ATA 31A Instruments

Ameco Beijing
Aviation College
Training Manual
Fundamentals
Jet
Aircraft
Maintenance
Fundamentals
ATA 31 A
Instruments
JAR-66
Lufthansa Issue: February 2002

Technical Training GmbH For Training Purposes Only
Book No: JAMF ATA 31 A ALL Lufthansa Base Lufthansa 2002
For training purpose and internal use only.
Copyright by Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH.
All rights reserved. No parts of this training
manual may be sold or reproduced in any form
without permission of:
Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH
Lufthansa Base Frankfurt

D-60546 Frankfurt/Main
Tel. +49 69 / 696 41 78
Fax +49 69 / 696 63 84
Lufthansa Base Hamburg

Weg beim Ja ger 193
D-22335 Hamburg
Tel. +49 40 / 5070 24 13
Fax +49 40 / 5070 47 46
Lufthansa Technical Training
Ameco Beijing
Aviation College
ATA 31 A INSTRUMENTS
For Training Purposes Only
HAM US/F KL 01.08.2001 Page 1

INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Ameco Beijing FUNDAMENTALS
Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 1
INSTRUMENTS
CLASSIFICATION
In large commercial aircraft you can find many instruments. They are used to
monitor and control the flight, the engines and the aircraft systems.
The flight instruments provide all data to perform a safe an economic flight.
They are located on captains instrument panel and are repeated on copilots
instrument panel.
The engine indications are located on the center instrument panel and the air-
frame system indications for the electric, hydraulic, fuel and other systems, is
usually found on the overhead panel or flight engineer panel.
Information about the engine indications can be found in unit 77 of the JAMF
course and system indications are in specific units, like unit 28 for the fuel sys-
tem.
The instruments which are used to control and monitor the flight can be divided
further, into the navigation instruments which you will see in unit 34 and the
flight instruments which are subject of this unit.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 2

INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION

Figure 1 Instruments Classification

INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION
BASIC T
The flight instruments on the captains and copilots instrument panels have an
identical layout.
The most important instruments to fly the aircraft are located in the center in
the so called basic T arrangement.
The altimeter indicates the altitude of the aircraft above sea level or the airport.
You will learn about it in detail in lesson 2 of this unit.
The airspeed indicator shows a speed which is only identical to the real air-
speed of the aircraft when you fly at sea level, but it is a reference for all aero-
dynamic parameters influencing aircraft lift, drag and maneuverability. You will
learn more about it in lesson 2 of this unit.
The compass or heading indication is integrated in the Horizontal situation indi-
cator, or HSI in short. It shows the direction of the aircraft longitudinal axis in
relation to magnetic north.
You will learn more about it in lesson 8 of this unit. Other indication in the HSI
are discussed in the navigation unit 34.
Additional flight instruments which you will learn about in this unit are the Verti-
cal speed indicator, the Mach meter and the temperature indicators.
The photograph on the right side of the screen shows the instrument panels of
a modern glass cockpit aircraft, in this example, an A340.
You will also find the same indications in this cockpit design, but it is discussed
in more detail in the Electronic Instrument Systems part of the course.
Even in small aircraft you can find the same arrangement of the flight instru-
ments.

INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION

Figure 2 Basic T Instruments

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
In this lesson we will show you the air data instruments, such as the altimeter
and airspeed indicator.
These instruments use air pressure information from outside the aircraft. To
understand their function you must be familiar with the international standard
atmoshere, ISA in short, and what pressures act on the aircraft during flight.
You can find this information in the aerodynamic unit.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 3 ISA Standard Atmosphere

INSTRUMENTS
ALTIMETER FUNCTION
We will begin this Air data instruments lesson with a closer look at the Altime-
ter. In an aircraft you can always find the Altimeter in the same location of the
basic--T even in small aircraft.
The altimeter is a very important indicator because it shows the pilot if the air-
craft is flying at the required altitude.
You can find various types of altimeters in aircraft. In small piston engine air-
craft the Altimeter has two Pointers, one for 100 ft and the second for
1000 ft.
The altimeters in aircraft which can fly at higher altitudes has either an addi-
tional pointer for the indication of 10000 ft or it uses a digital readout for the
total altitude and just one pointer for the analog indication of the one hundred
feet range. This type is most common in larger aircraft with conventional instru-
ments.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 4 Different Altimeter Types

INSTRUMENTS

altimeter function cont.
All altimeters have the same basic function: They simply measure the static
pressure of the atmosphere and indicate it in feet or meters.
You know that the static pressure at sea level is 1013.25 hPa, which corre-
sponds to 1013.25 mb of the old unit. To make it easier we will use just
1013 hPa in the following discussions.
With increasing altitude the pressure decreases. At 18000 ft the pressure is
only 50% of the pressure at sea level and at 36000 ft the pressure has de-
creased to 25%.
At 54000 ft the pressure is again halved to just 12.5% of the value at sea level.
A pneumatic altimeter, which you can find in small aircraft and also as a
standby altimeter in larger aircraft, has a sensitive pressure gauge, called aner-
oid bellows.
The static pressure which is applied to the sealed case surrounds the bellows
and compresses it.
The bellows deflection moves the instrument mechanism and turns the altitude
pointer which shows the altitude on a scale calibrated in feet or meters.
The altimeter indication is calibrated to the standard atmosphere shown with
the graph on the left.
Please note that near sea level a certain pressure difference only changes the
altitude by a small amount but at higher altitudes the same pressure difference
has a larger effect on the altitude.
This means that accuracy of altimeters decrease with the altitude.
The main altimeters of large aircraf dont have bellows. They are driven by an
air data computer and use only electrical components such as motors, amplifi-
ers or even digital computers.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 5 Altimeter Basic Function

INSTRUMENTS
ALTIMETER SETTINGS
You have learned in the last segment that the altimeter is calibrated to the con-
ditions of the standard atmospere.
A closer look at the pressure graph near sea level should make this clear
again. You can see that the graph is nearly linear in this area and that the alti-
tude increases by 30 ft for each pressure decrease of 1 hPa.
When an aircraft flies at an altitude of 1000 ft, the outside static pressure is
about 980 hPa
The altimeter converts this static pressure to an indication of 1000 ft.
The indicated altitude is therefore equal to the true altitude. As you can imag-
ine, this scenario is only correct if the pressure at sea level is really 1013 hPa
This weather map shows you that the real pressure at sea level changes conti-
nously and is only 1013 hPa at certain locations for a certain time, here for ex-
ample in Hamburg.
Other areas have low pressure or high pressure.
When you fly from Hamburg to Lulea in northern Sweden, the altimeter read-
ings are always correct because the pressure corresponds to standard condi-
tions.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 6 Altimeter Settings

INSTRUMENTS

altimeter settings cont.
Due to the actual weather conditions the pressure in London is 1000 hPa at
sea level.
To indicate one 1000 ft the altimeter needs a static pressure of about 980 hPa.
This means that the true altitude will be about 600 ft when you arrive in Lon-
don.
To solve this problem with different pressures at sea level each altimeter has a
baro set knob.
With the baro set knob on the instrument you give the altimeter a new refer-
ence pressure.
In pneumatic indicators the knob directly turns the whole altimeter mechanism
to set a new reference value.
Electrical indicators do the correction electrically inside the indicator or via the
air data computer.
When you select 1000 hPa with the baro set knob, the altimeter will show
600 ft, because the difference between the reference and the actual pressure is
20 hPa

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 7 Altimeter Settings

INSTRUMENTS

Now lets assume that the aircraft lands at London Heathrow which has a field
elevation of 80 ft.
The altimeter indicates the field elevation, in this example 80 ft in London, if
you set a baro reference which corresponds to the pressure at sea level.
This baro setting is called QNH and is the normal setting during takeoff and
landing.
You get an indication of 0 ft if you set the baro knob to the actual pressure of
the airport. This setting is called QFE and can be used instead of QNH for
takeoff and landing.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 8 Altimeter Settings (QNH+ QFE)

INSTRUMENTS

You cant compare altitude indications when you use different baro settings.
This means that an altitude separation by ATC is not possible.
Therefore it is very important that all altimeters use the same baro setting dur-
ing cruise flight.
This standard setting of 1013 hPa must be selected during climb at a certain
altitude, called the transition altitude.
Now ATC can clear all aircraft to different altitudes to separate them vertically.
This altitude is now called flight level which is calculated by dividing the altitude
by one hundred.
During descent at the so called transition level the setting is changed back to
the QNH or QFE of the destination to get the correct altitude indications during
landing.

INSTRUMENTS
6000 ft = FL 60
Figure 9 Altimeter Settings (Standard)

INSTRUMENTS

During cruise flight the indicated altitude is also the true altitude when the real
pressure at sea level is 1013 hPa.
The true altitude is higher than the indicated altitude when the pressure at sea
level is higher than the standard value.
And the true altitude is lower than indicated if the pressure is lower than stan-
dard.
In this case all aircraft fly lower than indicated so obstacle clearance must be
monitored very carefully.

INSTRUMENTS


INSTRUMENTS

You can have a similar problem when the temperature does not correspond to
the standard temperature of 15 C at sea level. Temperature variations can ex-
pand or contract the atmosphere and therefore shift the pressure levels.
If the temperature is warmer than standard the true altitude will be higher than
indicated and if the temperature is colder than standard the true altitude will be
lower than indicated.
In winter the clearance to obstacles like mountains must be monitored more
carefully.

INSTRUMENTS


INSTRUMENTS
AIRSPEED INDICATOR
You can measure the airspeed when you know the dynamic pressure Q , be-
cause Qis equal to vsquared times the half the density of rho.
You should know also that the dynamic pressure is the difference between the
total and the static pressure.
This calculation is known as Bernoullis principle.
The airspeed indicator applies bernoullis principle because it uses a differen-
tial manometer which gets total and static pressure.
The pneumatic airspeed indicators, which you can find in small aircraft or as
standby indicators in large commercial aircraft, use bellows as the differential
manometer.
The total pressure line is connected to the inside of the bellows and the static
pressure is distributed to the indicator case so that it surrounds the bellows.
This means that the motion of the bellows is proportional to the dynamic pres-
sure Q .
You will learn in the next lesson about pitot static systems, where the total and
static pressure come from.
The pneumatic airspeed indicator shows the indicated Airspeed, or IAS in
short, on a scale which is usually calibrated in kts.
At low speed the total pressure is low and the bellows are compressed.
At a medium speed all mechanical parts are in the present position.
At high speeds the total pressure is high and the bellows expand.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 12 Airspeed Indicator

INSTRUMENTS
AIRSPEED DEFINITIONS
You have seen that the airspeed indicator shows the IAS, which directly de-
pends on the dynamic pressure as the difference between total and static pres-
sure.
This IAS is proportional to all aerodynamic effects acting on the aircraft, like lift
and drag. The effectiveness of the flight controls also depend directly on the
dynamic pressure. The IAS is therefore a very important parameter for a safe
flight.
On the other hand the IAS only shows the real speed of the aircraft at mean
sea level with standard conditions.
This is because the airspeed indicator is calibrated to the standard air density,
and the real density of the air is not taken into account.
In aircraft equipped with air data computers and electrical instruments or glass
cockpits the airspeed indication shows the calibrated airspeed or CAS in short.
The CAS is corrected by any error which comes from the indicator and the
source of the static pressure. The correction is done by an air data computer,
so often you also find that CAS stands for computed airspeed. You will learn
more about the air data computer in lesson 4.
In our example the CAS is 7 knots lower than the IAS.
The speed formula is only valid when the medium used is incompressible. Un-
fortunatly air compresses at higher speeds and generates a total pressure in-
crease called the compressibility error.
The graph shows you that the higher the airspeed and altitude the larger the
error.
For example when you fly at 30000 ft with a calibrated airspeed of 293 kts the
error will become 15 kts.
The corrected airspeed which is in our example 278 kts is called the equivalent
airspeed or EAS in short. This value is not indicated in commercial airplanes,

and is only important for design data and further calculations.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 13 Airspeed Definitions (IAS+CAS)

