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POWER SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Early aircraft were equipped with flight controls and systems that were connected directly to the cockpit controls.
As aircraft became more complex, it became necessary to operate systems remotely, and the first of these was
probably the brake system. Instead of cables or pushrods operating the brakes, hydraulic pressure was used to
solve routing problems and multiply force on the braking surfaces. While small aircraft continue to use cables or
pushrods for operating flight controls, larger aircraft are equipped with hydraulic or pneumatic control systems
at least for the primary system. Today's aviation maintenance technician must be familiar with the principles of
hydraulic and pneumatic systems as well as how the different aircraft systems utilize these principles.
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULIC POWER
The word hydraulics done by moving an gallon of water (one will be the same in
is based on the incompressible fluid. gallon = 231 cubic all instances, since
Greek word for Pneumatic systems inches). If the tube the height is the
water, and originally work in much the is standing straight same. Naturally, all
meant the study of same way, obeying up, the one gallon of of the vessels must
physical behavior of many of the same water will exert a be filled with the
water at rest and in laws, but the fluid pressure of 8.34 same liquid. [Figure
motion. Today the used (air) is com- pounds per square 8-2]
meaning has been pressible. Pneumatic inch at the bottom of
expanded to include systems will be the tube. PASCAL'S LAW
the physical covered later in this This is the basic law
behavior of all chapter. If the tube were 231 of transmitting
liquids, including inches high and had power by a hydraulic
hydraulic fluids. To better understand an area of 100 system. The French
how a hydraulic square inches, it mathematician
Although some system accomplishes would hold 100 Blaise Pascal
aircraft its task, a brief gallons of water, but observed that any
manufacturers make review of the physics the pressure at the increase in the
greater use of involved is bottom would still pressure on a
hydraulic systems necessary. Basic be 8.34 pounds per confined liquid was
than others, the knowledge of how square inch. The transmitted equally
hydraulic system of fluids behave under force exerted by the and undi-
the average modern certain conditions column of water is
aircraft performs will better enable equal to the pressure
many functions. you to evaluate and acting on each
Among the units troubleshoot square inch times
commonly operated hydraulic system the number of
by hydraulic problems. square inches, or
systems are landing 834 pounds. [Figure
gear, wing flaps, STATIC FLUID 8-1]
speed and wheel
brakes, and flight PRESSURE
control surfaces. A column of liquid
produces pressure
Hydraulic systems that is directly
have many proportional to the
advantages as a height of the
power source for column, and it in no
operating various way depends upon
aircraft units. either the shape of
Hydraulic systems the container or the
combine the amount of liquid the
advantages of lighter container holds. For
weight, ease of example, one cubic
installation, inch of water weighs
simplification of 0.036 pound, and if a
inspection, and tube is 231 inches
minimum tall with a cross
Figure 8-1. The
maintenance section of one pressure exerted by a
requirements. square inch, it will column of liquid is
Hydraulic hold one determined by the
operations are height of the column
and is independent of
almost 100% its volume.
efficient, with only a
negligible loss due to
fluid friction. It makes no
difference as to the
Aircraft hydraulic shape or size of the
systems belong to vessel that contains
that branch of the liquid; it is the
physics known as height of the column
fluid power that is the critical
systems. Work is factor. The pressure
read by the gauges
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems 8-3
Figure 8-2. Neither the shape nor the volume of a container
affects the pressure. Only the height of the column has any
effect. Figure 8-3. Pressure exerted on a fluid in an enclosed con-
tainer is transmitted equally and undiminished to all parts
of the container and acts at right angles to the enclosing
minished to all parts of the container. Hydraulic walls.
pressure acts at right angles to the enclosing walls of
the container. This means that if an enclosed vessel
is full of liquid, and a force is applied to a piston in This may be visualized by looking at a segmented
the vessel to raise the pressure, this increase in pres- circle. The bottom half represents the area in square
sure will he the same anywhere in the system. Each inches and the pressure in pounds per square inch.
of the gauges attached to the container will have the This product equals the amount of force in pounds,
same reading. [Figure 8-3] which is represented by the top half of the circle.
[Figure 8-4]
Manufacturers of
hydraulic devices
usually specify the
type of liquid best
suited for use with
their equipment.
These
recommendations
are made in view of
the working
conditions, the
service required,
temperatures
expected inside and
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems 8-7
to undergo unfavorable chemical changes under TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUID
severe operating conditions. This is the case, for To assure proper system operation and to avoid
example, when a system operates for a considerable damage to nonmetallic components of the hydraulic
period of time at high temperatures. system, the correct fluid must be used.
