Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
M. M. M. MAHROOF
Historically, the Malay language of Sri Lanka has had its status and
role defined by the other languages of Sri Lanka. Sinhalese is the language
spoken and used by the majority of the population of the country (the
Sinhala). It is an Aryan language, akin rather to the Aryan languages of
Western 1ndia.' Tamil is the language of the Tamils of Sri Lanka; it is also
the mother-tongue of the Muslims (Moors) of Sri Lanka. It is a Dravidian
language, perhaps the most intricate and developed in its group.6 Arabic is
the religious tongue of the Muslims, loved, respected and used by them in
The Malay language in Sri Lanka has been
all their religious a~tivities.~
influenced thus by an Aryan, a Dravidian, and a Semitic language, each
with its own particular and different grammatical determinank8 Not the
least, Malay language in Sri Lanka has been influenced by English, closest
to Malay in its sparing use of flexions in the importance of locational (as
opposed to flexional) syntax.9
There would have certainly been trade contacts between the people
of Sri Lanka and the people inhabiting (present day) region of Malaya and
Indonesia. There was also political contact between these countries, the
king of Sri Lanka finding it prudent to use those friendly relationships when
threatened or faced with attacks from the Indian kingdoms. The standard
history of Sri Lanka, records one such incident, when Sena I, who ruled in
the ninth century CE, retired from his capital, Anuradhapura, in the face
of such an attack and proceeded to the north-east of Sri Lanka. The standard
history records,
Also the eastern part of Sri Lanka which faces the stratis of Malacca,
has had Malayan settlements from early times.12 A traditional port (landing
stage) in south Sri Lanka is called Humban tofa (landing stage of sampan).I2
Sampans are the traditional sea-going vessels of Malays and ~avanese.'~
When the Malays across the seas made incursions into Sri Lanka in
the Middle Ages, and were defeated, some of the Malays elected to settle
in Sri Lanka and established their settlements.14
Some Malay words entered into the common language of the people
of Sri Lanka. However, this does not appear to be the case with sarong
kabaya or sarong, perhaps the most widely used Malay word, today.15 A
modern historian and cartographer, comments on the prevalence, in Col-
ombo in the prealonial period, of the baggy trousers of the type worn in
the north of the Indian ~ubcontinent.'~
lslsmic Studies, 31:4 (1992) 465
The colonial period of Sri Lanka falls between 1505 and 1948.17From
the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Portugal had control of the
maritine provinces of Sri Lanka. The central authority of the Portuguese
empire lay in Portugal itself. The administration of the eastern part of the
Portuguese empire were headquartered in Goa, in the predominantly Kon-
kani-speaking part of western India. Goa housed the seat and administration
of the Viceroy of the Portuguese in the East. The Portuguese hidalgos and
administrators concerned with Asian affairs were conversant with their reg-
ional languages, Arabic (once active in the Iberian lands), Persian and Kon-
kani.ls Malay was a language low in priority.
The Dutch who swept off the Portugese from Asian seas, were a
different kettle of fish. Unlike the Portuguese empire which was royally-es-
poused by Portugal, the Dutch (to be exact the Veerenigde Ost-Indische
Compagnie (VOC), i.e. Dutch East Indies Company) was a private enter-
prise, managed by businessmen. Chartered by the Dutch (the Netherlands)
State, it was a power by itself. A well-informed observer wrote:
The VOC took as its motto, "And Therefore Plough the Seas". . . .
In 1669 the Company paid 40 percent dividened on its capital of
6,5000.000 florins. Had one hundred and fifty trading ships, forty
ships of war and 10,000 soldiers, and maintained the governments of
Ternate, Java, Ambon, Macassar, Banda, Malacca, Ceylon and the
Cape of Good ~ 0 p e . l ~
Of these occupied zones all, except Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the Cape of
Good Hope, are Malay (Indonesian varieties) speaking areas." The head-
quarters of the Dutch Asian administration was in Batavia in Java. Hence,
when the Dutch annexed the maritime provinces in the middle of the seven-
teenth century, the senior administrators as well as the soldiers were at least
conversant with spoken ~ a l a y . ~
Never
' before or ever since were there so
many Malay-speakers in the central administration of Sri Lanka.