INSTRUMENTS

airspeed definitions cont.
For navigation purposes you need the real speed of the aircraft. This is called
the true airspeed , or TAS in short and it is measured against the surrounding
air.
The true airspeed is calculated from the EAS by replacing the standard density
used before with the real density. This means the TAS increases with increas-
ing altitude and is only identical to the EAS at mean sea level.
In our example the TAS is 470 kts when we fly with an EAS of 278 kts at
30000ft
Note that another speed indication which you can find in aircraft, called the
ground speed or GS in short, is not an air data indication. The ground speed is
calculated by a different system like the inertial reference unit in reference to
the ground.
You will learn more about this in lesson 9. The ground speed is used for navi-
gation purposes and to calculate the wind component from the difference to the
TAS, here for example we have 10 kts tailwind.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 14 Airspeed Definitions (TAS)

INSTRUMENTS
AIRSPEED LIMITS In airspeed indicators of jet aircraft you can find a pointer to show the maxi-
mum allowed airspeed. This is necessary because the speed limit is not a fixed
It is nessery for pilots to know the airspeed limits for different flight situations. value like the VNE in piston engine aircraft.
In small aircraft the speed limits are marked with colored ranges and lines on
the airspeed indicator scale. At low altitudes the limit depends on the dynamic pressure which acts on the
aircraft structure. This limit is called maximum operating velocity or VMO in
The VS0 is the stall speed in landing configuration, this means with flaps and short. It is either constant or it increases slightly with increasing altitude. This is
gear down. when the compressibiliy error of the IAS is taken into account.
The VS1 is the stall speed in clean configuration with maximum weight. At higher altitudes the limit depends on the maximum allowed mach number or
The VFE is the maximum allowable speed with flaps extended. MMO in short. This value decreases with increasing altitude because the speed
VNO is the maximum airspeed for cruise flight. of sound decreases.
VNE stands for never exceed, so this value shows the maximum allowed air- Airspeed Indicators of jet aircraft dont show the low speed limit because they
speed. depend on many factors such as weight and flap position.
The green band shows the Normal Operating Range. Only on aircraft with a glass cockpit can you find a minimum speed indication
The white band is the Full Flap Operating Range. on the speed tape of the PFD.
The yellow band is the caution range. This speed must only be used in smooth The maximum speed is also shown on the speed tape.
air without hard maneuvers. In addition all aircraft have overspeed and stall warning systems which are in-
dependent of the indication. You will learn this in lesson 5 of this unit.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 15 Airspeed Limits

INSTRUMENTS
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

The vertical speed indicator shows the pilot the rate of climb or descent in feet
per minute.
In a vertical speed indicator the static pressure line is connected to a differen-
tial pressure bellows and to the sealed instrument case via a calibrated meter-
ing unit, also called capillary tube or orifice.
The pressure difference between inside and outside the bellows acts on the
instrument mechanism and moves the vertical speed pointer.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 16 Vertical Speed Indicator Function

INSTRUMENTS

vertical speed indicator cont.
When the aircraft is in a level flight the static pressure is stable. Therefore the
pressure inside the bellows and in the case is equal so the pointer shows
0 ft/min.
When the aircraft climbs decreasing static pressure contracts the bellows and
the pointer indicates the actual climb rate.
When the aircraft descends increasing static pressure expands the bellow and
the pointer indicates the actual sink rate.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 17 Vertical Speed Indicator

INSTRUMENTS

vertical speed indicator cont.
The indication of the standard vertical speed indicator is delayed at the begin-
ning of a climb or descent. Therefore jet aircraft usually have an instantaneous
vertical speed indicator or IVSI in short.
It uses a small pump with a spring loaded piston.
If the aircraft starts a descent we get a negative gravity force. This moves the
piston up and increases the pressure inside the bellows before the static pres-
sure outside the aircraft changes.
During climb the effect is inversed. Note that any vertical acceleration has this
effect, so for example during a turn with a high bank angle you get a wrong in-
dication.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 18 Instantaeous Vertical Speed Indicator

INSTRUMENTS

vertical speed indicator
In modern aircrafts you can find electrical Vertical Speed Indicators.
This indicator normally uses an inertial vertical speed signal, called IVS from
the inertial reference unit, or IRU in short.
If this signal is not available the vertical speed from the air data computer is
used.
In modern glass cockpit aircraft the vertical speed indication is displayed on the
PFD.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 19 Electrical Vertical Speed Indicator

INSTRUMENTS
MACHMETER
A mach meter indicates the ratio of the true air speed of the aircraft to the ac-
tual speed of sound. All jet aircraft need this indication to fly safely and eco-
nomically at high altitudes.
The mach meter can be a separate instrument or the mach indication is inte-
grated in an airspeed indicator or it is displayed on the PFD of an EFIS.
As an aircraft in transonic flight approaches the speed of sound, it first

reaches its critical mach number, where air flowing over low-pressure
areas of its surface locally reaches the speed of sound, forming shock
waves. The indicated airspeed for this condition changes with ambient
pressure, which in turn changes with altitude. Therefore, indicated
airspeed is not entirely adequate to warn the pilot of the impending
problems. Mach number is more useful, and most high-speed aircraft
are limited to a maximum operating Mach number, also known as
MMO.
For example, if the MMO is Mach 0.83, then at 30,000 feet (9,144 m)
where the speed of sound under standard conditions is 590 knots
(1,093 km/h; 679 mph), the true airspeed at MMO is 489 knots (906 km/
h; 563 mph). The speed of sound increases with air temperature, so at
Mach 0.83 at 10,000 feet (3,048 m) where the air is much warmer than
at 30,000 feet (9,144 m), the true airspeed at MMO would be 530 knots
(982 km/h; 610 mph).

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 20 Machmeter
INSTRUMENTS

machmeter cont.
The Mach meter basically measures the airspeed with a differential bellows, as
described already for the airspeed indicator.
The speed of sound is a function of the temperature which decreases linearly
with increasing altitude. So in other words the speed of sound is also a function
of the altitude which we can measure with the altitude bellows.
The maximum allowed mach number is marked with a red line on the mach
meter scale, because it is a fixed value.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 21 Machmeter Function

INSTRUMENTS
TEMPERATURE INDICATIONS
On all commercial aircraft you can find air temperature indications, as shown
on an airbus ECAM system.
On other aircraft you can find analog or digital indicators, for example, with the
TAS.
Two different temperatures are defined: One is the static air temperature , or
SAT in short. This is the temperature of the undisturbed air around the aircraft.
It is also called outside air temperature, or OAT.
The second indicated temperature is called the total air temperature or TAT in
short. During flight it is higher than the SAT because of the so called ram rise.
The total temperature can be measured directly by the TAT probe also called
rosemount probe after the manufacturer.
The probe guides the airstream around a sensing element called a thermistor.
The TAT probe has also a heating element which prevents ice build--up. During
flight the heating does not influence the measured temperature, but on the
ground the heating must be switched off so that it does not influence the mea-
surement.
Usually on the ground the TAT is equal to the SAT. However, you will get the
wrong temperature reading if an external heat source, like the sun, heats up
the sensor because there is no airstream through the sensor.
The problem is solved when you use an aspirated TAT probe.
This probe type uses a bleed air flow as long the aircraft is on the ground to
suck in the ambient air which now passes the sensing element.
The TAT from the probe can be used directly for engine thrust calculations be-
cause the ram rise inside the probe is the same as on the engine inlet.
The SAT cant be measured directly. The air data computer calculates it from
the TAT by subtracting the effect of the ram rise.

INSTRUMENTS
Heating Element
Sensing Element
Aspirated TAT Probes
Figure 22 Temperature Indications

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

STATIC PRESSURE SYSTEM
In the last lesson you learned that the Altimeter, the Airspeed indicator and the
Vertical speed indicator need static pressure to indicate correct values.
These indicators are connected together by tubes and pipes made of metal,
plastic or rubber and all are connected to a static port.
The static port is a perforated metal plate where the holes allow the outside
static air pressure to enter the static line.
Static ports are always located in an area where a smooth airflow allows undis-
turbed measurement of the static pressure.
This can be either on the forward aircraft fuselage as shown here or on the
pitot tube.
The static port area must always be kept clean and smooth to prevent distur-
bance of the airflow, because this would give incorrect indications.
The static ports must be protected by a cover during aircraft washing or re-
painting to prevent the holes from becoming blocked.
The cover is brightly colored so that it is easily visible. It is essential that the
cover is removed before the next flight.
Even with a perfectly smooth area around the static ports, the measured static
pressure is not always identical to the real pressure outside of the aircraft dur-
ing a flight.
This difference between the measured and real static pressure is called the
static source error, or SSE in short.
The SSE depends on the fuselage shape, the airspeed and angle of attack of
the aircraft. The flap and gear positions also influence the SSE.
In the past, pilots used diagrams from the flight manual to correct the indica-
tions.
Today, air data computers automatically calculate a correction factor to com-
pensate for the SSE. You will learn more about this in the next lesson.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Figure 23 Static Pressure System

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

static pressure system cont.
There is also one flight situation which influences the measured static pressure,
this is a side slip maneuver.
During a sideslip maneuver the airflow generates a higher than normal static
pressure on the left side of the fuselage this is due to the ram effect.
Consequently the static pressure on the right side of the fuselage decreases.
To compensate for the effect of a sideslip maneuver, one static port is installed
on each side of the aircraft.
Both ports are connected together by the use of a cross--porting tube which
equalizes the static pressure to the instruments.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Figure 24 Static Pressure System

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
PITOT PRESSURE
The pitot system is used by the airspeed indicator. The measured pressure is
the total pressure, which is the sum of the dynamic pressure generated by the
airspeed and the static pressure.
The pitot pressure is measured by a pitot tube that points into the airstream. A
tube guides the pressure to the indicator.
The name pitot comes from Henri Pitot a French scientist who made the first
calculations to measure airspeed.
The location of the pitot tube is selected by the aircraft manufacturer to mea-
sure an undisturbed pitot pressure. For example, on military aircraft, you find it
at the nose of the aircraft.
On small aircraft you find the pitot tube below the wing or in front of the wing.
On large aircraft, the pitot tubes are usually located on the forward part of the
fuselage.
All Pitot tubes have an air intake for the total pressure at the front. Please note
that the leading edge of the tube must always be in good condition so that it
does not affect the airflow.
The maintenance manual tells you which deformations are acceptable or which
require the replacement of the tube.
Inside the tube there is a baffle which prevents water or foreign objects from
entering the pitot pressure line.
A drain hole at the lowest part of the tube drains water and dust particles to the
outside.
This hole must always be kept open to guarantee correct instrument indication.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Figure 25 Pitot Pressure