Excessive temperatures greatly affect the life of a When adding fluid to a system, the only fluid that
liquid. It should be noted that the temperature of the should be used is the type specified in the aircraft
liquid in the reservoir of an operating hydraulic sys- manufacturer's maintenance manual or on the
tem does not always represent a true state of operat- instruction plate affixed to the reservoir or unit being
ing conditions. Localized hot spots occur on bear- serviced. There are three types of hydraulic fluids
ings, gear teeth, or at the point where liquid under currently being used in civil aircraft: vegetable-base,
pressure is forced through a small orifice. petroleum-base and phosphate ester- base.
Continuous passage of a liquid through these points
may produce local temperatures high enough to car- INTERMIXING OF FLUIDS
bonize the liquid. The fluid could become like Due to the difference in composition, vegetable-
sludge, yet the liquid in the reservoir may not indi- base, petroleum-base and phosphate ester-base flu-
cate an excessively high temperature. Liquids with ids will not mix. Neither are the type of seals for any
a high viscosity have a greater resistance to heat one fluid usable with or tolerant of any of the other
than do light- or low-viscosity liquids that have fluids. Should an aircraft hydraulic system be ser-
been derived from the same source. The average viced with the wrong type of fluid, it should imme-
hydraulic liquid has a low viscosity. Fortunately, diately be drained and flushed. The seals should be
there is a wide choice of liquids available for use replaced or serviced according to the manufac-
within the viscosity range required of hydraulic turer's specifications.
liquids.
VEGETABLE-BASE FLUID
Liquids may break down if exposed to air, water, MIL-H-7644 fluid was used in the past, when
salt, or other impurities, especially if they are in hydraulic system requirements were not as strin-
constant motion or subject to heat. Some metals, gent as they are today. This fluid is essentially cas-
such as zinc, lead, brass, and copper have an unde- tor oil and alcohol, and is used primarily in older
sirable chemical reaction with certain liquids and aircraft. Although similar to automotive brake fluid,
can result in the formation of sludge, gums, and car- it is not interchangeable, and is dyed blue for iden-
bon or other deposits. Sludge and other deposits tification. Natural rubber seals are used with veg-
clog openings, cause valves and pistons to stick or etable-base fluid. If a vegetable-base fluid system is
leak, and give poor lubrication to moving parts. As contaminated with petroleum-base or phosphate
soon as small amounts of sludge or other deposits ester-base fluids, the seals will swell, break down
are formed, their rate of formation generally and block the system. The system may be flushed
increases. As they are formed, certain changes in the with alcohol. Vegetable-base fluids are flammable.
physical and chemical properties of the liquid take
place. The liquid usually becomes acidic, darker in MINERAL-BASE FLUID
color and higher in viscosity. MIL-H-5606 is the most widely used hydraulic fluid
in general aviation aircraft today. It is basically a
FLASH POINT kerosene-type petroleum product, having good lubri-
Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid cating properties and additives to inhibit foaming
gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite and prevent the formation of corrosion. It is quite sta-
momentarily (flash) when a flame is applied. A high ble chemically and has very little viscosity change
flash point is desirable for hydraulic fluids because with temperature. MIL-H-5606 fluid is dyed red for
it indicates a good resistance to combustion and a identification, and systems using this fluid may be
low degree of evaporation at normal temperatures. flushed with naphtha, varsol, or Stoddard solvent.
Neoprene seals and hoses may be used with MIL-H-
FIRE POINT 5606 fluid. This type of fluid is also flammable.
Fire point is the temperature at which a substance
gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite and SYNTHETIC FLUID
continue to burn when exposed to a spark or flame. Non-petroleum-base hydraulic fluids were intro-
As with flash point, a high fire point is desirable in duced in 1948 to provide a fire-resistant hydraulic
hydraulic fluids. fluid for use in high-performance piston engine and
8-8 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems
turbine-powered aircraft. These fluids were tested ately with soap and water do not harm most of these
for fire resistance by being sprayed through a weld- materials. Skydrol is compatible with natural fibers
ing torch flame (6,000 degrees). There was no burn- and with a number of synthetic fibers (including
ing, and only occasional flashes of fire. These and nylon and polyester) which are used extensively in
other tests proved that these non-petroleum-base many aircraft.
fluids would not support combustion. Even though
they might flash at exceedingly high temperatures, Note: Petroleum oil hydraulic seals of neoprene or
they could not spread a fire because burning was Buna-N are not compatible with Skydrol. They
localized at the source of heat. Once the heat source must be replaced with seals of butyl rubber or eth-
was removed or the fluid flowed away from the ylene-propylene elastomers for units that are
source, no further flashing or burning occurred. intended for use in systems utilizing phosphate
ester-base hydraulic fluid. These seals are readily
The most commonly used fluid of this type is SKY- available from suppliers.