Java and other islands (which form the present Indonesia) were
primarily of major concern to the Dutch (i.e. VOC) in their commercial
activities. Those islands, in the late seventeenth century, were ruled by
indigenous potentates. As I have written elsewhere:
Dynasts of Java:
Penkuran Soeritja.
Sosoura Widjojo.
Raden Pantjie Weera.
Penkaran Adipathi Mangkurat .
Dynasts of Tidor:
Penkuran Meanang Raten (Raja Muda=Crown Prince).
Pather Alam, Sultan.
Dynasts of Bacan:
Ratja Sadoe Alam.
Penkan Kitchil Nainuddin.
Dynast of Padang:
Rahah Joharan.
Dynast of Bantam:
Rajah Bagus Andulah.
Dynast of Gowon:
Rajah Osman.
Dynast of Mathura:
Raden ~ r i a ~ e n . ~ ~
These notables and their retinue helped to stamp the Malay language
spoken in Sri Lankan with its distinct Batavian flavour. A well-informed
observer, writing almost sixty years ago, classed the Malay spoken in Sri
Lanka as a Batavian dialect." As the exiles were kept in Sri Lanka in those
areas which the Dutch authorities chose for them, there could not be a
popularization of Malay. But, in the make-shift huton (courts) of royalty
which the exiles 'set-up', educated, cultured, polite, formal Javanese was
spoken and written. Perhaps, they introduced gundul, i.e. Javanese written
in Arabic Gundul survived in Sri Lanka till the mid-forties of this
century, in limited circles and for specified purposes.
The Malay troops should be sent from hence (i.e. Colombo) with
their wives and children to Tuticorin (in India) from thence by easy
marches to Madras; they shall be submitted while they remain prison-
468 Islamic Studies, 31:4 (1992)
ers and if not taken into the British service shall at a convenient time
be sent to ;he island of Java at the expense of the British Govern-
ment.29
It might be conjectured from the above Article that (a) the Malay soldiers
had a settled family establishment in Sri Lanka and that (b) the British
authorities considered them to be Javanese because of their Malay language.
However, this attempt by the British to disestablish the Malay settlements
in Colombo did not succeed. Subsequently, Henry Dundas, President of the
Board of Control of the British East India Company, then in authority over
Sri Lanka, instructed the British governor, Lord Frederic North, to raise a
Malay corps, stating that it was:
The Ceylon Malay Rifles thus recruited was apparently quartered in Slave
Island (a part of Colombo abutting the Fort), as the name 'Refle Street'
indicated.31The Malays thus formed a solid enclave in Colombo. The Malay
Regiment, which frequentlysaw service abroad, distinguished itself in several
campaigns. The Malays' soldierly qualities have always won the admiration
of the British officer class as well as that of the administration."
Malay language has a different role to play and is subject to different influ-
ences.
(Slave Island) was and is the bedrock of the Malay language in Sri
Lanka. Close contiguity of houses, sufficient number of Malay-speakers and
the fact that a lare section of these speakers were former soldiers, ensured
that the language was earthy and vibrant. Some of these (slang) words such
as kinjath (wretched) had even entered the vocabulary of other Muslims of
Colombo.
This type is found in the southern sea-board of Sri Lanka. There are
two versions; the urban settlement of Hambantota and the fishing community
(of Kirinde). Possibly, these are the earliest Malay settlementsin Sri ~ a n k a . ~
Both versions of this type of settlement used to speak Malay (rather
Javanese), somewhat archaic than Slave Island Malay. The Hambantota
settlement is f l u e n t and English has made inroads into their speech. The
Kirinde community still has archaic words in their speech.40 Perhaps, some
'sanskritization' has taken place between these two subtypes4'
forts. This grouping is found in towns such as Kurunegal, Galaha and though
the Dutch forts and their British successors have vanished, these settlements
remain surrounded by other communities. These were small settlements and
the Malays were more aMuent than the other communities, as a whole. The
Malays here have had a background of English and they took to government
jobs easily at middle and lower levels. Their spoken Malay was heavily mixed
with English words. Two special characteristics rpight be noted. Some of
their names are classical Malay (Indonesian), names not used in other parts
of Sri Lanka. In the second place, most of their mosques are called 'military
mosques'." When small communities of Malays began to form in up-country
towns, where tea plantations gave them jobs, these type of settlements
reproduced themselves.