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

pitot pressure cont.
An electrical heating circuit named probe heating, prevents ice from blocking
the pitot tube during flight.
Please note that if the aircraft is on the ground, the tube becomes very hot
when the heating is switched on.
If the aircraft is parked on the ground for a longer time, the Pitot tube must be
protected by a cover to prevent water and foreign objects, like insects, from
entering the pitot tube.
The cover has a bright flag to alert the mechanic or pilot that it must be re-
moved before the next flight.
On some aircraft types, the pitot tubes also include the static port. As you can
see the static port consists of small holes located around the tube and are con-
nected to the static system.
This type of tube is called a Pitot Static tube. It is also named Prandtl tube after
a German scientist.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Figure 26 Pitot Pressure

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
To show you the design of the pitot static system architecture let us start with a
simple system for a small aircraft. It has one Airspeed indicator, Altimeter and
Vertical Speed Indicator.
As you have seen already, these 3 indicators are supplied by a static pressure
system with two static ports.
The pitot pressure system supplies the airspeed indicator.
Larger aircraft need a second pilot for flight operations and this requires a du-
plicated instrument system.
This second instrument system is supplied by a completly separate pitot and
static system.
A safety improvement is the installation of an Alternate Static source selector
valve. It allows the Captain to use the copilots static pressure system.
You also find this selector valve in small single pilot aircraft which are certified
for instrument flight rules, IFR in short.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Figure 27 System Architecture

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

system architecture cont.
Aircraft which can fly at higher altitudes and airspeeds need additional indica-
tors such as the MACH meter, True airspeed and Air Temperature indicator.
Typically in these aircraft, an Air Data Computer, or ADC in short, calculates
the necessary data and delivers the electrical signals to the additional indica-
tors.
The ADC uses the Captains pitot static system.
The ADC also uses the input from a TEMPERATURE probe and an Angle of
Attack sensor. You will learn more about this in lesson 4.
The calculated data from the ADC is also provided to other systems such as
the Autoflight and warning systems.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Figure 28 Air Data Computer

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Improvements in the reliabilty of air data computers has made it possible to
replace all the pneumatic instruments and their tubings with electrical indicators
driven directly from the ADC.
This architecture also needs an ADC for the copilot.
The tubes from the pitot static probes go to the ADCs.
As you can imagine, the total loss of the basic air data instruments as a result
of a power failure is not allowed. Therefore, standby indicators for airspeed and
altitude have to be installed on the aircraft.
The standby indicators are supplied by separate tubings from separate pitot
and static ports.
On some aircraft types this standby pitot static system supplies a third ADC.
The output of ADC number 3 can be used to supply additional systems or to
replace ADC 1 or 2 in case of a failure.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Figure 29 System Architecture (3 ADCs)

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

In modern digital glass cockpit aircraft you can find AIR DATA MODULEs. They
are located near the static port or pitot tube and convert the air pressure di-
rectly into a digital data word.
This saves weight and maintenance costs because the data is sent to the Air
Data Computers via thin wires instead of using tubes.
Only the standby instruments still need to be supplied by tubes.
A third Air Data Computer is connected to the standby instruments pneumatic
tubing by the use of Air Data Modules.
Another advantage of this system is that the air data computer can now be in-
tegrated with the inertial reference system to the so called ADIRU. You will
learn more about this in the next lesson.
On the schematic you can see that the switching of the air data signals is pos-
sible.
The captain can select the data for the indications on the left EFIS either from
ADC number 1, which is the normal source, or from ADC number 3 as the al-
ternate source.
The Copilot can select the data for the indications on the right EFIS either from
ADC number 2 as the normal source, or from ADC number 3 as the alternate
source.
You can learn more about this switching function in the lesson about EFIS of
unit 31 part 2.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Figure 30 Air Data Modules

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
LEAKAGE IN PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS

In this segment let us start to look at the effect of a leakage in one or both of
the pressure lines of a pitot/static system.
We will use this simple system to show the effect upon the indicators.
Please note that the results of a leakage depend on the size of the leakage and
if the aircraft cabin is pressurized or not.
For our examples we assume a large leak inside the cabin, like a broken tube.
The cabin pressure can enter the tube via this leak and is distributed to the in-
dicators.
In our first example you can see the effects of a leakage in the static system of
an aircraft with an unpressurized cabin.
During flight the pressure inside an unpressurized cabin is slightly lower then
the ambient static pressure, because of the venturi effect.
Please note, we ignore the effects of cabin heating or ventilation.
The Altimeter will slightly increase the indicated altitude and the same happens
with the Airspeed indicator which shows a slightly higher indicated airspeed.
The Vertical Speed Indicator indicates a small jump when the leakage happens
but then shows correct data.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
0
Static
Pitot
Figure 31 Leakage in Static System

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

leakage in pitot static systems cont.
When this leakage happens in an aircraft with a pressurized cabin, the pres-
sure increases in the static lines.
This means that the Altimeter and Airspeed Indicator decrease their indication.
The vertical speed indication now will depend on cabin rate, which is controlled
by the airconditioning system.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
Decrease
Decrease
Cabin Rate
0
Static
Pitot
Figure 32 Leakage in Static System

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

A leakage in the pitot system only affects the airspeed indicator:
If the cabin is unpressurized the airspeed indication will decrease to zero be-
cause static and pitot pressure are now nearly the same.
If the cabin is pressurized the airspeed indication is unpredictable, because it
depends on altitude and cabin pressure.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
Static
Pitot
Figure 33 Leakage in Pitot System

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

A leakage in the static and the pitot system will cause the following effects on
the indicators:
The Airspeed indication decreases because pitot and static pressure tend to be
the same.
The Altimeter and vertical speed indication will show the same results as were
described for a leakage in the static system.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
0
Static
Pitot
Figure 34 Leakage in Pitot Static Systems

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
BLOCKED PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Lets now look at what happens when the static pressure ports of one system
are blocked by ice or other foreign matter.
As long as the aircraft flies at a constant altitude with a constant airspeed , for
example during cruise, you will not get any changes in the indication.
But what happens when the aircraft starts climbing?
A blocked static pressure system during climb has the following effects:
The Airspeed indicator gets a decreasing total pressure from the pitot tube but
the static pressure inside the blocked tube will be constant. The result will be a
decreasing airspeed indication.
The Altimeter will continue to display the same altitude during the climb and the
Vertical Speed Indication will stay at 0.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
Decreasing
Unchanged
Zero
0
Static
Pitot
Figure 35 Blocked Static Ports

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

blocked pitot static system
A blocked static pressure system during descent has the following results:
The Airspeed indicator gets an increasing total pressure from the pitot tube but
the static pressure inside the blocked tube will remain constant. The result will
be an increasing airspeed indication.
The Altimeter continues to display the same altitude during the descent and the
Vertical Speed Indication will stay at 0.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
Increasing
Unchanged
Zero
0
Static
Pitot
Figure 36 Blocked Static Ports

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

blocked pitot static system cont.
Lets now see what happens when the pitot tube is completely blocked, for ex-
ample because of an inactive anti--ice system.
The altimeter and vertical speed indications are not affected by this failure.
When the aircraft climbs with constant speed, the static pressure decreases.
The total pressure inside the pitot system cant change when the tube is totally
blocked.
The result is an increasing indication on the Airspeed indicator which can even
go up into the overspeed region.
You can also say that the airspeed indicator reacts like an altimeter.
If the pitot tube becomes totally blocked in cruise and the aircraft continues to
fly at the same altitude the Airspeed indicator will show no changes in indicated
speed even if the engine thrust is changed to accelerate or decelerate the air-
craft.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Static
Pitot
Figure 37 Blocked Pitot Tube

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

If the aircraft descends, the static pressure will increase. The total pressure
inside the pitot system cant change when the tube is totally blocked.
So the Airspeed indicator decreases the indication to a lower indicated air-
speed.
Again it reacts like an altimeter.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Static
Pitot

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

You will get a different reaction if the input port of the pitot tube is blocked but
the water drain hole is still open.
In this situation the pitot pressure decreases to the value of the static pressure.
When the input port of the pitot tube is blocked but the water drain hole is still
open the airspeed indication decreases to 0.
The altimeter and vertical speed indicators are not affected, because they only
get static pressure.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Static
Pitot

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
AIR DATA TESTING

The pitot static system must be tested for leakages whenever work has been
done on the system or at given intervals. This is done by the use of an Air Data
Tester or leak tester as it is sometimes called.
Special test fittings are connected to the pitot and static lines to attach the air
data tester.
The normal pitot and static inputs must be covered to ensure correct measure-
ment.
Only use approved covers for this purpose.
If you use the bright colored tape to cover the static ports you must remove it
totally after the test to keep the surface clean and prevent disturbed indica-
tions.
During the leak test the pitot system is pressurised and it is then measured
how long this pressure stays within certain limits.
The Static system pressure is reduced and the reduced pressure must be re-
tained within certain limits.
When you use the air data tester, you must always follow the procedures of the
maintenance manual and other specific test instructions to prevent aircraft
equipment damage.
For example the STATIC pressure must never be higher than the PITOT pres-
sure. Also, it must never exceed the maximum rate of pressure changes in or-
der to allow the instruments and air data computer to follow smoothly.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Figure 40 Air Data Testing

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

air data testing cont.
The pitot and static lines must also be checked for any presence of water on a
regular basis.
Water which enters the pitot static system causes fluctuations of indications.
This is because the water moves inside the tubes depending on acceleration
forces and changes the pressure of the trapped air.
If the water freezes in the tube, this would have the same effect as a totally
blocked port, which you have seen already.
To prevent problems with water in the pitot static system, you must make sure
that the drain holes of the pitot tubes are open.
If water enters the ports, it is collected by water traps at the lowest point of the
pitot static tubes.

INSTRUMENTS
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Figure 41 Water Drain

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER
AIR DATA COMPUTER

INTRODUCTION
You learned in the last lesson that air data computers, or ADCs in short, are an
important part of air data systems in larger aircraft.
Up to 3 identical air data computers are installed in the avionics rack of the air-
craft.
All ADCs perform the following tasks:
They measure and convert the temperature and pitot/static pressure and then
calculate the necessary output signals for the indicators and aircraft systems.
ADCs also calculate correction signals for the static source error and deter-
mine values that are not directly measurable, like density.
Three types of ADC are used in aircraft.
The first generation analog ADCs used electromechanical circuits to calculate
the analog output signals for the indicators and other users.
In modern aircraft you find digital Air Data Computers or DADC in short. Here,
a digital computer calculates the output signals and sends them via a digital
bus, like the ARINC 429 bus, to the users.
A Hybrid ADC is a modern digital computer but it also provides analog output
signals so it can replace the old analog ADC.