DROL18(a registered trade name of the Monsanto
Chemical Co.) This fluid is dyed light purple for HEALTH AND HANDLING
identification and is slightly heavier than water. It Skydrol fluid does not present any particular health
sustains operation at a wide range of operating tem- hazard when used as recommended. Skydrol has a
peratures, from approximately -65 to more than very low order of toxicity when taken orally or
225. Currently there are three grades of Skydrol in applied to the skin in liquid form. It causes pain on
use: Skydrol 500B4, Skydrol LD-4, and Skydrol 5. contact with eye tissue and other areas of sensitive
Skydrol LD-4 has a lower density and offers some skin, but animal studies and human experience
advantage in jumbo jet transport aircraft where indicate that it causes no permanent damage. First
weight is a prime factor. Skydrol 5 is more compat- aid treatment for eye contact includes flushing the
ible with painted surfaces than the other two. eyes immediately with large volumes of water and
the application of an anesthetic eye solution. If pain
Skydrol is not without its problems for the A&P persists, the individual should see a physician as
technician, however. It is quite susceptible to cont- soon as possible.
amination by water from the atmosphere and must
be kept tightly sealed. When servicing a system
using Skydrol, extreme care must be taken to use
only seals and hoses having the proper part number.
Skydrol systems may be flushed out with
trichlorethylene.
COMPATIBILITY WITH AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
Aircraft hydraulic systems designed around Skydrol
fluids should be virtually trouble-free if properly
serviced. Skydrol does not appreciably affect com-
mon aircraft metalsluminum, silver, zinc, mag- BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
nesium, cadmium, iron, stainless steel, bronze, A hydraulic system is much like an electrical sys-
chromium, and otherss long as the fluid is kept tem. It must have a source of power, a means of
free of contamination. transmitting this power, and finally some type of
device to use the power. Hydraulic systems can be
Due to the phosphate ester base of synthetic open or closed. Only closed systems are of use in
hydraulic fluids, thermoplastic resins may be soft- aviation applications.
ened chemically by these fluids. Thermoplastic
resins include vinyl compositions, nitrocellulose OPEN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
lacquers, oil base paints, linoleum and asphalt. The most basic form of an open hydraulic system is
Skydrol 5 has less effect on painted surfaces than that used by hydroelectric power plants. Large dams
the other types of Skydrol, but manufacturer's block streams of water to form lakes that store bil-
instructions should be followed closely. Skydrol lions of gallons of water. This stored water repre-
will attack polyvinyl chloride, and must not be sents the potential energy in the system. This poten-
allowed to drip on to electrical wiring, as it will tial energy is converted to kinetic energy as the
break down the insulation. However, this chemical water flows downward through penstocks, or pipes,
reaction usually requires longer than just momen- to the turbine. The kinetic energy of the flowing
tary exposure; and spills that are wiped up immedi- water is converted to mechanical energy as it turns
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems 8-9
the turbine. This mechanical energy is used to drive
the generator. [Figure 8-8]
Figure 8-8. The potential energy stored water is converted well, but it had limitations. If the totally enclosed
into mechanical energy to drive the electrical generators in fluid expanded due to heat, it caused the brakes to
this type of open hydraulic system. drag. If any fluid was lost, the brakes could not
function since there was no way to automatically
replenish the fluid.
This type of hydraulic system works well to operate These problems have been solved quite well in a
a grist mill, or for the production of electrical more modern brake system similar to that used on
energy, but has no practical application to airborne automobiles. Most modern airplanes use disc
systems. brakes, but the hydraulic systems for both disc and
shoe brakes are similar.
CLOSED HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
To apply hydraulic power to aircraft systems, the
The hydraulic cylinder inside the wheel has two
fluid must be enclosed and moved through a system
rubber cups which act as pistons. They are both
of rigid lines and flexible hoses. The resulting
pushed into the cylinder as the brake return spring
energy is then put to use in various types of actua-
pulls the shoes away from the drum. The piston in
tors and hydraulic motors.
the master cylinder is pushed back by a spring so it
just uncovers a compensator port and opens the pas-
Among the first hydraulic systems used on air-
sage between the vented reservoir and the inside of
planes was the hydraulic brake. In its simplest form,
the master cylinder. [Figure 8-10]
this hydraulic system consisted of a rubber
expander tube similar to an inner tube in a tire. This
tube was slipped over the body of the brake and
connected to a fluid-filled brake housing in the air-
plane cockpit. When the pilot pressed on a
diaphragm in the brake housing, fluid was forced
into the expander tube. The tube expanded and
forced blocks of brake lining material against the
rotating brake drum and produced enough friction
to slow the wheel. [Figure 8-9]
FILTERS
The extremely small clearances between
components in many hydraulic pumps and valves
make effective filtering of the fluid extremely
important. A filter is rated by the size of
Figure 8-22. Bleed air is used to pressurize hydraulic reser-
particles it will remove, and these sizes are
voirs on turbine-powered aircraft.
measured in microns, with one micron equal to one
millionth of a meter or
8-20 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems
One of the more efficient types of filters used in air-
craft hydraulic systems is made of specially treated
paper folded into pleats to increase its surface area.
