5),272

Vasey,J.,123(21,23),151

Velicer,W.F.,261(2,3,4),264(18),271(44),272,274

Veres,J.,193(8),228

Vinchur,A.J.,45(19),67,73(36),116,157(5),187

Voss,H.,117(2),150

Vrazo,G.J.,73(27),115

Wacker,G.J.,72(10),114

Ware,W.B.,265(22),273

Weiss,D.J.,9,10,11,261(9),272

Welboume,T,M.,4(20),13

Wemer,J.M.,7(39),14

Wetrogan,L.I.,17(1),32

Wexley,K.N.,123(26,29),151,152

Wiley,W.W.,9(58),10(66),11,14,15

Wilson,M.A.,195(12),229

Wooldridge,A.,58(32),68

Wooten,W.,74(42),116

Worrell,D.L.,4(17),12

Wright,P.M.,4(11),12

Wroten,S.P.,163(15),187

Youndt,M.A.,4(16),12

Youtz,C.,168(23),188

Zemke,R.,20(4),32

Zerga,J.E.,ix(3),x v

 Page294

SUBJECTINDEX

Abilities,peoplepyramid,22

Acrossgroupprofile,206

Actionplanning,166

Amalgamationcoefficients,269,270,seealsoClusteranalysis

Amazon.com,51

ANOVA,seeRepeatedmeasureanalysisofvariance

Applicationrelevancematrix,78,79

Applicationsfordesiredoutcome,6974

detailofinformationrequired,102105,106,107108,109110

jobmodelingmethods,80,8283,8498

typesofinformationrequired,98102

validityandrelevance,71,7576,77

wheretostart,76,7880,81

Appraisal,performance,73,83,101

AssessmentMethodMatrix,158,180

Backgroundinformation,175,177,seealsoQuestionnaire

Baker'sDozen,88,9192

Bankingindustry

backgroundinformationonquestionnaires,175,177

clusteranalysis,268270

outcomes,75

Qfactoranalysis,263,264,266

visionandcompetitivestrategy,43,54,56

Behavior,manifestandvision/competitivestrategy,50

Boundaries,changing,117

Business,seealsoOrganization

missionandvision/competitivestrategy,4849

strategymap,3940

strategyweb,58,59

Candocompetency,21,seealsoCompetencyJobmodeling,strategic

Canonicalcorrelation,197,seealsoInformation,analysis/display

Capabilities,personrelated,1617,seealsoJobmodeling,strategic

Capacitydrivenorganization,51,62

Careermanagement

humanresourcemanagement,74

informationtypeanddetailforintervention,101102

jobmodelingmethodforhumanresourceapplications,83

Casestudy,88,90,seealsoJobmodeling

Categorization,factoranalysis,265

Charting,humancapital,234

CheshireModel,2731,seealsoJobmodeling,strategic

Citibank,51

Classification/placement

humanresources

applications,8283

informationtypeanddetailforintervention,100

potentialquestions,168,169

Client/servernetworks,235236

Clusteranalysis,199200,268271,seealsoDatareductionInformation,analysis/display

 Page295

CocaCola,51

Coding,questionnaire,175

Collegiality,strategicjobmodeling,24,seealsoJobmodeling,strategic

Commercialbanking,seeBankingindustry

Commonfactortechniques,260,261,262,seealsoFactoranalysisQfactoranalysis

Compartmentalization,129,seealsoInformationcollectionWorkactivity

Compensation,73,83,101

Competency

AssessmentMethodMatrix,158

basedapproachtojobanalysis,9

determinationandinterviewsituations,129,130

developingdescriptors,141

informationanalysis/display

groupbydimensionmatrix,220

groupcomparison,221222

groupemphasisdistributions,223

itemlistandgroupdisplay,210,211

mapping,203204,207

withingroupprofiledisplay,207,208209

jobmodelingforhumanresourceapplications,85,86,87

languageofstrategicjobmodeling,17,19,2022

performancestandards,25,26

management

accountingandfinance,257

adaptability,252253

analyticalagility,249

businessrelationships/teamwork,252

businessspecificknowledge,250

creativity,249

decisiveness,254

dependabilityandtrust,253

economics,256257

facilitiesandsecurity,255

humanresources,258

influenceskills,252

informationmanagementandcomputers,255256

internationaloperationsandalliances,255

listeningskills,251

marketingandsales,257258

materialsmanagement,254255

motivationskills,253254

publicspeaking,251252

shorttermplanning,249

strategydevelopmentanddeployment,249250

supervisoryskills,253

verbalcommunications,250251

workcommitment,254

writtencommunications,251

nowsegmentandvision/competitivestrategyoforganizations,43

peoplepyramid,21,22

questions

changeandfutureimportance,159

masterylevelscale,161

requiredandpotential,154,155,156

questionnaire,173

statementsandSDS,105,107,110

workpyramid,23

CompetencyTrainingComposites,162163

Competition,36

Contentanalysis

delphibased,145146

fixedstructure,144145

freeform,143144

scalingbased,146

Contextual/culturalvariables,47

Conversationalist,focusgroups,136

Corevalues,organizational,4950

Correlationcoefficient,194195,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Costbasedinitiatives,53