Malays
Moors
This situation had two implications on the role of the Malay language,
as English dexterity was the base of Government employment. The high
level Malay official tended to concentrate on English and Malay became a
language used for linited purposes (apa khabar-khabar baik level of small
talk.). At the lower level-that of minor employee+English words entered
into their Malay vocabulary.
During the Second World War, after the over-running of the Dutch
East Indies and Malaya by the Japanese, many Malayans from mainland
Malaya and also from Java and near by islands, came to Sri Lanka. Some
of them contracted marriages in Sri Lanka and established themselves here.
When Malays-rnen, women and children--travelling to Malaya had their
ships torpedoed, they were accommodated in Colombo. There were also
Malay units serving with the South-East Asian Command (SEAC) in Sri
Lanka in the 1940s." All these events brought living Malay (and Javanese)
speech to Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka was known as Ceylon till 1972 when it became a republic. Sri Lanka is a multi-re-
ligious (Islam. Hinduism, Buddhism. Christianity), multi-racial (Sinhalese,Tamils, Muslims,
Burghers), and multi-Linguistic (Sinhala, Tamil, English) country. The Muslims form nearly
8% of the total population of Sri Lanka. The Muslims of Sri Lanka comprise the Moors
(descendants of Arab settlers), the Malays (descendants of Malays and Javanese settlers) as
well as very small groups such as the Faqin. Moo~sare over one million in number while
the Malays are around 44,000 (Stoticficd Pocket Book of Sri LMka (Colombo, 1982, P. 12).
Details about the Muslims may be found in, M.M.M. Mahroof and M. #zeu(compilers)
An EthnologicdS~vveyof the Muslims of Sri Lonko (Colombo: Sir Razik Fareed Foundation,
1986, pages 262, Maps and For Faqirs, M.M.M. Mahroof, "Minstrels and
Trobadours; Towards a Historical Taxonomy of the Faqirs of Sri Lanka" in Islamic ShJicr
(11s) Islamabad, Pakistan,vol. 30, no. 4 (1991). pp. 501. seq. Tamil is the mother tongue
of the Muslims of Sri Lanka; but most are fluent in Sinhala. Other languages of interest to
the Muslims are, Malay. Arabic (revered for religious purposes) and Urdu (a peripheral
language). For Arabic, M.M.M. Mahroof (a) "The Study and Teaching of Islam and Arabic
in Sri Lanka; A Centenary Appraisal" in Muslim Educafion Quarterly (MEQ), (Cambridge,
vol. 3 no. 1(1985), pp. 51 seq; (b) "Islamic Foundations of Sri Lankan Muslim Education"
in Hamdard Islamicus (Hll), Karachi.Pakistan, vol. xiv. no. 3 (1991), pp. 5 seq. For Urdu,
M.M.M. Mahroof, "Urdu in Sri Lanka: SocbLinguistics of a Minority Language", in Islamic
Studies, vol. 31. no. 2 (1992). pp. 185-201.
However, Malay speakers form only 1- part of the total population of Sri Lanka. The
words 'Malay language' in this article are used as a term to include all varieties of historical
Malay-Indonesian languages as used in Sri Lanka.
M.M.M. Mahroof, "The Malays of Sri Lanka" in Asian Affairs (London), vol. xxi, pt. i
(1990). pp. 55 seq.
There are in Sri Lanka also very small communities of Afghans, Memons (Sunni), Borahs
and Khojas (both Shi'ah). M.M.M. Mahroof and M. Azeez, An Ethnologicd Survey of the
Muslims of Sri Lanka (ESMSL), chap. I (by M. Azeez).
W i e l m Geiger, A Grammar of the Sinhalcre Language (Colombo, 1939), Introduction.