This pleated paper micronic element, as it is called,
is wrapped around a spring steel wire coil to pre-
vent it from collapsing. These filters often have a
bypass valve across the filtering element so that if
the filter ever plugs up, the fluid will bypass the ele-
ment. This type of filter is usually installed in the
fluid return line. Micronic filters are replaced,
rather than cleaned, periodically in accordance
with manufacturer's instructions. [Figure 8-25]
Some filters are built strong enough that they can be bly is mounted inside a bowl, and fluid flows from
used on the pressure side of the system. One of the the outside of the stack between the discs to the
popular types of pressure filters is the Cuno filter. inside and out to the system. The rod should be
The Cuno filtering element is made up of a stack of turned with the handle that protrudes through the
discs and spacers mounted on a rod, with a cleaner filter housing. In this way, contaminants that have
blade between each of the discs. This entire assern- been trapped between the discs will be scraped out
by the cleaner blades and will fall to the bottom of
8-22 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems
the bowl where they can be removed during the amount of flow, the valve acts as a variable opposition
next inspection. [Figure 8-28] to the flow, and the pressure gauge measures the pres-
sure drop across the valve. [Figure 8-29]
PUMPS
Hydraulic power is transmitted by the movement of
fluid by a pump. The pump does not create the pres- Figure 8-29. A basic hydraulic system is similar to a basic
sure, but the pressure is produced when the flow of electrical circuit.
fluid is restricted. A knowledge of how an electrical
circuit works helps in understanding hydraulic
power. When the variable resistor is set to its minimum
resistance, the current will be maximum and there
The flow of fluid in a line is equivalent to the flow of will be a minimum voltage drop across the resistor.
electrons in a wire, the current. The pressure that In the same way, when the valve is fully open, there
causes the flow is the same as the voltage, and the will be a maximum flow of fluid and a minimum
opposition to the flow of fluid is the same as the resis- pressure drop across the valve.
tance. If there is very little friction in the line, very lit-
tle pressure is needed to cause the fluid to flow. When the resistance in the electrical circuit is
increased, the voltage drop across the resistor will
In Figure 8-29(A) is a very simple electrical system, increase and the current will decrease. In the
consisting of a battery, an ammeter, a voltmeter, and a hydraulic system, as the valve is closed, the flow
resistor. The ammeter measures the flow of electrons will decrease and the pressure will increase. When
in the circuit, and the voltmeter measures the voltage the valve is fully closed, there will be no flow and
(pressure) drop across the resistor. The hydraulic sys- the pressure will increase to a value as high as the
tem in Figure 8-29(B) is very similar in its operation. pump can produce. As we will see very soon, if the
The pump moves the fluid through the system and pump is of the constant displacement type, there
may be compared to the battery that forces electrons must be some provision in the system to relieve the
through the circuit. The flowmeter measures the high pressure; otherwise the pump will be dam-
aged, or something in the system will be broken.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems 8-23
HAND PUMPS der of the fluid in chamber 2 is forced out, while a
Single-action pumps move fluid only on one stroke fresh charge is being brought into chamber 1.
of the piston, while double-action pumps move it
on both strokes. Double-action pumps are the ones By assigning some values to the area of the piston, it
most commonly used in aircraft hydraulic systems can be seen how this pump moves the fluid.
because of their greater efficiency. Assume the right side of the piston has an area of
two square inches and the piston rod an area of one
One of the more commonly used types of double- square inch. When the piston moves two inches
action hand pumps is called a piston rod displace- with each stroke, four cubic inches of fluid will be
ment pump, because its pumping action is caused pulled into chamber one when the piston moves its
by the difference in area between the two sides of full travel. The piston rod decreases the area of the
the piston. One side of the piston has less surface piston on the left side to one square inch so that the
area because of the piston rod. [Figure 8-30] volume of chamber two is only two cubic inches.
When the piston moves to the left, four cubic inches
of fluid flow in, and two cubic inches is forced out.
On the next stroke, the piston moves to the right,
and no fluid is taken in, but two cubic inches is
forced out.
POWERED PUMPS
The only function of a pump is to move fluid
through the system, and there are two basic types of
pumpshose having a constant displacement and
those having variable displacement. Pumps may be
powered by an electric motor or by direct drive from
an engines accessory section. Pumps driven by the
engine are usually protected by a shear shaft that
disconnects the pump from the engine if the pump
should stall.