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER

Figure 42 Air Data Computer

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER
ANALOGUE ADC
The Analog Air Data Computer has three modules:
S an altitude module
S an airspeed module
S and a mach module.
They calculate the necessary output signals for the electrical indicators and
other users.
The modules use pitot pressure and static pressure together with the tempera-
ture to calculate these analog output signals.
The Altitude module converts the static pressure to analog altitude and vertical
speed signals.
The Airspeed module calculates the dynamic pressure from the static and total
pressure to give the calibrated airspeed value.
The MACH module uses information from the other 2 modules to calculate the
MACH number. If temperature is also supplied TAS and SAT can be calculated.
The air data computer also does corrections for the static source error or
SSEC in short.
The SS E depends primarily on the mach number which comes from the mach
module.
The SSE also depends on the location of the static ports and the fuselage
shape.
An ADC can be used in different aircraft types and therefore it requires aircraft
characteristic data. This data comes either from an adapter which is attached
to the computer or is selected by pin programming. Here the ADC gets a
ground signal via a specific rack connector pin depending on the aircraft type.
Some computers also use the angle of attack as well as the flap and gear posi-
tion to make the correction more accurate.

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER

Figure 43 Analog ADC

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER

anaogue ADC cont.
Like the pneumatic indicators, the analog air data computer uses metal bellows
to convert the pressure into a mechanical movement.
Two different types of bellows are used in the analog air data computer. The
altitude module uses an aneroid bellows like in the altimeter and the airspeed
module uses a differential pressure bellows like in the airspeed indicator.
A transducer like this E--Pickup converts the mechanical movement into a pro-
portional electrical signal for a servo motor.
The servo motor moves a torsion bar until the electrical signal from the
e--pickup decreases to zero. The motor also moves the wipers of potentiome-
ters which provide analog output signals.
You can imagine that this mechanical computation needs some time, so rapid
pressure changes, like for example during air data testing, must be avoided.

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER

Aircraft
Adapter
Figure 44 Analog ADC
INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER
DIGITAL ADC
Digital Air Data Computers or DADC in short, are used in modern aircraft. They
also receive pitot and static pressure from the respective pressure ports and
temperature from the temperature probe/.
Transducers are used to convert the input pressures into electrical signals.
The same transducer type can be used for pitot and static pressures, this is an
advantage over the analog ADC which needs 2 different bellows.
Pressure transducers which you find in DADCs are of different types.
One type is the resistive bridge transducer.
A second type of pressure transducer used in digital air data computers is the
vibrating cylinder.
The output of the pressure transducers is digitized and sent to the digital com-
puter. The digital computer calculates all output signals one after the other and
refreshes the data in a predetermined cycle, for example once a second.
It also does the necessary data corrections such as for the static source error.
To do this, the DADC usually gets information about the aircraft type from a pin
programming and from the angle of attack and flap and gear position.
The computed values are then transmitted to the instruments and other users
via several digital data busses.
The format is usually ARINC 429.

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER

Figure 45 Digital ADC

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER
HYBRID ADC
A Hybrid ADC can be used as a replacement for old analog air data computers.
Externally it appears to be an analog ADC with the same analog inputs and
outputs.
Internally the Hybrid ADC is a modern computer with electronic pressure trans-
ducers and a digital computer like the DADC. All signals are digitally processed
and corrected for errors before being transmitted to the digital to analog con-
verter.
As in the DADC, the output signals are also available in digital format on a da-
tabus.

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER

Figure 46 Hybrid ADC

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER
ADIRU
In this system, air data modules convert the pitot and static pressure instead of
ADCs.
The air data modules contain pressure transducers which are the same type as
are used in the DADC now the computer consists of the digital parts only and
as a result, requires little space. This allows the ADC to be integrated with the
IRU.
The result is a black box called the air data inertial reference unit or ADIRU in
short. You will see more about this component in lesson 9 of this unit.

INSTRUMENTS
AIR DATA COMPUTER

Figure 47 Adiru
INSTRUMENTS
WARNING AND RECORDING SYSTEMS

ALTITUDE ALERT SYSTEM The alert is inhibited when the autopilot is active, because it does the level off
automatically.
As you know air traffic control separates the aircraft during flight by clearing
them to different flight altitudes. In this approach mode the alert is triggered about 900 ft before the selected
altitude.
Therefore it is very important that an aircraft flies only at an altitude which is
It consist of an short aural alert and a visual alert which now is a steady light or
cleared by air traffic control, to avoid collisions. Here, for example, the aircraft
flies at 15000 ft. a pulsing altitude window in the PFD.
A deviation from this clearance altitude is detected by the Altitude Alert system The alerts stop when the altitude difference becomes less then 300 ft.
which alerts the pilot with a visual and aural alert.
The altitude alert system compares the actual altitude delivered by the air data
computer with the clearance altitude from ATC, which the pilot must always
select on the altitude window of the autoflight control panel.
The altitude alert system is normally integrated in the autoflight or central warn-
ing system of the aircraft, but you can also find systems with a separate com-
puter.
A typical altitude alert system alerts the pilots when the aircraft deviates more
then 300 ft from the selected altitude. This is called the deviation mode.
The alert consist of a short chime from a loudspeaker in the cockpit accompa-
nied by a flashing altitude alert light.
In glass cockpit aircraft instead of the light the window around the altitude indi-
cation in the PFD flashes.
The visual altitude alert extinguishes if the aircraft returns to the correct alti-
tude.
In some systems it also extinguishes if the deviation becomes more than
900 ft.
Before an aircraft is allowed to climb or descend the pilot must ask ATC for a
new clearence altitude which then must be selected with the altitude knob.
During this selection the altitude alert is inhibited, so the deviation alert will
never appear when the pilot follows the correct procedure.
A new altitude selection is not done when during an approach the aircraft inter-
cepts the glideslope to start the landing. Therefore in this situation the altitude
alert is inhibited by the system so that the pilot is not confused.
Typical altitude alert systems also give an alert when the aircraft approaches
the selected altitude during manual flight. This is to remind the pilot to level off
at the correct altitude.

INSTRUMENTS
Altitude Alert
Inhibit
Figure 48 Attitude Alert System

INSTRUMENTS
OVERSPEED WARNING
Hopefully you remember from a previous lesson that the airspeed indicator
shows the actual indicated airspeed and a speed limit. In jet aircraft this is done
by the red and white VMO / MMO pointer in the airspeed indicator or with the
red and black area on the speed tape of the PFD.
All jet aircraft have an independent aural overspeed warning, because of the
danger of aircraft damage during an overspeed.
It is either an aural warning from the cockpit loudspeakers which is triggered by
the master warning system or it is a separate system with a sound like a
clacker.
The overspeed warning is generated whenever the airspeed is higher than
VMO or MMO. The detection is always independent of the airspeed indication.
The overspeed warning can be tested by activating an individual test button or
via the central maintenance computer.

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 49 Overspeed Warning

INSTRUMENTS
STALL WARRNING
Aircraft can only fly if the wing generates sufficient lift, which depends mainly
on the wing geometry, the airspeed and the angle of attack.
To keep a constant lift as the airspeed decreases you must increase the angle
of attack or you must change the wing geometry by extending the slats and
flaps.
At a certain angle of attack, called the alpha max, the airflow cannot follow the
upper surface of the wing and an airflow separation occurs.
This stall condition is very dangerous because the lift decreases dramatically
and the aircraft crashes if not enough altitude is available for recovery.
Therefore the pilot must be warned early enough before the real stall happens.
This is the task of the stall warning system.
A stall warning system compares the actual angle of attack from the alpha
vane with the aircraft specific alpha max.
As alpha max depends on the flap and slat position their actual position must
also be taken into account.
The comparison is done in a separate computer or is integrated in another sys-
tem, like the master warning or the autothrottle system.
Usually two independent systems are used for redundancy.
When the critical angle of attack is reached the system activates a stick shaker
motor on the control column. It generates vibrations that simulate the effect of
a real stall to the flight controls.
In addition modern aircraft have an aural warning, like this:
In some aircrafts you can also find a stick pusher. It automatically pushes the
control column forward to reduce the angle of attack when a stall condition is
detected.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 100

INSTRUMENTS
12
Figure 50 Stall Warning System

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 101
INSTRUMENTS
FLIGHT DATA RECORDER

A Flight data recorder or FDR in short is required by aviation law on all large
commercial aircraft. It records important flight data to evaluate causes of an
accident.
The first generations of FDRs just recorded 6 parameters: These are time,
heading, altitude, airspeed, vertical acceleration and a pulse when the push to
talk switch is activated. This allowed synchronization of the recorded data with
the data from air traffic control and the voice recorder.
Aircraft certified during the last 30 years require a recorder which can record a
lot more data, like engine, flight control and system status. You can see exam-
ples on the list, but modern systems can store several hundred parameters.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 102

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 51 Flight Data Recorder

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 103
INSTRUMENTS

flight data recorder cont.
Modern Flight recorders use two types of storage devices to store the required
parameters.
One uses a magnetic tape, which is protected against heat and shocks by in-
sulation and the second type uses solid state memories like CMOS E--PROMs.
Both recorder types dont need any maintenance activity, because they only
store the data of the last 25 flight hours. The oldest data is constantly erased
and overwritten by new data.
The flight recorder can usually be found in the tail section of the aircraft, here
side by side with the voice recorder. Typically this location is less seriously
damaged in a crash.
The recorder is painted bright yellow or orange so it can be easily located at
the crash site.
To keep the stored data during a crash the storage device must be protected
against high G--loads of up to 1000 gs and high temperatures of more than
1000.
You can see the thick insulation protecting the tape on this photo.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 104

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 52 FDR Location

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 105
INSTRUMENTS

All Flight data recorders have an underwater Locator Beacon, to locate the air-
craft under water if it crashes into the sea.
The underwater Locator Beacon transmits an audio signal at 40 khz that can
be picked up by an underwater microphone.
The transmission starts automatically when the battery of the beacon comes in
contact with water and continues for a minimum of 30 days.
The underwater Locator Beacon and the flight recorder can withstand depths of
more than 3000 m.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 106

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 53 Underwater Locator Beacon

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 107
INSTRUMENTS

The flight recorder starts recording automatically at the beginning of the flight
and stops at the end. Typical switching signals come from the engine oil pres-
sure switch or an airspeed signa.
A test switch in the cockpit allows a test of flight recorder operation on the
ground by bypassing the start conditions. Modern systems can be tested via
the CMC.
Modern flight recorders store the data in a digital format. All signals from the
aircraft systems go first to a flight data acquisition unit.
This unit combines all data to a recordable format and also monitors the re-
cording.
In addition the FDR stores the flight number and the date. It is provided either
by the flight management computer or a Flight Data Entry Panel. Here the flight
crew must enter the data manually.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 108

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 54 FDR Operation

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 109
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES
GYROSCOPES
INTRODUCTION
As you should remember from lesson 1, in aircraft, there are several indicators
which need gyro signals for their indication.
Vertical gyros or VG in short, provide the attitude indication for the Attitude Di-
rector Indicator or ADI.
A directional gyro, or DG in short, provides the heading reference signal for the
horizontal situation indicator, or HSI in short and radio magnetic indicators, RMI
in short.
A rate gyro is used for the rate of turn indication.
The same type of indications are found in modern glass cockpit aircraft. These
aircraft have an electronic flight instrument system, EFIS, which uses elec-
tronic gyros, like laser gyros. They will be introduced to you in the lesson on
inertial stabilized systems.
Also, from earlier lessons you should remember that these aircraft have a
standby horizon which uses a vertical gyro like the artificial horizon in small air-
craft types.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 110