Costdrivenorganization,37,60

Costs,50,112

Critiquing,focusgroups,138

Cronbach'salpha,196,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Currentimportance,seealsoQuestions

informationsource,171

potentialquestions,154158

samplingplan,178179

Customers,44,49,121

Cutoffpoints,201202,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Datacleaning,192194

Datadisplay,203206

groupbydimensionmatrix,209,210

groupcomparison,219,221222

groupemphasisdistribution,222224

itemlist,209211

jobdescription,211,212213

partofjobwheel,211,214219

withingroupprofile,206209

Datadistribution,194

Dataquality,191196

Datareduction,86,196201

clusteranalysis,262,268271

Qfactoranalysis,260268

Rfactoranalysis,271

Datareliability,194196

Decisionmaking,x,3

 Page296

Decisionrules,202,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Dendrograms,268,269,seealsoClusteranalysis

Demographicquestions,178,seealsoQuestionnaires

Destination,vision/competitivestrategyoforganizations,39

Determinationtable

sizeofinterview/focusgroup,125,126,127

sizeofquestionnairesample,180,181

DictionaryofOccupationalTitles(DOT),5,8

Differentialweightinganalysis,144,145

Difficultytoacquire

informationsource,171

jobcompetencyandpotentialquestions,157,161163

Dimensionleveldata,211,214,216,218

Distribution,192,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Distributiondrivenorganization,51,63

Domesticmarkets

groupemphasisdistributions,223

partofjobwheeldisplay,214,215,217,218

withingroupprofile,207,208209

DOT,seeDictionaryofOccupationalTitles

Eagerbeaver,focusgroups,135

Economicenvironment,42

Eigenvalues,261,263,264,seealsoQfactoranalysis

Electronicscompany,competencymap,203204

Email,186

Empiricalmethod,jobmodeling,8587,8890,91,9597

Employees,corevalues,49

Entrylevelpositions,119

EPDQ,seeExecutivePositionDescriptionQuestionnaire

Errors,dataquality,192,194,195,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

EsteeLauder,52

ExecutivePositionDescriptionQuestionnaire(EPDQ),9,10

Executivesponsors,focusgroups,134

Experience,peoplepyramid,22,seealsoJobmodeling,strategic

Expertpool,size,178

Expertise,potentialquestions,156

Expressionofamount,ratingscale,78,80

Extractionstatistics,263,seealsoQfactoranalysis

Factfinding,57

Factoranalysis,198199,200,seealsoInformationanalysis/displayQfactoranalysis

Factorloadings,265267,seealsoQfactoranalysis

FASTframeworkfororganizationalchange,165,166,167

Fax,184,seealsoQuestionnaire

Featuresdrivenorganization,5152,63

Feedback,166,225228

Financialservicescompanies,jobmodeling,87

Financialstructure,vision/competitivestrategyoforganizations,47,48

FiveForcesTheory,43

Flatearther,3

Focusclassificationgrid,9,11

Focusgroups

advantagesanddisadvantages,149

conducting,133138

jobmodelingusingrationalmethod,8485

representationchecklist,123124

samplesize,124127

strategicmappinginorganizations,57

whomtoinvite,121123

Focus,FASTframeworkfororganizationalchange,166

Focusdrivenorganization,52,64

Frequency

dataquality,192,193

importanceinsamplingplan,178179

informationsource,171

potentialquestions,156,160

Functionalinitiatives,5354

Futureimportance,158160,171,seealsoQuestions

Futurespeculations,39,43

Goals,viii,24,39

Government,corevalues,50

GratefulDead,52

Grocerystores,197

Groundrules,focusgroups,134

Groupbydimensionmatrix,219,220,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Groupcomparison,219,221,222,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Groupemphasisdistribution,222224,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Headsupletter,127128,seealsoInterviews