Constant-Displacement Pumps
A constant-displacement pump moves a specific
volume of fluid each time its shaft turns. It must
Figure 8-30. One type of double-action hand pump is the have some form of regulator or relief valve in the
piston rod displacement pump. system to relieve the pressure that builds up when
the pump moves more fluid than the system can
In view A, the handle is moving in the direction to use. Constant-displacement pumps come in several
pull the piston to the left, and fluid is drawn into different types, each with its own characteristics,
the pump through the inlet check valve. When the and include gear pumps, gerotor pumps, piston
piston is at the end of its stroke, chamber 1 is full of pumps and vane pumps.
fluid, and the spring closes the check valve. In view
B, as the handle is moved to the right, the piston is The gear pump is one of the most generally used
forced into chamber 1, and fluid flows through the types of constant-displacement pumps for medium-
outlet check valve into chamber 2. The volume of pressure hydraulic systems. Gear pumps are rugged
chamber 2 is smaller than that of chamber 1 because and dependable and are relatively inexpensive to
of the piston rod, and so the fluid fills chamber 2, manufacture. In a typical spur gear-type hydraulic
and the excess leaves the pump through the outlet pump the upper gear is driven by the engine
port. On the return stroke of the piston, the remain- through a splined shaft. This gear rides in a close-
8-24 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems
fitting housing and drives the lower gear. As the lubrication, and the pump would be damaged.
teeth of the two gears separate, the volume of the [Figure 8-31, view (B)]
inlet chamber increases and lowers the pressure so
that fluid will flow into the pump from the reser- The inside of the gear cavity of some of the pumps is
voir. This fluid is trapped between the teeth and the fitted with a bushing and flange, to minimize the
wall of the pump body, and the fluid is moved problem of the case distorting when the output pres-
around the outside of the gears to the outlet side of sure is high. Distortion will increase the leakage and
the pump. [Figure 8-31, view (A)] cause a loss of pressure. Fluid from the output side of
the pump is fed back through a check valve into a cav-
ity under the bushing flange. As the output pressure
rises, it forces the flange tight against the gears. This
minimizes the leakage and compensates for wear.
An unloading valve
of some sort is
8-26 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems
of the stroke controls the amount of fluid 8-36(A) a passage from the discharge side of the
pumped. [Figure 8-35] pump directs output fluid pressure around the com-
pensator stem. This stem is cut with a shoulder that
serves as a piston. As the system pressure rises, the
fluid pushes the stem up, compressing the compen-
sator spring. The spider, Figure 8-36(A), which
moves the sleeves up or down the pistons, is
attached to the stem. [Figure 8-36]
Selector Valves
One of the most familiar flow-control valves is the
selector valve, which determines the direction of
flow of fluid to retract or extend the landing gear,
or to select the position of the wing flaps. There
are two commonly used types of selector valves.
The open-center valve directs fluid through the
center of the valve back to the reservoir when a
unit is not being actuated. The closed-center valve
stops the flow of fluid when it is in its neutral
position. Both valves direct fluid from the pump
to one side of the actuator and vent the opposite
side to the reservoir.
Quick-Disconnect Valves
Quick-disconnect, or line-disconnect valves, are
installed in hydraulic lines to prevent the loss of
fluid when units are removed. Such valves may be
installed in the pressure and suction lines of the
system just in front, and immediately behind the
power pump. These valves can also be used in ways
other than just for unit replacement. A power pump
can be disconnected from the system and a
hydraulic test stand connected in its place.
ACCUMULATORS
Hydraulic fluid is non-compressible, and pressure
may be stored only with compressible fluids. The
effect of compressibility for hydraulic fluid can be
created by using an accumulator.
Figure 8-50. A pressure reducer is used to lower the pres- All accumulators consist of a high-strength con-
sure in targeted portions of the hydraulic system. tainer divided by some form of movable partition
into two sections, or compartments. One compart-
ment is connected to the hydraulic pressure mani-
A balance of forces must be reached to maintain the fold, and the other compartment is filled with either
pressure at a predetermined value below the regu- compressed air or with nitrogen. There are three
lated system pressure. In order to understand how types of accumulators commonly found in aircraft
this works, the following values are assumed: the sys- hydraulic systems: the piston type, the bladder
tem pressure is held constant at 1,500 psi by the sys- type, and the diaphragm type. Before disassembling
tem pressure regulator, and a reduced pressure of 200 any accumulator, make sure that the preload pres-
psi is required to operate the hydraulic servos in an sure has been discharged.
automatic pilot system. The relief valve in the reducer
maintains the pressure above the piston at 750 psi, The piston-type accumulator is cylindrical and a
and the spring presses down on the piston with a free-floating piston divides the cylinder into the two
force of 100 pounds. The area of that portion of the compartments. A high-pressure air valve allows one
piston that is exposed to system pressure is one-half compartment to be charged with a preload of air or
square inch, and the area of the ball seat exposed to nitrogen of approximately one-half to one-third of the
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems 8-37
normal system operating pressure. When there is no cate the air preload. If the system pressure gauge is
system pressure, the piston is forced all the way up connected into the fluid side of the system, the pre-
until it contacts the cylinder head. As soon as fluid is load air pressure can be found by watching the
moved into the pressure manifold by a pump, some gauge as the hand pump is cycled. No pressure will
fluid enters the accumulator and forces the piston be shown on the gauge as fluid begins to move into
down against the compressed air. [Figure 8-51] the accumulator, but as soon as the piston moves,
the air will oppose it and create a pressure on the
fluid equal to the pressure of the air. At this point,
the fluid pressure is indicating the preload pressure
of the gas.