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 55 Gyroscopes
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 111
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES
GYRO PRINCIPLE
A gyro is a rotating mass which keeps the direction of its axis constant as long
as no force acts on it.
This gyro stability depends on 3 factors:
S First its mass, which is evenly distributed around the spin axis
S secondly the rotational speed
S and third the distance between the axis and the center of the mass.
An example of a gyro is our planet Earth, which has travelled around the sun
for millions of years with no significant change of its spin axis direction.
The stability of the Earth comes from its very high mass and large diameter.
But aircraft equipment has to be as small and light as possible. Therefore, to
have enough stability, aircraft gyros must spin at very high speeds of up to
22000 rpm/min.
When you apply a force to a gyro which acts in the direction of its axis, it will
move in that direction, but there is no change in the direction of the gyro axis.
The same happens when a force acts on the center of gravity of the gyro.
A completely different reaction happens to the gyro when the force tries to
change the direction of the axis, for instance by pressing against its axis as in
our example.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 112

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 56 Gyro Principle

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 113
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

gyro principle cont.
When you apply a force which tries to tilt the gyro axis you get a reaction which The rotating propeller shows the same effect as the gyro described before.
is shifted by 90. This is called gyro precession. The lifting of the aircraft tail applies a force to the gyro axis.
For example when you apply a force in the so called plane of external force it is This force is transferred clockwise into the plane of precession, so the nose
transferred to the rotating mass and shifted by 90 in the direction of the spin, would turn to the left, if the pilot did not react.
here clockwise.
Precession forces are present for all rotating components, like propellers, tur-
This shifted force now tilts the gyro in the plane of precession until the original bofan engines and even wheels if they are turning during gear retraction.
force that was applied corresponds with the direction of spin.
This must be taken into account for aircraft design and operation.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 114

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 57 Gyro Precession

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 115
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
A gyro which is mounted to the aircraft structure by bearings, like a propeller or
wheel, can only spin around its axis. So this gyro has just 1 degree of freedom.
A gyro with one gimbal has 2 degree of freedom because the gyro axis can
now move in one direction.
If the movement of the gimbal is limited by a spring we get a gyro with just
1,5 degree of freedom. Such a gyro is called a rate gyro. This is described in a
later segment.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 116

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 58 Degrees of Freedom

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 117
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

degrees of freedom cont.
A gyro with 2 gimbals has three degrees of freedom. Now the gyro axis is free
in all direction.
A gyro with a vertical axis is called vertical gyro or VG. It is used in aircraft as
the artificial horizon.
The same gyro type but with a horizontal axis is called a directional gyro or DG.
It is used in aircraft to provide a heading reference signal.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 118

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 59 Degrees of Freedom

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 119
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

space gyro cont.
We have now seen that a stable gyro keeps the direction of its axis constant.
And this is also true when the gyro flies with a rocket into space.
When the gyro is used as a reference in an aircraft, it is done so with reference
to the surface of the rotating Earth.
In the example shown here, a gyro with 3 degrees of freedom is located at the
equator with the axis pointing to the Earths center.
A gyro with three degrees of freedom will always keep the direction of its axis
with reference to space. It is therefore called a space gyro.
The result is that the gyro axis topples at the equator by 90 in 6 hours or 15
per hour.
This topple is called apparent topple because it only happens with reference to
the Earths surface but not with reference to space.
The apparent topple is 15 per hour at the equator, and 0 at the pole.
At any latitude you can calculate the apparent topple by multiplying 15 per
hour times the cosine of the latitude.
In Hamburg for example, the topple is 9 per hour because the latitude is 53.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 120

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 60 Space Gyro

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 121
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

space gyro cont.
Now lets have a look at an example of a gyro with a horizontal axis.
Located at the equator with a north pointing axis you will get no change in di-
rection at all/.
Located at the pole with a certain start direction of, for example, zero degrees,
you will see that the gyro keeps its direction with reference to space but the
direction in relation to the longitude changes, because of the Earths rotation.
The change of gyro axis direction in relation to the Earths surface is called ap-
parent drift and is 15 per hour at the poles.
Generally the apparent drift is calculated by multiplying 15 per hour with the
sine of the latitude.
The rate of apparent drift and topple is only accurate if the gyro is at a fixed
location.
A so called transport rate must be added or subtracted when the gyro is trans-
ported, like during the flight. This transport rate depends on the direction and
speed of transport. Normally it is so small that we can ignore its effect.
The total drift and topple of a gyro which must be corrected during operation is
not only the apparent drift and topple.
Gyros are also affected by something called real drift and topple. This comes
from mechanical inbalances and bearing forces which generate unwanted pre-
cessions.
For new or overhauled gyros this real drift and topple is very small, but in-
creases with longer use or incorrect gyro handling.
To use a gyro in aircraft instruments we must eliminate the total effect of topple
with a so called erection system.
It controls the gyro axis to keep a constant direction to the Earths surface. Ei-
ther horizontal for the DG or vertical for the VG.
The erection system uses the gravity of the Earth as a reference signal. Either
detected by a moving mass like a pendulum or by liquid level switches.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 122

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 61 Drif&Topple
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 123
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES
VERTICAL GYRO
A vertical gyro is used as the reference in all classical instruments showing an
artificial horizon.
In level flight its axis corresponds to the vertical axis of the aircraft, so the air-
craft symbol is in line with the horizon of the indicator.
When the aircraft nose moves up, the indicator with the aircraft reference sym-
bol moves up, but the gyro axis keeps its vertical direction which shows the
new situation of the horizon.
When the aircraft nose moves down, the indicator with the aircraft reference
symbol moves down, but the gyro axis keeps its vertical direction which shows
the new situation of the horizon.
During a left turn the indicator with the aircraft reference symbol turns left, but
the gyro axis keeps its vertical direction which shows the new situation of the
horizon.
During a right turn the indicator with the aircraft reference symbol turns right,
but the gyro axis keeps its vertical direction which shows the new situation of
the horizon.
You know that a gyro needs a high rotational speed to have enough stability. In
small aircraft the speed is generated by air. The airflow is generated by a vac-
uum or suction pump which sucks the cockpit air through the indicator and
drives the gyro body which is formed like a small turbine.
In all commercial aircraft the gyros are driven by electric motors. This is more
reliable and gives a stable speed in all flight situations.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 124

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 62 Vertical Gyro

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 125
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

vertical gyro cont.
To keep the axis of the gyro vertical an erection system is needed. The air
driven gyro uses pendulums to generate an erection force by the airflow. We
will not discuss this in more detail here.
Electrically driven gyros use level switches with a conductive fluid which acti-
vates a torque motor when the gyro axis topples.
The torque motor brings the gyro axis back to the correct direction.
When the roll level switch detects an incorrect direction of the axis it activates
the roll torque motor, which applies a force to the gyro gimbal.
This force generates a corresponding precession force to bring the gyro back
to the correct direction.
The erection system can not work correctly during accelerations which effect
the aircraft.
Large longitudinal accelerations, for example during a take--off, create a result-
ant force which influences the pitch level switch.
During a coordinated turn the resultant force influences the roll level switch.
Wrong indications of the artificial horizon during accelerations must be pre-
vented.
Therefore, the rate of gyro erection is limited to 3 per minute. This rate is suffi-
cient to compensate the apparent topple of 15 per hour plus any precessions
from real topple.
On the other hand the erection rate is so small that during normal turns and
accelerations no significant error can build up.
In electrical gyros a faster erection rate with about 20 per minute is activated
only when the gyro is switched on after a long power interruption.
Electrical gyros also have erection cutout switches.
They detect an acceleration in the pitch or roll axis and interrupt the corre-
sponding erection circuit for as long as the accelerations last.

Long acceleration periods like during full turns must be prevented because the
gyro topple cannot be compensated during that time.
Therefore, during holding, aircraft fly racetrack patterns instead of full turns.
This gives the erection system after each half turn enough time to compensate
any gyro topple.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 126

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 63 Vertical Gyro Erection System

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 127
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES
DIRECTIONAL GYRO
A directional gyro has three degrees of freedom and a horizontal axis.
The gyro keeps its direction stable when the aircraft turns its nose.
In this example of a directional gyro from a small aircraft you can see that the
indicator scale is connected to the gyro gimble.
When the aircraft with the indicator turns, you can read the changing direction
behind the lubber line on the front glass.
Many features of the directional gyro are the same as we have discussed for
the vertical gyro. So it is either driven pneumatically or electrically and it has an
erection system which keeps the gyro axis, in this case, horizontal.
A level switch and a torque motor does this task in the electrical gyro.
An important difference of the DG to the VG is that it drifts.
The drift of an air driven DG must be compensated manually by the pilot by use
of a heading set knob.
Commercial aircraft use electrical gyros with an automatic drift compensation.
You will see this in lesson 8.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 128

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES
Lubber Line
Figure 64 Directional Gyro

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 129
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES
RATE GYRO
Rate gyros have one gimbal which is limited in motion by a spring.
This is called a gyro with 1,5 degrees of freedom.
They are used to measure the rate of turn of the aircraft around its sensitive
axis. A turn around the sensitive axis will generate a gyro precession which
moves the gimbal against the spring force.
Rate gyros are named after its sensitive axis. A Roll rate gyro has a vertical
spin axis and gimbal bearings in the lateral axis.
An aircraft motion around the longitudinal axis will generate a gyro precession
against the spring.
A pitch rate gyro has the gimbal bearings in the longitudinal axis and in a yaw
rate gyro the spin axis is parallel to the lateral axis.
Pitch rate gyros as well as Roll rate gyros are only used as sensors for auto-
flight systems.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 130

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 65 Rate Gyro

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 131
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

rate gyro cont.
The only rate indication you can find in many aircraft is the yaw rate or rate of
turn indication.
It uses either a separate indicator or it is integrated in the ADI.
The rate of turn indication shows a full deflection when a complete turn would
need 2 minutes -- this is also called a standard turn.
The indication is only accurate when the gyro speed is normal, because the
precession force which acts against the spring depends on the gyro stability,
which is proportional to the speed.
Therefore rate gyros are generally driven by electric motors.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 132

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 66 Rate Gyro Indication

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 133
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

rate gyro cont.
The rate of turn indication is always supplemented by a slip indication from an
inclinometer, also called the ball. It shows the pilot the direction of the resultant
forces during turn.
The ball is made of metal and its movement is dampened by a liquid.
The combined indication of rate of turn pointer and ball give the pilot informa-
tion about the quality of a turn.
When the ball is centered, it means that a turn is perfectly coordinated because
the vertical axis of the aircraft is parallel to the resultant force of the turn.
When the ball moves in the direction of the turn, this means the bank angle is
too large for the actual rate of turn and the aircraft slips.
The pilot must increase the turn rate by moving the rudder in the direction of
the ball, here to the right.
When the ball moves in the opposite direction of the turn the bank angle is too
small for the actual rate of turn.
The pilot must decrease the turn rate by moving the rudder in the direction of
the ball, here to the left.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 134

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 67 Turn andShip Indication

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 135
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

rate gyro cont.
In small aircraft you often find a turn coordinator instead of a rate of turn indica-
tor.
In this indicator, the rate gyro is turned by 45 so that it is also sensitive to the
roll rate.
The result, is that the turn coordinator shows the yaw rate when the bank angle
is constant, but shows a roll rate when the bank angle changes.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 136