Hierarchicalagglomerative,268,seealsoClusteranalysis

Horizontalfit,4

How,workactivitydescriptors,139140

Howsegment,3841,5054,5859,seealsoJobmodeling,strategic

HR,seeHumanresources

 Page297

HRIS,seeHumanresourcesinformationsystems

HRM,seeHumanresourcemanagement

Humancapital

charting,234

humanresourceprofessional,235

managementbyhumanresourcesinformationsystems,236

Humanresourcemanagement(HRM)

competitivestrategiesimpact,6064

jobinformationandpractice,7

processwheel,69,70,71

Humanresources(HR)

companydecisionmaking,34

enterprisewideapplications,236

groupemphasisdistributions,224

interventionandorganizationalattitudesoncompetition,36

Humanresourcesinformationsystems(HRIS),236,seealsoHumancapital

Humanvariables,4546,48

Imageresolutionissue,102,103,seealsoJobmodeling

Implementation,project,111,seealsoJobmodeling

Importancescale,current/future,154158

Improvisation,168,seealsoQuestions

IndexofOccupations,7

Inferences,samplingplan,178

InformationAge,234

Informationanalysis/display,203206,224225

datadisplay

groupbydimensionmatrix,209,210

groupcomparison,219,221222

groupemphasisdistribution,222224

itemlist,209211

jobdescription,211,212213

partofjobwheel,211,214219

withingroupprofile,206209

dataqualityestablishment,191196

datareduction,196201

itemleveldataanalysis,201203

projectmanagementtips,225228

Informationbase,5,seealsoJobmodeling

Informationcollection

advantageanddisadvantagesofvariousmethods,148

humanresourceapplications,8487

detailrequired,102105

typerequired,98102

initialandtargetpopulation,120

interviewsituations,128,129,130

samplingplan,178

sources,168,170171

Informationpath,CheshireModel,2731,seealsoJobmodeling,strategic

Informationsources,168,170171,178

Infrastructure,organizational,46,48

Intel,50

Intellectualcapital,234

IntelligenceAge,234

Interests/values,22,23,seealsoPeoplepyramid

Internalpartners,identification,57

Internet,186

Interviewbasedapproach,10

Interviews

conducting,127133

humanresourcemanagement,72

individualandstrategicmappinginorganizations,57

jobmodelingforhumanresourceapplications,8485,86

representationchecklist,123124

samplesize,124127

whomtoinvite,121123

Interpretation,Qfactoranalysis,265

Introductions,focusgroups,134

Inventories,jobmodelingandinformationgathering,120

Itemconsolidation,200201,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Itemleveldataanalysis,203,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Itemlist,209211,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Job

analysis,conventionalapproaches,811

changingcharacteristics,x

classcompetencies,203,seealsoCompetency

consolidation,197198,261,265

description

datadisplay,211,212213

informationrequiredinjobmodeling,98

incumbents

informationsource,171

potentialinterview/focusgroupparticipants,121

languageofstrategicjobmodeling,18

skills,17

avanishingspecies,117

Jobmodeling,seealsoHowsegmentNowsegmentWowsegment

chartingofhumancapital,235

datareductiontechniques,seeDatareduction

enginesandhumanresourcesystemsinorganizations,4

 Page298

methodsandapplicationsoutcomerelationships

appropriatemethodsfordifferingapplications,80,8283

combinationofrational/empiricalmethods,8687

empiricalmethod,8586

rationalmethod,8485

whichmethodisbest,8798

potentialquestions,155157

projectandroleshiftsofconsultant,64,65

reportcomposition,226228

samplesizeandsamplingplan,179

strategic,36

antecedents,711

conceptsofvalidityandrelevancerelationships,76

language,seeLanguage,strategicjobmodeling

legalenvironment,67

model,2731

nextgenerationapproach,x

Kaisercriterion,261,seealsoQfactoranalysis

Knowledge,skills,abilities,andothercharacteristics,seeKSAO

KSAO,languageofstrategicjobmodeling,1617,19,20

Language

creatingworkactivitydescriptors,140

strategicjobmodeling

model,2731

peoplesideoftheequation,1623

performancestandards,2527

worksideoftheequation,2325

Legalenvironment,67,119

Levity,focusgroups,134

Macroenvironment,vision/competitivestrategyoforganizations,4143

Management,seealsoCompetency,managementWorkactivity,management

competencytaxonomies,250259

workactivitiestaxonomies,240248

Marketmaturity,44,45

Marketscope,44

Marketshare,53

Marketsize,44

Marketvalue,4

Masterylevel,156,160161,171

MDS,seeMultidimensionalscalingmethods

Mean,192,201,207,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Measurement/informationsystems,economicperiods,233,234

Methodclassificationgrid,10,11

Microenvironment,vision/competitivestrategyoforganizations,4345

MinnesotaMiningandManufacturing(3M),51

Mission,organization,4849

Modelcontent,creation,138141

Modelingexperts,171,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Motorola,50