Some hydraulic systems have the pressure gauge Figure 8-52. Bladder-type and diaphragm-type accumulators
connected to the air side of the accumulator. When function similarly to a piston-type accumulator, but differ in
there is no hydraulic pressure, the gauge will indi- the type of mechanism separating the air from the fluid.
8-38 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems
AIR VALVES
There are three types of air valves that may be used
in accumulators: the AN812, the AN6287-1 and the
MS28889-1.
Figure 8-59. A double-acting unbalanced actuator is unbal- Figure 8-61. A cushion-type linear hydraulic actuator can be
anced because the area of the actuating rod is subtracted used to start slowly, then operate at normal speed until it is
from one side of the actuating piston. On landing gear the brought to a cushioned stop at the end of its travel. This
side with the larger area is usually used to raise the landing allows for properly controlled actuation of devices such as
gear since this requires more force. landing gear.
BACKUP RINGS
An O-ring of the appropriate size can withstand
pressures up to about 1,500 psi without distortion,
but beyond this, there is a tendency for the ring to
extrude into the groove between the two mating sur-
Figure 8-68. The groove in which an O-ring seal fits would faces. To prevent this, an anti-extrusion, or backup,
have a width approximately 10% greater than the width of
the O-ring, but a depth slightly less than the width of the seal.
ring should be used. [Figure 8-71]
Green dash:
Figure 8-72. Backup rings are scarfed in a certain direction. fluid
Care must be taken to install them as in (A) so that when pres-
sure is applied as in (C), the ring will provide a smooth surface Fuel
on both sides. If installed as in (B), the O-ring can be damaged.
Synthetic engine oil
SEAL MATERIALS
Petroleum-base engine oil or
There is perhaps no other component as small as a lubricant
hydraulic seal upon which so much importance must be Skydrol hydraulic fluid
placed. Seals may look alike, and it is highly possible
that the wrong seal may be installed and appear to work. It is important to buy hydraulic seals from a rep-
The material of the seal, its age, and its hardness all are utable supplier, since it is possible for out-of-date
important when making the proper replacement. The rings to be repackaged by an unscrupulous dealer
rule for replacing seals in a hydraulic system is to use the and stamped with a fresh date. The ring could be
exact part number of the seal specified in the manufac- installed in good faith by an A&P technician and
turer's service information. Seals should be purchased still fail because of deterioration. Yet, the technician
from a reputable aircraft parts supplier, and they should is the one held liable for the failure, because it is
be in individual packages marked with the part number, only when an improper part is installed in an air-
composition of the ring, manufacturer, and cure date. plane that a violation of regulations is committed.
The cure date is the date of ring manufacture and is given
in the year and quarter. If, for example, a ring is marked O-RING INSTALLATION
When installing O-rings, extreme care must be used
to prevent the ring being nicked or damaged by
either the sharp edges of the threads or by the tool.
A number of special tools are available for installing
O-rings. If these types of tool can not be found com-
mercially, tools can be made of brass and polished
so there will be no sharp edges to nick or cut the
seal. [Figure 8-73]
Figure 8-73. Specialty tools are used to remove and install O-rings without damage.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems 8-45
There are many ways to remove O-rings from inter- the technician must use tools very carefully to avoid
nal and external grooves. When using removal tools, damaging the rings. [Figure 8-74]
Figure 8-74. With the proper tools and a little care, most O-rings can be removed without damage.
8-46 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems
When installing an O-ring over a sharp edge or LARGE-AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC
threads, the sharp portion should be covered with
paper, aluminum foil, brass shim stock, or with a SYSTEMS
piece of plastic. [Figure 8-75] Large jet transport aircraft usually have a utility
system and an auxiliary system. The fluid for the
WIPERS utility system is supplied from the utility reservoir,
Neither O-rings nor chevron seals eliminate all and the pressure is produced by two engine-driven
seepage past the shaft, and there is usually enough pumps. These pumps are of the variable displace-
leakage to lubricate the shaft. But this lubrication ment type, and therefore they do not require a
attracts dust, and in order to prevent the seals being pressure regulator; but they do have a return line
damaged when the shaft is retracted into the cylin- back into the reservoir. An accumulator holds the
der, a felt wiper is usually installed in a counterbore pressure on the system. A relief valve is installed
around the shaft. This wipes off any dust or dirt to bypass fluid back into the reservoir if there
without restricting the movement of the shaft. should ever be a malfunction in the pumps that
Figure 8-75. Sharp edges and threads should be covered to avoid damaging O-rings during installation.