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 68 Turn Coordinator

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 137
INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES
GYRO HANDLING
As you have learned in this lesson, gyros are very precise, mechanical compo-
nents. They must be handled with great care to prevent any damage to their
sensitive parts like the bearings.
During removal and installation always follow the procedures in the mainte-
nance manual.
Most importantly, never move a gyro when it is running at medium speed. This
is between 3 min after power interruption until it is completely stopped after
about 20 min.
During this period the gyro has decreasing stabilty and would start tumbling
and this causes high stress on the bearings.
Normally, wait until the gyro has completely stopped or if this is not possible,
because of the long waiting time, you must move the gyro when it is running at
high speed.
You must observe the same caution when you move an aircraft on the ground.
Any movement during the intermediate speed period of the gyro can damage it
or degrade its performance.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 138

INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPES

Figure 69 Gyro Handling

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 139
INSTRUMENTS
ATTITUDE REFERENCE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
As you have learned in the last lesson a vertical gyro is used as the reference
for the attitude indication in aircraft, also called the artificial horizon.
The vertical gyro is integrated in the attitude indicator of small aircraft and in
the standby horizon of larger commercial aircraft.
The artificial horizon is one of the four most important indications in an aircraft,
so it must be available for as long as possible. Therefore the vertical gyro of
the standby horizon is electrically driven by energy from the aircraft battery sys-
tem.
The erection system works mechanically. This makes sure that the horizon in-
dication is usable even after a total loss of electrical power, as long as the gyro
runs stable during its spin down time of about 20 minutes.
The mechanical erection system of a standby horizon uses balls or slowly turn-
ing masses on top of the gyro as you can see here.
The masses apply a force to the gyro assembly when the axis is not vertical.
This generates a precession force which returns the gyro axis back into the
vertical position.
An erection system can only influence the gyro axis to a maximum of 3 per
minute.
To erect the gyro immediatly, for example after power activation, it needs a
caging mechanism.
When you pull the caging knob the gimbals are caged and stabilized in the nor-
mal position.
Please make sure that the gyro runs with full speed or is stopped completly
when you use gimbal caging. Any intermidiate speed may damage the gyro
because of the limited stability.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 140

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 70 Standby Horizon

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 141
INSTRUMENTS
ADI Usually this indication is controlled by the autothrottle system which you learn
about in unit 22.
The main attitude indication in larger commercial aircraft is integrated either in
the attitude director indicator, or ADI for short, or in the primary flight display, or All indications you have just seen, except the ball and the Decision Height light,
PFD of glass cockpit aircraft. are driven by small electric motors or torque meters. You can see here an ex-
ample of the drive for the pitch flight director bar.
Some aircraft types use electronic ADIs. This is a display with the ADI image.
You can check the correct function of the indications by doing tests in the spe-
The attitude for PFD and electronic ADI come from an inertial reference unit cific system.
which you will learn about in lesson 9.
To check the attitude indication you must press the test push button on the
The ADI is a complex electromechanical indicator. It has the attitude indication ADI.
in the center, and flight director command bars. These two indications give the
ADI the name Attitude Director Indicator.
The typical ADI you can see here has many other indications located around
the attitude.
The attitude indication is presented by a sphere which can move in all direc-
tions. In the center you can find the fixed aircraft symbol.
The pitch and roll flight director command bars are controlled by the autoflight
system which you will learn about in unit 22.
This is the integrated turn and slip indication. The rate of turn pointer is con-
trolled by a yaw rate gyro and shows the turn rate around the vertical axis. The
slip indicator, also called the ball, shows the direction of the resultant gravity
force. See lesson 6 for more information.
The glideslope pointer shows whether the aircraft flies above or below the gli-
deslope during an approach. It is controlled by the ILS system, which you will
learn about in unit 34.
The so called rising runway appears in the final phase of the landing approach.
The vertical movement shows the distance to the ground, called the radio alti-
tude and the horizontal movement indicates whether the aircraft flies on the
center of the localizer beam or left or right of it. More information about this in
unit 34.
The DH lamp illuminates when the aircraft descends below a preselected dis-
tance to the ground, called the decision height. At this moment the pilot must
decide if the visibility is good enough to continue the landing.
The DH lamp is controlled by the radio altimeter which you will learn more
about in unit 34.
The fast slow pointer shows the pilot if the aircraft speed corresponds to a pre-
selected final landing speed, called the V REF. Full up indication would mean
that the aircraft is 10 knts or more too fast.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 142

INSTRUMENTS
Descision Height Lamp
Fast/Slow Glideslop Pointer

Pointer Aircraft Symbol
Attitude
Rising
Runway
Rate of Turn Pointer

Slip Indicator
Figure 71 ADI
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 143
INSTRUMENTS
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
In this segment we will concentrate on the signals for the attitude indication on
the ADI.
These signals are supplied by a remote vertical gyro which is located in the
electric compartment.
The signals come from synchros, on the vertical gyro gimbals, which transfer
the pitch and roll angle into the electrical signal.
In addition a gyro valid signal is sent to the ADI when the gyro is operating with
normal speed.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 144

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 72 ADI Attitude Signals

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 145
INSTRUMENTS

All signals use independent wires. For easier identification in our schematic we
have combined all wires to a single line.
The Captain and the First Officer must have their own independent attitude in-
dications so we need two independent vertical gyros.
If one of the two gyros is faulty a switching restores the attitude indication from
a third vertical gyro.
This gyro can be transfered either to captains or first officers ADI to replace a
faulty gyro.
The attitude information from the vertical gyros is not only used for the ADIs. It
is also provided to other systems like the autoflight system and the weather
radar system. You will learn why attitude information is needed in the lessons
about these systems.
Usually the components are supplied from the Captains vertical gyro.
If there is a second system installed, like a second autopilot, these components
are supplied from the first officers vertical gyro.
The attitude reference system has an attitude comparison as an additional
safety feature.
It compares the two indicated attitudes by deriving a signal directly from the
indication.
If the pitch or roll indications differ by several degrees an alert is triggered by
the instrument warning system.
If the aircraft is equipped with primary flight displays instead of ADIs a mes-
sage called CHECK ATTITUDEappears on top of the attitude indication on
both PFDs.
To find out which of two different indications is correct you always need a third
independent source of information for comparison.
In the attitude reference system, this is either the vertical gyro number 3 or the
standby horizon.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 146

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 73 System Architecture

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 147
INSTRUMENTS
HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM
Ameco Beijing FUNDAMENTELS

HEADING DEFINITIONS
The aircraft heading has always been one of the basic needs for aircraft navi-
gation. It is shown with a direct reading compass like this standby compass
and with a remote compass on the main instrument panels.
The indicated heading is the angle between the aircraft longitudinal axis, which
is shown with the so called lubber line and the direction to the north pole.
True heading is in reference to the geographic north pole, also called true
north, or T--N in short, and magnetic heading is in reference to the Magnetic
North pole, also called magnetic north, or M--N in short.
The angle between True North and Magnetic North is called the variation.
The actual variation depends on the position on earth.
On a map with lines showing locations with identical variations, called isogonic
lines, you can see that they are not symmetrical, because they are affected by
other magnetic materials inside the earth.
The different variations at different locations are basically no problem, because
all navigation equipment and runway directions as well as all information on
maps are based on the magnetic heading.
Unfortunately the position of the magnetic poles is drifting, so magnetic refer-
ences, like runway headings must be updated every few years.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 148

INSTRUMENTS
Latitude
TN MN
Variation
Figure 74 HDG Definitions

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 149
INSTRUMENTS

heading definations cont.
The compass can only use horizontal magnetic field lines to measure the head-
ing. As you can see here, only near the equator are all magnetic field lines hori-
zontal.
In other areas the field lines decline to the earths surface, and this is called
inclination.
The magnetic field is split into a horizontal and a vertical component.
The result of the inclination shows, for example, that at a latitude of fifty de-
grees the strength of the horizontal component has already decreased to fifty
percent and at more than seventy degrees the horizontal component is so
weak that it is not useable for a compass.
In the regions near the poles a directional gyro or a inertial stabilized system
must be used. You will see this later.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 150

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 75 Inclination
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 151
INSTRUMENTS
DIRECT READING COMPASS

A direct reading compass has no elecrical parts, except a light, and contains all
parts necessary to read the magnetic heading.
In commercial aircraft it is called standby compass, because the heading indi-
cation is part of the basic T and therefore must always be available even after
a total electrical power loss.
The standby compass is usually located at the centerpost between the front
windshields. Here it is readable by both pilots and as far as possible away from
foreign magnetic fields of electrical equipment.
The standby compass has a housing with a glass window. The window has a
vertical line in the center, called the lubber line.
The lubber line shows the heading on the turnable compass scale.
A Permanent magnet turns the compass scale into the direction of the mag-
netic field.
The instrument is filled with a fluid to dampen the compass scale movements.
An expansion unit compensates fluid expansion caused by temperature
changes.
The Permanent magnet with the compass scale is kept horizontal by a pivot
point bearing to measure the horizontal component of the field. But this only
works perfectly when the aircraft flies wings level and at a constant airspeed.
Any aircraft acceleration during speed changes or turns moves the magnet out
of the horizontal position.
The result is that the magnet is also influenced by the vertical component of the
earths magnet field, which points down on the northern part of the earth and
up on the southern part.
There is no influence on the heading indication when you accelerate or deceler-
ate on a flight in northerly direction, as shown in our example.
The vertical field influences the magnet in the same direction as the horizontal
field.
The same is true when flying south, because the permanent magnet points in
the same direction.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 152

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 76 Direct Reading Compass

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 153
INSTRUMENTS

direct reading compass cont.
You can now see what happens when an aircraft flys over the northern part of
the earth in an easterly direction.
During a stable flight you always get a correct indication, independent of flight
direction, because only the horizontal field influences the compass magnet.
During an acceleration the compass scale with the magnet tilts forward. Now
the vertical magnetic field pulls the north pole of the magnet down. This turns
the compass scale to a lower heading indication.
During a deceleration the compass scale with the magnet tilts aft. Now the ver-
tical magnetic field pulls the north pole of the magnet down. This turns the
compass scale to a higher heading indication.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 154

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 77 Indication Errors

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 155
INSTRUMENTS

direct reading compass cont.
Now lets see what happens when the aircraft flies a turn over the northern part
of the earth and the magnet is influenced by the centrifugal force.
When you fly east or west there will be no influence on the indication, because
the horizontal and vertical fields act in the same direction.
However when you fly north or south a turn will disturb the heading indication.
During a stable flight you always get a correct indication, independent of flight
direction, because only the horizontal field influences the compass magnet.
During a right turn the compass scale with the magnet tilts right. Now the verti-
cal magnetic field pulls the north pole of the magnet down. This turns the com-
pass scale to a lower heading indication that looks like a turn to the wrong di-
rection.
During a left turn the compass scale with the magnet tilts left. The vertical mag-
netic field pulls the north pole of the magnet down. This turns the compass
scale to a higher heading indication, that looks like a turn to the wrong direc-
tion.
All the described heding indication errors during turns and accelerations are
only true for the northern part of the earth, where the vertical field component
points down.
On the southern part of the earth the effect of the vertical field component is
inversed because it points up.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 156