Also, D.J. Wijeratne, History of the Sinhalcre Noun (Colombo, 1956), passim.
R.Caudwell, compur&'ve Grmnmor of the Dmvidian or South Indian Group of Languages
(Madras, 1956, repint of original 1856 edition), passim. Also, A.C. Chettian, Advanced
Sh& in Tamil Prarody (Annamalai Nagar, India, second edition, 1957), passun.
M.M.M. Mahroof. "Madrasah Education in Sri Lanka; Towards a Historical Taxonomy",
in MEQ, vol. 4, no. 2 (1987). pp. 51 seq.
Islamic Studies, 31:4 (1992) 475
M.M.M. Mahroof. "Malaya of Sri Lanka". For standard Malay, see, Pei, h g u a g e s for
War and Peace (later entitled lk World's Chief Languages, London, 1950). chapter on
Malay.
L a d o t Hogbcn. 7 k Loom of h m e (London), passim.
Some area names in Sri Lanka have the l a prefix, such as Jawaae (Javanese garden). I&
(Javanese canal).
C.W. Nicholas and S. Paranavitane. A Concise History of Ceylon . . . up to 1505 (Colombo:
University of Ceylon. 1961). p. 150.
Hambantota still has a d i d preaemr of Malaya.
As a rule, the s eound dissolves into h sound. Heme sampan=hampan. Geiger, Grammar
of StJlOlCSC h g u a g e , passim.
Nicholas and Paranavitane. Concise History of Ceylon, passim.
Sarong, the stitched rectangle of doth worn by the average Sri LenLan male is called lungi
or kai& m m t h India.
H.L. Bohier. Changhg Face of Colombo (Colombo. I%), p. 5.
Tbc c d d period of Sri Lanka was shared by three Europan Powers. The Portuguese
ruled the maritime prwiaas of Sri LanLa from 1505 to 1646. the Dutch from 1656 to 17%.
'Ihc British annexed the only indigenous principality, the kingdom of Kandy m 1815 and
d e d entire Sri Lanka from that date till 1948, when Sri Lanka became independent. Though
specid& studied have baea made of the c o l d period, an easy reference same is S.G.
Perera 9, A Hidory of C . nfor Sahodr, part. I . ' m e Porhlgu~ltand D u d periods"
and part 11, "Britiab period" (Colombo).
C.R. Boxer, lk Pomcguue Secrbumr Empin 1415-1825 (London, 1969) passim. Also,
. .
M.M.M. Mahroof, "Impact of EuropeanChnstlan rule on the Muslims of Sri Lanka; A
Soci~HistoricalAnalysis", Islamic Sludier vol. 29, no. 4 ( l w ) , pp. 353-373.
P.McGuirc, W& phc Cousc (Loadon,1943). p. 164. M.M.K. Mahroof, a) "Muslim
Education in Ceylon 1780-1880". in Islamic Cvlrvrr (Hyderabad, India), vol. xlvi, no. 2
(19n), pp. 119 sq;b) "Muslim Education in Ceylon 1881-1901" in Islmnic Culavr, vol.
xlvii, no. 4 (1973), pp. 301 sq.
Sir Stamford Raffles. History of Java (London), pasaim.
Dutch Pfiairsin Sri Lankawere controlled by the (Dutch) Councilof Indiain Batavia,Java.
M.M.M. Mahroof, "Malsya of Sri Lanka", p. 56.
The bighut myal titka were Sultan and Sutuhnan. Rajaa were rulers of considerably less
territory. Penkemns formed the dass of myal families and court M a .
S.E.M. Nicholas, Commmiol Ccylon (Colombo, 1933). p. 20.
Sina written Malay has always to be accented with Arabic diacritical marks (unlike in
standard Arabic), gvndul (Malay written in Arabic acript) looh cluttered to the unpraetised
eye. The Malay text book in the 'Merlborougb Seriea' used to print the gvndul alphabet.
M. Murad Jayah, 'TkSri Lankan Malaya: A brief Historical Sumy", in SouvmicrMuslim
Dtvelopmenf Fvnd (Colombo, n.d.).