8-48 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems
This utility system provides the pressure to raise The auxiliary system consists of two reservoirs and
and lower the landing gear, to operate the brakes, two AC electric motor-driven hydraulic pumps and
the flaps, and the outboard spoilers, and to provide one DC electric motor-driven service pump. Both
for centering the nose wheel as it is being retracted. AC pumps can supply pressure to the rudder, and
When the landing gear is down, pressure for nose pump number one also supplies pressure to the
wheel steering is provided by this system. When the inboard spoilers and the cargo door. Through an
landing gear is retracted, the brakes are automati- interconnect valve, it can supply pressure to the
cally applied to stop the wheels spinning before landing gear. Pump number two can supply the
they enter the wheel wells. brakes through an interconnect valve.
AIRCRAFT PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Modern aircraft may lightweight. HIGH- they cannot be charged
use compressed air, in flight.
or pneumatic, PRESSURE
Compressed air,
systems for a variety as a fluid, is SYSTEMS
of purposes. Some lightweight and For high-pressure
use pneumatics systems, air is
since no return
rather than usually stored in
system is
hydraulics for the metal bottles at
required, weight
operation of the pressures ranging
is from 1,000 to 3,000
landing gear, flaps, saved.
brakes, cargo doors, psi, depending on
and other forms of the particular
mechanical The system is system. This type of
actuation. Other relatively free air bottle has two
aircraft using from temperature valves: a charging
hydraulics for these problems. valve, to which a
major functions ground-operated
may have a cylinder There is no fire compressor can be
of compressed air or hazard, and the connected to add air
nitrogen as a backup danger of explo to the bottle; and a
source of power in sion is minimized control valve, which
the event of a failure by careful design acts as a shutoff
of the hydraulic and opera valve to keep air
power. Still other tion. trapped inside the
aircraft use pneu- bottle until the
matics only for de- Installation of system is operated.
icing and for the proper filters [Figure 8-77]
operation of various minimizes
flight instruments. contami
Finally, some nation as a
aircraft use problem.
pneumatic systems
only to provide a
positive air pressure The type of unit used
in the cabin for to provide
flight at high pressurized air for
altitude, where pneumatic systems
pressurization is is determined by the
used to supply the system's air pressure
passengers and crew requirements.
with the
environment needed
to fly without
supplemental
oxygen.
Some of the
advantages of using
compressed air over
hydraulics or
electrical systems
are:
Air is universally
available in an
inexhaustible
supply.
LOW-PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Many aircraft use low-pressure, air-driven gyro
instruments as either the primary gyro instruments
or as backup instruments when the primary gyros
are electrically driven. For many years all air-driven
gyro instruments used an engine-driven vacuum
Figure 8-78. This diagram shows a simplified schematic of a
two-stage compressor. The pressure of the incoming air is
pump to evacuate the instrument case, and filtered
boosted first by cylinder No. 1 and again by cylinder No. 2. air was pulled into the instrument to spin the gyro.
This was done because it was much easier to filter
air being pulled into the instrument than it was to
filter the air after it had been exposed to an engine-
The compressor in Figure 8-78 has three check driven pump lubricated by engine oil. The output of
valves. Like the check valves in a hydraulic hand such pumps always contained some particles of oil.
pump, these units allow air to flow in only one
direction. Some source of power, such as an electric Pressurized aircraft created extra problems for
motor or aircraft engine, operates a drive shaft. As suction-operated instruments, and the latest
the shaft turns, it drives the pistons in and out of generations of air-driven gyros now almost all use
their cylinders. When piston No. 1 moves to the pressure. Turbine-powered aircraft bleed some of
right, the chamber in cylinder No. 1 becomes larger, the pressure from the engine compressor, regulate
and outside air flows through the filter and check and filter it, and then direct it over the gyros.
valve into the cylinder. As the drive shaft continues Aircraft with reciprocating engines use vane-type
to turn, it reverses the direction of piston move- air pumps driven by electric motors or by the aircraft
ment. Piston No. 1 now moves deeper into its cylin- engine to provide the airflow for the gyros. This air
der, forcing air through the pressure line and into is regulated and filtered before it is ready for the
cylinder No. 2. instrument. [Figure 8-80]
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems 8-51
Figure 8-79. Bleed air from turbojet engines can be used to provide pressurized air for medium-pressure systems.
There are two types IC
of air pumps used to S
provide instrument
airflow, and both are Y
vane-type pumps. S
One is called a T
"wet" pump and the
other a "dry" E
pump, based on M
their method of C
lubrication.