Multidimensionalscalingmethods(MDS),146,197

Multimethodapproach,jobanalysis,9,10

Multiperspectivefeedback,163167,seealsoFeedback

Mummy,focusgroups,135

Nordstrom's,51

Nowsegment,vision/competitivestrategyoforganizations,3848,5859

Obliquerotation,seeRotation

Observation,advantages/disadvantages,149

Observationbasedapproach,10

Observers,121,171

OccupationalResearchProgram(ORP),8

Organization

development,74,83,102

nowsegmentandvision/competitivestrategy,4548

structureandpotentialquestions,168,170

successandhumanresourcesystems,4

Organizationalconstraintanalysis,167

Organizationalcontext,20

Organizationalcontextdimension,20

Organizationalcontextitem,20

Organizationalsupportratingscale,164165,167

Organizationalvisionaries,121

ORP,seeOccupationalResearchProgram

Orthogonalrotation,seeRotation

Outliers,193,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Paper/pencilquestionnaireadministration,184

Partofjobwheel,211,214219,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

 Page299

Peoplepyramid,21,22

performancestandards,2526

Percentage,192,201,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Performance

appraisal,73,83,101

standards

creatingworkactivitydescriptors,140

determinationforinterviewsituations,129,133

languageofstrategicjobmodeling,2527

Personalcomputers,diskettes,185

Petsmart,8586

Placement,humanresourcemanagement,73

Planning,72,82,99

Political/legalenvironment,42

Position

languageofstrategicjobmodeling,18

vision/competitivestrategyoforganizations,49

Preemploymenttesting,75

Preinterview/focusgroupchecklist,121

Principalcomponentstechnique,260265,seealsoQfactoranalysis

Priorities,jobmodeling,111

Problemsolving,3637,158

Problems

humanresourcesstartingpoint,76

performancerelated,119

Products,vision/competitivestrategyoforganizations,49

Proficiency,acquisition,156

Projectmanagementtips

applicationoutcomerelationships,105,111114

informationanalysis/display,225228

questionsasked,182186

targetpopulation,147150

visionandcompetitivestrategy,65,66

Projectplan,111112

Projectteam,111

Provocateur,focusgroups,135136

Qfactoranalysis,198199,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

datareduction,260268

Qualitycontrol,191

Qualitydrivenorganization,50,61

Questionnaire

administrationanddatacollectionmethods,184186

advantagesanddisadvantages,150

jobmodelingforhumanresourceapplications,85

questionsasked,172178

QuestionnaireSampleDetermination,180,181

Questions

informationsources,168,170171

interviewsituations,128,129,130,131,132

potential

buildingyourownscales,168,169,170

currentimportance,154158

difficultytoacquire,157,161163

frequency,156,160

futureimportance,155,158160

levelofmastery,156,160161

noruleshere,163167

whereacquire,156,161

questionnaire,172178

samplingplan,178182

Rambler,focusgroups,135

Randomresponsescale,193

Rapport,building,128,seealsoInterviews

Ratingscales

competenciesandquestionnaire,173,174

relevanceandhumanresourceprioritiesestablishment,78,80

Rationalmethod,8485,8687,8890,92,9394

Readinglevel,workactivitydescriptors,140

Recommendations,feedbackmeeting,225226

Recordkeeping,111

Recruitment

humanresourcemanagement,72

informationtypeanddetailforintervention,99

jobmodelingmethodforhumanresourceapplications,82

partofjobwheel,215,217

potentialquestions,168,169

Relevance

applicationsoutcomerelationships,7576

humanresourceprioritiesestablishment,78,80

jobandtargetpopulation,118

Reliability,data,194196,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Repeatedmeasuresanalysisofvariance(ANOVA),198