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 78 Indication Errors

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 157
INSTRUMENTS
COMPASS COMPENSATION
The direct reading compass is also affected by a magnetic field inside the air-
craft, for example, from electrical equipment which is active during normal air-
craft operation.
This aircraft magnetic field changes the direction of magnetic north to the so
called compass north. The difference is called deviation.
You can minimize the deviation with small adjustable magnets inside the com-
pass, called the compass compensation.
A compass compensation provides the values for the adjustment of the com-
pensating magnets. A compensation must be done for example after aircraft
overhaul and when an aircraft modification would influence the compass indica-
tion.
A compensation needs a 360 turn of the aircraft on the ground, far away from
all foreign magnetic fields of the airport, for example from buildings.
During the aircraft turn you can identify the direction and intensity of the aircraft
magnetic field because it is constant whereas the magnetic heading changes
the direction.
During the compensation the deviation is recorded every 90 of the aircraft
swing.
Afterwards correction values, also called coefficients are calculated. The B co-
efficient is the difference between the east and west deviations, divided by 2
and the C-- coefficient is the difference between the north / south deviations,
divided by 2.
The B correction value of our example is plus 10 and the C correction value is
minus 10 . Note that you must be careful with the minus signs.
The corrections are done by turning the small compensating magnets with a
non magnetic tool into the correct direction.
For the B correction the aircraft usually stays in an easterly direction and the
corresponding screw is turned as long as the calculated value of in our exam-
ple plus ten degrees is reached.
For the C correction the aircraft usually stays in a northerly direction and the
corresponding screw is turned as long as the calculated value of in our exam-
ple minus ten degrees is reached.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 158

INSTRUMENTS
MN
Figure 79 Compass Compensation

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 159
INSTRUMENTS

compass compensation cont.
An A Correction is only necessary when there is a misalignment between com-
pass and the aircraft x axis. This gives a parallel shift of the deviation curve.
In our example this gives an A coefficient of 5 as the average value for all 4
measurements.
As this error has nothing to do with magnetic fields the adjustment is done by
turning the compass in its mounting.
Often it is not possible to get a complete compensation. The remaining com-
pass error is therefore measured every 30 during an aircraft turn on the
ground and written into a compass deviation card to be used during flight.
For example to fly a magnetic heading of 120 the compass must indicate 118
in normal mode and 119 when only emergency power is available.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 160

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 80 Deviation Card

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 161
INSTRUMENTS
REMOTE COMPASS SYSTEM

A directional gyro, or DG in short, can be used to eliminate the problems with
the direct reading compass.
As you should know from lesson 6 the DG provides a stable indication of the
direction independent of short term effects like accelerations.
The DG direction must be corrected frequently because of its drift, which
changes the direction relative to the earth by up to 15 per hour.
In old or small aircraft the pilot must make the adjustment manually by the indi-
cation of the direct reading magnetic compass. This must happen during level
flight with no accelerations.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 162

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 81 DG
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 163
INSTRUMENTS

remote compass system cont.
To release the pilot from this manual setting the remote compass system was
invented. It has an indicator which receives the stable heading information from
the DG.
A flux valve automatically measures the direction of the magnetic field.
The direction of the magnetic field is compared to the heading shown on the
indicator and the difference is used to adjust the DG direction with a torque mo-
tor.
The torque generates a gyro precession which changes the DG direction with a
maximum of 2 degrees per minute.
The flux valve transfers the direction of the magnetic field into a proportional
electrical signal.
It has an iron core and 3 sensing coils that generate electrical signals whos
intensity and direction depend on the direction of the magnetic field.
You should remember from electric fundamentals that a coil only induces a
voltage when the intensity of the magnetic field changes. Therefore the iron
core of the flux valve is frequently saturated by an alternating current in an ex-
citation coil.
Saturated iron has the same magnetic resistance as air so the magnetic field
uses the shortest way and bypasses the three coils .
When iron is not saturated it has a magnetic resistance which is less than one
ten thousandth of air, so the magnetic field uses an even longer way through
the iron and the coils.
This alternate switching of the magnetic field functions like a valve. This is the
reason for the name flux valve.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 164

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 82 Flux Valve

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 165
INSTRUMENTS

The flux valve is installed far away from all magnetic fields of the aircraft, for
example in the wing tips or the wing leading edge or in the vertical fin.
Remaining deviations must be compensated. This is done for example with
potentiometers on a remote compensation unit, like the one you can see here.
Compensation provides the values for the A, B and C correction values.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 166

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 83 Flux Valve Location

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 167
INSTRUMENTS

The flux valve can swing inside its housing so that the iron with the sensing
coils is usually kept horizontal by gravity.
During accelerations the flux valve will swing so that it is also affected by the
vertical magnetic field.
These short term disturbances will not affect the DG because of the limited
torque of the slaving motor.
The pilot can monitor the correct function of the system with a slaving annun-
ciator, because it shows the difference between the indicated heading and the
flux valve signal.
When it fluctuates around zero, it shows that the DG has the correct stable di-
rection and the flux valve provides correction signals.
Only long term deflections show an error in the system.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 168

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 84 Slaving Annunciator

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 169
INSTRUMENTS
COMPASS COUPLER
A different type of remote compass system uses a so called compass coupler.
In this system we also compare the flux valve signal with the output to the indi-
cators, here for example a HSI, but do not adjust the DG to the corrected
value.
Instead of this the correction is used internally by a stepper motor which ad-
justs the output signal with the maximum rate of 2 degrees per minute.
The DG drifts freely and provides a so called DG heading, which is the angle
between the aircraft x--axis and the stable gyro direction.
The Compass coupler system has a fast synchronization.
It is automatically available when you switch on the system.
A fast compass setting is also available for manual adjustments of the heading
indication from a compass controller. This is done for example when the flux
valve is not useable or for testing.
With a switch on the compass control panel you can switch off the correction
signal from the flux valve, for example, when the flux valve has a failure.
The compass control panel also has a slaving annunciator which shows the
correction signal from the flux valve as already described for the previous sys-
tem.
The compass coupler also has an internal monitoring which will activate a
warning flag in the indicator when the heading signal is not reliable.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 170

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 85 Compass Coupler

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 171
INSTRUMENTS
HEADING DISTRIBUTION
The distribution of the heading signals is comparable to the attitude reference
system. The main difference is that both pilots usually get the heading signals
from both compass systems indicated.
The HSIs or NDs show the information of their own compass system and the
RMIs show the information of the opposite compass system.
The heading is also provided to the autoflight systems. Compass system one
to autoflight system number one and compass system two to autoflight system
2.
A heading warning flag shows the pilot when the signal is not valid.
In this case the pilot can use the heading transfer switch to connect the user to
the other heading sensor or if available to a third unit.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 172

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 86 HDG Distribution

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 173
INSTRUMENTS
INERTIAL STABILIZED SYSTEMS

GYROS
You have learned in the previous lessons how the pilot gets the information
about aircraft attitude and heading from corresponding reference systems.
Most actual aircraft types use a combination of the 2 systems called an inertial
stabilized system or platform.
The advantage of a platform is that it not only provides the attitude and head-
ing, it can supply all information about aircraft rotations around and motions
along the three axes from a single unit.
The rotations around the three axes are measured by gyros. These are called
the pitch and roll attitude, and heading and the angular rates are called pitch,
roll and yaw rate.
The movements along the aircraft axes are measured by accelerometers. They
are called the x, y and z accelerations as well as the speeds which are calcu-
lated by a computer from these values.
Three different types of gyro combination are used to measure the aircraft rota-
tions.
One possibility is a combination of two gyros with 3 degrees of freedom.
One gyro measures the motions around the x and y axes and the second mea-
sures the motion around the z axis.
Some platforms use the combination of a vertical gyro to measure the rotations
around the x and y axes and a directional gyro to measure the rotation around
the z axis.
A second possibility is to use 3 gyros with two degrees of freedom, one gyro for
each axis.
In these two examples the platform can directly provide the output signals.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 174

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 87 Gyros of Inertial Stabilized Systems

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 175
INSTRUMENTS

gyros cont.
A third method is to use three rate gyros, one for each axis.
You need a computer to calculate the attitude from the rate signals.
The rate gyros can either be mechanical gyros which you can see here or non--
mechanical gyros which are used very often in modern systems. Different
types of non--mechanical rate gyros are in use, but the laser gyro is the most
often used. one.
A laser gyro uses rotating light beams to measure the angular rate.
One light beam rotates clockwise generated by a high voltage between the
cathode and anode 1 and reflected by 3 mirrors and a second light beam ro-
tates counterclockwise generated by a high voltage between the cathode and
anode 2.
Both light beams have to travel the same distance when the module stays still.
When the module rotates for example clockwise the beam with the clockwise
direction must travel a larger distance than the beam in the counterclockwise
direction.
With a comparison between the 2 light beams you can detect the difference in
travel time and therefore the rotational speed of the module because they are
proportional.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 176

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 88 Rate Gyros

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 177
INSTRUMENTS
ACCELEROMETERS
The motions along the axes of the aircraft are measured with accelerometers.
Three different types are used by different manufacturers:
Electrolyte accelerometers, the mass and spring accelerometers and and the
pendulum accelerometers. In our example all three types are sensitive to the
same direction of acceleration.
The electrolyte in the glass tube moves with the acceleration. The result is that
the two resistors R1 and R2 are no longer equal.
With an acceleration the mass moves against the spring. The distance the
mass travels depends on the amount of acceleration.
With an acceleration the pendulum moves until the acceleration force is equal
to the force of gravity.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 178

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 89 Accelerometers Types

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 179
INSTRUMENTS

accelerometers cont.
The pendulum accelerometer is the preferred type. In reality it has a mass with
a pivot outside the center.
The deflection of the mass is transferred into an electrical signal by a pickup.
One pickup type which is often used is the electromagnetic pickup. It has a
transformer with two static excitation windings and one moveable output wind-
ing.
With an acceleration the mass with the output winding moves and an output
voltage is generated.
The function is the same as in a position sensor called LVDT. The direct trans-
formation of the acceleration into an electrical signal has the disadvantages
that the range of acceleration which you can measure accurately is relativly
small and that the travelled distance of the mass is not proportional to the ap-
plied acceleration, which means that it is not linear.
These problems are solved by a torque rebalancing. Now the deflection is di-
rectly transferred into a magnetic force which keeps the pendulum always in its
neutral position.
The pendulum makes only very small movements and the current which gener-
ates the magnetic field is linear to the acceleration, so it can be used for the
output voltage.
Using the linear output data from the accelerometer it is easy to calculate the
ground speed with the integral calculation.
An integral calculation of the speed gives the distance which the aircraft has
travelled and from this also the present position of the aircraft. This you will
see later.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 180

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 90 Torque Rebalancing

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 181
INSTRUMENTS
GIMBAL PLATFORM
Two different types of inertial stabilized systems are used, the gimbal platform
and the strap down system.
The gimbal platform system uses a stable element, called the platform.
It carries the gyros, in our example one gyro for each axis and the three accel-
erometers.
The platform is always positioned parallel to the earths surface independent of
the aircraft attitude.
This is necessary because the accelerometers must measure the aircraft ac-
celerations without any influences from the earths gravity.
The positioning is done by torque motors which receive a signal from the gyros
when they detect a motion.
A remaining problem is that the platform is affected by drift and topple.
However instead of using specific erection circuits the compensation is done by
the computer.
It calculates the drift and topple rates because it knows the aircraft position and
the characteristics of the earth, and can adjust the platform with the torque mo-
tors.
The gimbal platform directly provides the roll and pitch attitude and the platform
heading signal. This is almost the same as the DG heading which you learned
about in lesson 8.
These signals come from position sensors which measure the gimbal positions
in respect to the aircraft fuselage.
As this system needs only a low computer performance, but has a very sensi-
tive mechanism it is primarily used in older aircraft types.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 182