O
"Wet" vacuum M
pumps use steel P
vanes moving in a O
sealed cast-iron
housing and are N
lubricated by E
engine oil metered N
into the inlet air
port. This oil is
T
Figure 8-80. Vane-type discharged with the S
air pumps are used to air and is removed Pneumatic systems
provide low pressure
air on aircraft fitted with an oil are often compared
with reciprocating separator before the to hydraulic
engines. Sliding vanes air is either used systems, but such
are rotated by the for inflating de-icer comparisons can
driveshaft and as the boots or is pumped only hold true
shaft turns, the
chambers located at overboard. A
positions A and B schematic drawing
become larger, while of this type of
those at positions C and system is shown in
D decrease in size. Air is figure 8-81 on the
pulled into the pump
at the position the
following page.
chambers enlarge, and
it is moved out as they The more modern
decrease instrument air
systems use "dry"
pumps that have
carbon vanes and
rotors and require
no external
lubrication. These
pumps may be used
to drive the
instruments by
producing a vacuum
and pulling air
through them or by
using the output of
the pump to force the
air through the
instruments. [Figure
8-82]
P
N
E
U
M
AT
8-52 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems
Figure 8-81. Wet-type vacuum systems utilize an air-oil separator to remove lubricating oil from the system.
Figure 8-82. A dry-type pump can be used in the vacuum mode as seen in (A) or in the pressure mode as seen in (B).
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems 8-53
in general terms. Pneumatic systems do not utilize
reservoirs, hand pumps, or accumulators.
Similarities, however, do exist in some components.
RELIEF VALVES
Relief valves are used in pneumatic systems to pre-
vent damage. They act as pressure-limiting units
and prevent excessive pressures from bursting lines
and blowing out seals. [Figure 8-83]
RESTRICTORS
Restrictors are a type of control valve used in pneu-
matic systems. One type of orifice restrictor has a Figure 8-87. A variable orifice enables the variable pneumatic
large inlet port and a small outlet port. The small restrictor to be set for a wide range of airflow, from the max-
outlet port reduces the rate of airflow and the speed imum provided by the air source down to no flow at all.
of operation of an actuating unit. [Figure 8-86]
allows unfiltered air to flow out the outlet port.
[Figure 8-88]
A screen-type filter is similar to the micronic filter,
but contains a permanent wire screen instead of a
replaceable cartridge. In the screen filter, a handle
extends through the top of the housing and can be
used to clean the screen by rotating it against metal
Figure 8-86. A large inlet combined with a small outlet scrapers. [Figure 8-89]
impedes the flow of air through a restrictor.
DESICCANT/MOISTURE SEPARATOR
Moisture in a compressed air system will condense
Another type of speed-regulating unit is the variable
and freeze when the pressure of the air is dropped
restrictor. It contains an adjustable needle valve,
for actuation and, for this reason, every bit of water
which has threads around the top and a point on the
must be removed from the air. A moisture separator
lower end. Depending on the direction turned, the
collects the water that is in the air on a baffle, and
needle valve moves the sharp point either into or
holds it until the system is shut down. When the
out of a small opening to decrease or increase the
inlet pressure to the separator drops below a preset
size of the opening. Since air entering the inlet port
value, a drain valve opens and all of the accumu-
must pass through this opening before reaching the
lated water is blown overboard. An electric heater
outlet port, this adjustment also determines the rate
built into the base of the separator unit prevents the
of airflow through the restrictor. [Figure 8-87]
water from freezing.
FILTERS
After the air leaves the moisture separator with
Pneumatic systems are protected against dirt by
about 98% of its water removed, it must pass
means of various types of filters. A micronic filter
through a desiccant, or chemical dryer, to remove
consists of a housing with two ports, a replaceable
the last traces of moisture. This unit consists of a
filter cartridge, and a relief valve. Normally, air
tubular housing with inlet and outlet ports and con-
enters the inlet, circulates around the cellulose car-
tains a desiccant cartridge. These replaceable car-
tridge, then flows to the center of the cartridge and
tridges consist of a dehydrating agent (MIL-D-3716)
out the outlet port. If the cartridge becomes clogged
and incorporate a bronze filter at each end. Any
with dirt, pressure forces the relief valve open and
moisture not removed by the separator will be
absorbed by the dehydrating agent.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems 8-55
Figure 8-89. The screen-type filter does not have a replace-
able element, but is equipped with a scraper used to clean
the wire screen.
SHUTTLE VALVES
Shuttle valves may be installed to allow a pneu-
matic system to operate from a ground source.
When the pressure from the external source is
higher than that of the compressor, as it is when the
engine is not running, the shuttle slides over and
isolates the compressor. The pneumatic systems
may then be operated from the ground source.
Shuttle valves may also be used to provide an emer-
gency pneumatic backup for hydraulically operated
landing gear or brake systems. [Figure 8-90]