Revenuebasedinitiatives,53

Rfactoranalysis,200,271

Rotation,Qfactoranalysis,265

Salesdirector,regionalcompetencymap,203,207

groupcomparisondatadisplay,221222

groupemphasisdistributions,223

partofjobwheeldisplay,214,215,217,218

 Page300

withingroupprofile,207,208209

Samplesize,178182

Samplingplan

interview/focusgroups,123124

questionsasked,178182

Scales,building,168,169170

Scopecreep,111

Scorecard,FASTframeworkfororganizationalchange,166

Screeplot,264,seealsoQfactoranalysis

SDS,seeStatementDetailScale

Selection

humanresourcemanagement,72

informationtypeanddetailforintervention,99100

jobmodelingmethodforhumanresourceapplications,82

partofjobwheel,215,217

potentialquestions,168,169

testdevelopment,8

Semistructureddiscussion,focusgroups,136137

Seniormanagementteam,valueidentification,57

Servicedrivenorganization,51,61

Shareholders/owners,corevalues,49

Situationassessmentworksheets,88,9192,9394,9597

Situationdescription,jobmodeling,98

Size

jobgroupandtargetpopulation,118

sampleforinterview/focusgroups,124127

Skills,21,seealsoCompetency

Socialenvironment,4142

Society,corevalues,4950

SpearmanBrownprophecyformula,196

Specificitylevel,jobmodeling,21,24,2627

Speeddrivenorganization,37,51,62

Splithalfmethod,196,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Standarddeviation,192,201,202,207,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Startingpoint,assessment,3839

StatementDetailScale(SDS),104105,106,108

Storemanager,223

Strategicapplicationmatrix,78,80,81

Strategicinitiatives,5253,78,79

Strategicjobmodeling,seeJobmodeling

Statisticalanalysischeatsheet,261,262

Strawmodelreview,137138

Strength/weaknessreview,45

Structuredroundrobin,137

Substitutes,threat,44

Supervisors,121,170,171

Supplierpower,microenvironment,44

TablesofOccupationalNeeds,7

Targetpopulation

creatingmodelcontent,138141

developingarationallyderivedmodel,141146

initialinformationgathering,120

jobmodelinginterviewsandfocusgroup,120121

conductinginterviews,127133

conductingfocusgroups,133138

interview/focusgroupsamplingplan,123124

sizeofintervieworfocusgroup,124127

whomtointervieworinvitetoafocusgroup,121123

projectmanagementtips,147150

wheretostart,117120

Technologicalenvironment,42

Technology,46

Telephone,questionnaireadministration,185

TenFoldCorp.,5152

TestBudgetMatrix,157,158,180

ThirdMilleniumEnterprise,236

360Degreefeedbackmethodology,seeMultiperspectivefeedbackmethodology

Timelines,112,113

Tracking,FASTframeworkfororganizationalchange,166

Trainers,informationsource,171

Training

humanresourcemanagement,73

identifyingandbuildingcompetencies,162163

informationtypeanddetailforintervention,100101

jobmodelingmethodforhumanresourceapplications,83

partofjobwheel,217,219

peoplepyramid,22

potentialquestions,168,169

Traits,22,seealsoPeoplepyramid

UniformGuidelines,67,154,161,202

Validity,applicationsoutcomerelationships,71,75

Valuedrivenorganization,50,60

Values,identificationandstrategicmapping,57

 Page301

Verbs,workactivitydescriptors,139

Verticalfit,humanresourcesystems,4

Vision/competitivestrategy,3541

how,5054

now,4148

organizationalandinformationgatheringduringinterviews,129,131

projectmanagementtips,6566

puttingthepiecestogether,5464

wow,4850

WalMart,50

What,creatingworkactivitydescriptors,139,140

Whereacquire,informationsource,171

potentialquestions,156

Whiskergraph,207,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Who,workactivitydescriptors,139,140

Why,workactivitydescriptors,139,140

Willdocompetency,21,seealsoCompetency

Willingness,competency,21,23,seealsoCompetency

Withingroupprofile,206209,seealsoInformationanalysis/display

Words,meaningandratingscales,168

Work

context

informationgatheringandinterviews,129,132

languageofstrategicjobmodeling,19,24

questionnaire,175,176

pyramid,2325,26

requirements,knowledgeandtargetpopulation,118119

roles,designandrationalmethodofjobmodeling,8485

Workactivity

buildinggroupproblemsolvingsimulation,158

descriptors

delphibasedcontentanalysis,145146

development,139140

fixedstructurecontentanalysis,144145

freeformcontentanalysis,143144

scalingbasedcontentanalysis,146

languageofstrategicjobmodeling,18,24

management

accountingandfinancialmanagement,245246

externalrelations,242

facilitiesandsafetymanagement,244

informationmanagement,243244

internalconsulting,247

internationalbusinessmanagement,244245

laborrelations,241242

marketingandsalesmanagement,246

materialsmanagement,243

peopledevelopment,240241

peoplesupervision,240

personaladministration,241

researchanddevelopmentmanagement,245

staffing,240

strategydevelopment,246247

supervisionofworkoperations,242243

potentialquestions,154,155,156

statementandinformationdetailinjobmodeling,104105,106,109

Workorientedapproach,jobanalysis,9

Workerorientedapproach,jobanalysis,9

WorldWarI,78

WorldWarII,8

Wowsegment,3841,4850,5859

Wrappingup,focusgroups,138