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 91 Gimbal Platform

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 183
INSTRUMENTS
STRAP DOWN SYSTEM

The strap down system is the modern inertial stabilized system. Here all com-
ponents are fixed, or strapped down, to the aircraft structure. An attitude
change of the aircraft also changes the position of all components.
The three rate gyros, which are usually laser gyros, measure the rotational
speed around the aircraft axes and the attitude is calculated by the computer
using the data from the rate signals.
The three accelerometers are now also affected by the earths gravity.
For example during a climb the accelerometer in the x--axis will measure an
acceleration even with constant aircraft speed, because of the effect of the
gravity.
The correction of the signals is done by the computer.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 184

INSTRUMENTS
g
Figure 92 Strap Down System

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 185
INSTRUMENTS
ATTITUDE HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM (AHRS)

The simplest type of inertial stabilized system is the attitude heading reference
system or AHRS in short. You can usually find two of these systems in smaller
aircraft types.
The system has a main unit called AHRU which contains the gyros, accelerom-
eter and computer.
The unit provides pitch and roll attitude without any other additional inputs.
The magnetic heading is only available when a flux valve provides the signal of
the earths magnet field. In this system the flux valve is called magnetic sensor
unit, or MSU in short.
An attitude heading reference system also receives inputs from the air data
computer. The true airspeed is needed to improve the accuracy of the attitude
signals.
The altitude is used to calculate the inertial vertical speed.
Finally inputs from the VOR and DME systems are needed to calculate the
ground speed and the speed and direction of the wind.
The system is automatically operational when the electrical power is available.
The only interface to the operator in the cockpit is a compass system control
unit which has the same function you have learned about in lesson 8.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 186

INSTRUMENTS
Magnetic Sensor Unit

Figure 93 AHRS
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 187
INSTRUMENTS
INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM (IRS)

The inertial reference system or IRS in short is the standard system in todays
aircraft generation.
It has an inertial reference unit, IRU in short, which contains all the necessary
components.
The gyros are usually non--mechanical gyros, for example laser gyros.
The IRS system has a mode select unit, msu in short.
On this unit you can find the ON -- Off switches for the system. As you can see
from the number of the switches either 2 or 3 independent systems are
installed in an aircraft.
Some systems also need an inertial sensor display unit or ISDU in short for
data entry and monitoring.
Modern systems dont have an ISDU because all functions are controlled from
the MCDU.
The IRU primarily provides the same output signals as an AHRU. These are
the attitude, heading, ground speed, wind and inertial vertical speed.
It also receives the same inputs from the air data computer.
The IRU has a very powerful computer so it can calculate the present position
of the aircraft. For this calculation it needs a 10 minute align phase on the
ground.
The computer also knows the magnetic variation. It is stored in its memory for
all positions on earth. Therefore, it does not need a flux valve to calculate the
magnetic heading.
The present position calculation is updated during the whole flight using the
acceleration signals, so it can be used by the lateral navigation of the flight
management system. You will learn this in unit 22.
This calculation must never be interrupted during flight, therefore the IRS
needs backup electrical power directly from the aircraft battery or from its own
battery unit.
If the calculation was interrupted the attitude is the only remaining output . This
is selected with the attitude position of the mode switch on the MSU.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 188

INSTRUMENTS
DC Backup Power
Figure 94 IRS
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 189
INSTRUMENTS
IRS OPERATION
To be able to operate, the IRS needs a so called alignment phase.
The alignment is started automatically when you switch the system on, on the
ground.
When you switch on the inertial reference system it first makes an internal
check of the system including the availability of the DC backup power.
At the same time the alignment starts. This takes approximately 10 minutes to
complete and during that time the align light illuminates.
The remaining align time is shown on the ISDU or on the ECAM displays.
During the first 5 minutes of the alignment the IRS performs an activity called
levelling. During this time the gyro and accelerometer signals are used to align
the system to the actual aircraft position. The aircraft must not be moved dur-
ing this phase.
The attitude is available 30 seconds after the start of the alignment. You can
see this here on the PFD.
The heading is available after approximately 5 minutes.
The last 5 minutes of the alignment are needed to calculate navigation data.
For this the IRU needs the exact aircraft position.
The operator must either insert the aircraft position using the keyboard on the
ISDU or it is transmitted from the FMS after confirmation on the MCDU. , you
will learn this in unit 22.
The IRU checks the inserted present position and if it is incorrect the align light
will start flashing. This means you have to re--enter the position.
When the position is accepted the IRS is fully operational in the nav mode at
the end of the align phase.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 190

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 95 IRS Operation

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 191
INSTRUMENTS
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

The inertial navigation system, or INS in short, was the standard navigation
system in long range aircraft before the use of flight management systems.
The system has an Inertial navigation unit, INU in short,.as the main compo-
nent. The INU contains the gyros, and the accelerometer and the computer.
The sytem also has a mode select unit, MSU in short a control and display unit,
CDU in short and a separate battery unit, BU in short, which provides the DC
backup power.
An INS has the same basic functions as an IRS but with an additional naviga-
tion computation.
It calculates the present position of the aircraft, like in the IRS.
In addition it creates a desired flight track from all geographic waypoints of the
flight.
The waypoints must be inserted by the flight crew step by step into the CDU
before the flight. Here you can see an example for waypoint number 3.
The INS always knows if the aircraft is on the desired track or not by compar-
ing the desired position with the present position.
Any deviation from the desired track is shown on the HSI by the deviation bar.
When the autopilot is switched on it will keep the aircraft on the desired track
by a steering command signal from the INU. In our example it would be a fly
right command.
Another important item to note is that the INS does provides the pitch and roll
attitude but not the magnetic heading.
It provides only a platform heading signal which needs a compass coupler with
a flux valve to generate the magnetic heading.
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 192

INSTRUMENTS

Figure 96 INS
HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 193
INSTRUMENTS
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 194

Ameco Beijing
Aviation College
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ATA 31 A IN- GYROSCOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
STRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
GYRO PRINCIPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 DEGREES OF FREEDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 VERTICAL GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
BASIC T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 DIRECTIONAL GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 RATE GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . 6 GYRO HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
ALTIMETER FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ATTITUDE REFERENCE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
ALTIMETER SETTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
AIRSPEED INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 ADI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
AIRSPEED DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
AIRSPEED LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 HEADING DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
MACHMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 DIRECT READING COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
TEMPERATURE INDICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 COMPASS COMPENSATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 REMOTE COMPASS SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
STATIC PRESSURE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 COMPASS COUPLER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
PITOT PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 HEADING DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 INERTIAL STABILIZED SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
LEAKAGE IN PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 GYROS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
BLOCKED PITOT STATIC SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 ACCELEROMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
AIR DATA TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 GIMBAL PLATFORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
AIR DATA COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 STRAP DOWN SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 ATTITUDE HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM (AHRS) . 186
ANALOGUE ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM (IRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
DIGITAL ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 IRS OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
HYBRID ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
ADIRU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
WARNING AND RECORDING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
ALTITUDE ALERT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
OVERSPEED WARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
STALL WARRNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
FLIGHT DATA RECORDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Page i
Ameco Beijing
Aviation College
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Instruments Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 36 Blocked Static Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 2 Basic T Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 37 Blocked Pitot Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 3 ISA Standard Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 38 Blocked Pitot Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 4 Different Altimeter Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 39 Blocked Pitot Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 5 Altimeter Basic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 40 Air Data Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 6 Altimeter Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 41 Water Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 7 Altimeter Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 42 Air Data Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 8 Altimeter Settings (QNH+ QFE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 43 Analog ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 9 Altimeter Settings (Standard) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 44 Analog ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 10 Altimeter Settings (Standard) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 45 Digital ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 11 Altimeter Settings (Standard) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 46 Hybrid ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 12 Airspeed Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 47 Adiru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 13 Airspeed Definitions (IAS+CAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 48 Attitude Alert System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 14 Airspeed Definitions (TAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 49 Overspeed Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 15 Airspeed Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 50 Stall Warning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 16 Vertical Speed Indicator Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 51 Flight Data Recorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 17 Vertical Speed Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 52 FDR Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 18 Instantaeous Vertical Speed Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 53 Underwater Locator Beacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 19 Electrical Vertical Speed Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 54 FDR Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 20 Machmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 55 Gyroscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 21 Machmeter Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 56 Gyro Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 22 Temperature Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 57 Gyro Precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 23 Static Pressure System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 58 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 24 Static Pressure System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure 59 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 25 Pitot Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 60 Space Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 26 Pitot Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 61 Drif&Topple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Figure 27 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 62 Vertical Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 28 Air Data Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 63 Vertical Gyro Erection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 29 System Architecture (3 ADCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Figure 64 Directional Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 30 Air Data Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Figure 65 Rate Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Figure 31 Leakage in Static System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 66 Rate Gyro Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Figure 32 Leakage in Static System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Figure 67 Turn andShip Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Figure 33 Leakage in Pitot System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Figure 68 Turn Coordinator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Figure 34 Leakage in Pitot Static Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Figure 69 Gyro Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 35 Blocked Static Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Figure 70 Standby Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Page: ii
Ameco Beijing
Aviation College
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 71 ADI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 72 ADI Attitude Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 73 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Figure 74 HDG Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Figure 75 Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Figure 76 Direct Reading Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Figure 77 Indication Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Figure 78 Indication Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 79 Compass Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure 80 Deviation Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 81 DG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 82 Flux Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure 83 Flux Valve Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 84 Slaving Annunciator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Figure 85 Compass Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Figure 86 HDG Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Figure 87 Gyros of Inertial Stabilized Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Figure 88 Rate Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Figure 89 Accelerometers Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Figure 90 Torque Rebalancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Figure 91 Gimbal Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Figure 92 Strap Down System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Figure 93 AHRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Figure 94 IRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Figure 95 IRS Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Figure 96 INS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Page: iii

ATA 31A Instruments

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ATA 31A Instruments

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Ameco Beijing

Lufthansa Issue: February 2002

Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH

Lufthansa Base Frankfurt

Lufthansa Base Hamburg

HAM US/F KL 01.08.2001 Page 1

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 1

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 2

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 1

Figure 1 Instruments Classification

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 1

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 4

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 1

Figure 2 Basic T Instruments

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 6

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 3 ISA Standard Atmosphere

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 8

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 4 Different Altimeter Types

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 10

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 5 Altimeter Basic Function

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 12

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 6 Altimeter Settings

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 14

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 7 Altimeter Settings

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 16

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 8 Altimeter Settings (QNH+ QFE)

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 18

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 9 Altimeter Settings (Standard)

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 20

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 10 Altimeter Settings (Standard)

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 22

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 11 Altimeter Settings (Standard)

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 24

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 12 Airspeed Indicator

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

airspeed or EAS in short. This value is not indicated in commercial airplanes,

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 26

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 13 Airspeed Definitions (IAS+CAS)

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

HAM US/F kl 01.08.2001 Page 28

Aviation College ATA 31 A Lesson 2

Figure 14 Airspeed Definitions (TAS)