F.H. de Vos, Law of Zntwtc~eSyocession and Marriage among the Moon or M o h a m m e k
of Ceylon (Galle. Sri Lanka. 1905). p. 2. m e Dutch Code was later given statutory status
by the British government of Sri Lanka as lk Mohanmedan Code of 1lUX (Sir Ivor Jennings
and H.W. Tambiah, Gylon; the trcekyment of ib Law and C m @ondon,1952).
p. 252.
M.M.M. Mahroof, 'TkEnactment of Muslim Maniage and Divorce Legislation in Sri
Lank, the Law in Context", in J o u d l Muslim ~ Mino* Affairs(JIMMA) (London1
Jeddd~),vol. 8, no. 1(1988). pp. 161 seq.
"Capitulations ofColombo 15th February 17%. Art. 12 (Legdative Acts of Ceylon 1853)"
in G.C. Mendis (ed.), Cokbnwk-Gvneron Pqpm: Docwncllrr on Brinjh Colonial Pdicy
in Ceylon 17%-1#3 (Oxford, 1956). vol. I.
"Lnsmctiom from Hcny Dundas. President of the Board of Control of the East India
Company to governor North, 13th March 1801, paragraph 102" in G.G. Mendis, (ed.),
Colebnwk-Gnurw, Pqpm.
thm.sinh.lrmdTamilI.nll\ullerhave~reEemdtotht~u~yV.c&r(l
('Compny Street'. 'annplmy' standing for the Dutch Eut India Compny). h. re R.L.
Bmhier, h & g F m of Gylom, ppeeim.
M.M.M. Mahroof "Malays of Sri M a " , passim.
H.A. de S. Gunasekera.From Drpcndmr Cvnrrry & C .B m k i q in Ccylon 1621-1957
(Londoa. 1962). Pamim.
H.A.J. HuluppUa, Briaislr Govrmon of CLybn (Colombo. I=).
H.W. Cabh@n.A Short HLrory of G y b n (London.1938).Calendarof E m t s (appendix).
A tranalabion of the dead is in M. Mund Jayah. "Sri L.nLsn Malays".
A.C. Dep. A Hirrory of tk C e y h Police, wl. ol. (1- to 1913).((hlombo. 1970).M.M.M.
Mabroof. "Sri Lath Malay Communi-A Miaarity a Minaity". L Al-N&
.
-
K
( Mdqia), vol. 10. m. 3-4 (1990), p. 29 acq.
M.M.M. M.hroof, "Malays of Sri Lath".
Cttbe~rdstruetureoftherofLl~bionoftheMualhncommunityasarbole,
m (ESMSL),cbptcr VI. "Mualhn Social Orp.niPtion", by M.M.M. Mabroof).
The fishing community is a distind sociological entity m M.Lysia; socit~~~~thropological
studies on tbe Malayan fisbtrmen exist.
The term 'tlamhtiution' in, of CDUrse, din the srinivaa (ha)scllsc.
List of Macqucs, Slvincsd P b m of Rcb'ghw Worsh@(Colombo: Department of Mudim
Moaquca and Charitable Tmts. 1970). p. 39.
For instaaa,tbe neme 'Swjab' pronounced today with j (as m 'jam') migbt have been
prondwithjxy.
'Ibat name is 'Junteer'. which is stroagly reminsant of tbe Dutch jon heer = the German
wordjvngHm=pmgsir.
'Zbolyh Mualim 'little mapzinca' often hsd a desultory enbtence. still bmure of I d of
daily ncwspapm md other entcrt.inment, they hsd a study audience.
For a speeimen hvin (tho@ not in bundirl), re Ahmadu Baw, 'We Customs
oftbeMoonofCeykn" mlwmol. RoydAsioPicSockty (CeylonBrsnch). Colombo.1988.
Fortbecontentoftbeserica,su.SirRich.rdWiustet,A HisroryofChuiodM&yLircmhuc
(Londoareprint. 1969). p. l a . Abo, M.M.M. Mduwf. 1- CUCM. 1973.
Insom~~,theMalaybaUd~arcvcryd~tombdievd~~.Tb
suchasm'LordR.adPI'arc~ucntlyfamdmM.lay.
Kanaka Sentbathan. I&nkiyd lhd lhkiyya Vakuchi (History of Tamil Literature m Sri
L a t h ) (Colombo. 1961);chapter on Muslim poets.
A8 ' . . d o n Report d the Director of Pllblic I m m u h [C. BIUOC]for year 1881 (Cd-
mbo. Govt. Printer); Admiahmtino Report of the Dkdor of Pllblic hvwtim [H.W.
Gretn] for year 1883 (Cdombo, Govt. Rintcr).
M.M.M. Mahroof "Mdays of Sri Laukn".
Murad Jayah. "Sri LanL.0 M.l.ys".
T h e T a m i l I ~ i S r i c h m ' o m - g r o a n a d ~ ~ ' a s ~ G c r m aSentmassuchastbe
n.
f o u m v h g ~ c o m m o n . ( N ~ ~ ~ ~
wmfh~~; (Yestenby-with me-two born,talkcd-mm~,came today too). Hammn Bqhm.
~ G ~ & ~ & ( L e i p a , l W 3 ) ; . b o t h e r o r L t o f ~ B . Stamr.
Terms Lite dhamma, ag- and pup arc found m S i a l a as well as m classical Malay,
thougb tbe context is different. For instamr,puja w a o s Islamic worships (rituals).
-
h m t n (A& ' - .' Report for l w ) .
Thmnma~rmmkrofT~,rrminlyfrom~SriMa,rbosemda
offieiabmthcFcdmatcd~St.tg,rbokM.Ly.
The H- of SWC, beaded by Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten was m Kandy
(m aatrrrl Sri L.nLn).
TheM.LyM-booththeTacbYoMelf-ru-tlymw.
h~hrnicStudies, 31:4 (1992) 477
58. Tbm i a thirty minutes pmgramme in the mornin@ d T uradays and Sundaya (Murlim
service) and a Friday night pmpaaune of equal duration (Sinhala senice).
59. l%e GCE (AL) also offers as wwses Latin, Sanskrit. Pali. Arabic, H i , Urdu, Persian,
French. G e m and other Laagua&es.
60. For instance, background texts such as Oxford Companion to GermanlFrencMtalian Studies
do not appear to exist.
61. The Department of Musli~nReligious and Cultural Affairs included Malay cultural items in
its annual Milid al-Nabi celebrations. The Departr.1 t of Muslim Religious and Cultural
Affairs has now been raised to the status of a state Ministry for Muslim Religious and
Cultural Affairs.
APPENDIX A
V-deRrdroWd
Ahl-(Ahl-i)
Ahamath (Ahmad)
Backer (Abu Bakr)
Galiph (Khalifah)
Jappar (Jabbar)
Laphir W)
Mahamooth (Mahmud!
(Uthman)
Pakcer (Faqir)
Ramdin (Ramadan)
Sarip (Sharif)
2. TdsopedVcl.bad~rnWonds
Amath (Ahmad)
Amith (Hamid)
Baardeen (Badr al-Din)
Jalain (Jalal al-Din)
Saldin (Salah al-Din)
seedin (Sayyid Din)
Shamdin (Shams al-Din)
Sudin (Sa'ud Din)
3. -wd
Banda (linesgellne of strong forbears)
-
Jayah (victorious)
Nagam (city, nation)
Mahat (great)
Dharma (right/righteous)
W)
Weera bandsa (heroic lineage)
isiamic Studies, 31:4 (1992)
APPENDIX B
S y I l . b u s ~ t b c ~ C a t i l l a t c d E d n a r i m ( ~ ~ )
MA LAY (subject no. 46)
Those who desire to offer Malay as a subject can obtain detailed information by applying to
the Commissioner of Exiuninations.
Source; General Certificate of Education (AdvancedLevel) (GradcJ 11and 12) Syllabi (in
Sinhala language) (Department of Examinations, Colombo 1980) p. 102.
N.B. Since detailed syllabi are given for languages such as Latin, Greek, Pali, S d t . French,
German, Hindi, Russian, perhaps, the lackdetails for Malay is anindicationthat few studentsoffer it.