Teaching

Adults
with
Learning
Difficulties
Adult Basic
This manual contains information about teaching adults with learning
difficulties including characteristics and teaching suggestions. Skills Training
Manual
 Table of Contents

Preface......................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Chapter 1: Definitions............................................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2: Characteristics of Adults with Learning Difficulties............................................................................6
Chapter 3: Education........................................................................................................................................................... 17
Lesson Plans........................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Workplace Law...................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Bibliography............................................................................................................................................................. 79
Preface
Unless effective professional development is an integral part of a plan, it is unlikely
that a literacy program will meet the needs of adults. Programs need a professional
development plan through which instructors continually improve their knowledge, skills,
and attitudes. The Adult Basic Skills Professional Development (ABSPD) Project provides
research-based professional development opportunities for Adult Basic Education
practitioners through institutes, retreats, workshops, videos, CD-ROMs, and papers such as
this one on adults with learning difficulties.
This manual focuses on instruction designed for adults with learning difficulties.
Even the phrase, adults with learning difficulties, acknowledges that these students are
people first. They have talents and strengths unique to them as individuals. They have
families, jobs, and interests. They have a desire to learn. Adults with learning difficulties
have the right to attend Adult Basic Education along with other students. And you, the
professional, are the one privileged to teach them.
We trust this manual will give you guidance, understanding, and information to
meet the learning needs of adult students with learning difficulties.

1
Teaching Adults with Learning Difficulties: Introduction

What do adults with learning difficulties have in common? A casual observer may
not be able to identify commonalities of physical features, work ethics, or through
conversation. Yet adults with learning difficulties share problems that make it hard for
them to process information. According to the National Adult Literacy and Learning
Disabilities Center, an estimated 50-80% of the students in Adult Basic Education and
volunteer literacy programs are affected by learning difficulties. One might ask, What are
the common characteristics of adults with learning difficulties? What goals do they have
for their lives? What help do they require to accomplish their goals? How are learning
difficulties identified and how can instructors meet individual needs? These questions
and others will be addressed in this manual.

2
Chapter 1: Definitions

This manual uses the term, learning difficulties rather than learning disability.
The use of the term, learning difficulties, allows educators to use classroom diagnosis
procedures to determine learning needs and plan appropriate instruction. Learning
disability refers to a categorization established by law which brings with it processes and
procedures that are strictly monitored by government agencies.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1997 (PL 105-17)
outlines the legal procedures for providing educational opportunities for anyone identified
with a learning disability. The law requires that anyone suspected of having a learning
disability be tested and identified following due rights procedures and documented
intervention strategies. The label, Learning Disabled, implies that a specific identification
process, including costly professional testing, has been conducted to determine the
disabilities and prescribe an individual learning plan. The Interagency Committee on
Learning Disabilities defines learning disability as a generic term referring to a group of
disorders that at first seem to be distinct among identified individuals, yet upon further
examination are similar in adults who have difficulties learning and using basic reading,
language, and math skills. For instance, adults with learning difficulties may have problems
associating sounds with letters or remembering sight words. They may not understand the
meaning of a group of words such as those comprising a sentence. Processing information
provides problems, thus learning is a chore.
The National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy uses the definition
of the National Joint committee on Learning Disabilities:

Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group

of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use
of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities.
These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to
central nervous system dysfunction and may occur across the life span.
(1994, 65-66).

3
 These definitions are applied to the term, learning difficulties, as used in this
manual. Educational services should be available to all individuals with learning
difficulties, legally identified or not.
Understanding learning difficulties can provide a new perspective on learning
possibilities both for the instructor and the adult student. Learning difficulties affect how
people interpret what they see and hear and/or how they link information within the brain.
Adults with learning difficulties demonstrate limitations as specific problems with
language, physical coordination, behavioral control, or attention needs. Such difficulties
impede the ability to read, write, or do math.
Unlike physical difficulties, learning difficulties may not be apparent, thereby
creating misunderstanding and little support by others. Learning problems may have
limited impact on other areas of their lives or they may be conditions that affect a person's
daily routines, family life, friendships and play. Other areas where learning difficulties may
affect adults include: education, vocation, self-esteem, social interactions, and independent
living.
A learning difficulty (Gerber & Reiff, 1994) involves the central nervous system and
relates to input, processing, and output of information. An individual with a learning
difficulty probably has average or above average intelligence (Gerber & Reiff, 1991).
Research has shown that learning difficulties, a life-long disorder, do not disappear
when one leaves school. When the difficulty is identified in childhood, awareness of
learning problems could last for 70 years or more and be wearisome. Though the difficulty
cannot be out grown, it offers different challenges and issues in adulthood than in
childhood (Gerber & Reiff, 1990; Gerber & Reiff, 1994; Johnson & Blablock, 1990).
Experiences as a result of living with learning difficulties vary as people progress through
the various stages of life.
There are critical differences among adults with learning difficulties, but there are
also critical similarities in the problems they experience every day. Defining the term is the
first step to understanding and serving adults with learning difficulties.
Though language and logic disorders often indicate learning difficulties, we must be
careful when diagnosing adult educational needs. Not everyone with reading problems has
learning difficulties and not all adults with learning difficulties have reading and/or

4
mathematics problems; consequently there are precautions which should be brought to
mind. Heed the following (From One-Stop programs):

Labels can lead to stereotyping and thereby restrict opportunities for

individuals
The learning (difficulties) label should not be used to direct societys view of
the person.
Describing a persons difficulties does not describe that person.
The learning problems experienced by an adult should not become the
characteristics that overpower other more positive features of his or her
identity.
A persons strengths are far more important than his or her weaknesses.
The existence of learning difficulties should not be used as an excuse for lack
of success.

5
Chapter 2: Characteristics of Adults with Learning Difficulties

Learning difficulties may have been suspected during school years when children
followed a consistent pattern of low academic achievement and did not fit typical school
routines. Children with learning difficulties, now adults, may not have been taught
appropriately to meet their learning needs. And, only a small percentage of adults who have
been identified with learning difficulties may actually have learning disabilities as defined
by law.
This chapter describes the characteristics and identifying factors shared by
individuals with learning difficulties. The research based information can be used to aid
instructors in understanding adult learning needs and foster self-confidence regardless of
the learning difficulty.
It has been suggested that one might understand learning difficulties best as a
conflict between a person's learning strengths and weaknesses, where the weaknesses
seem to interfere, making it difficult to target strengths. There seems to be a significant gap
between what would be expected, given the individual's ability, and what is actually
accomplished (Reiff, Gerber, & Ginsberg, 1993).
Specific difficulties depend on an individuals strengths and weaknesses, diversity
in learning styles and variety of cognitive functions. Although everyone has strengths and
weaknesses, it is the degree of difference that characterizes the intensity of the learning
difficulty. This concept is discussed by Malcolm, Polatajko and Simons (1990):

...adults suspected of having learning disabilities display a variety of

characteristics and needs that, when examined in isolation, may not seem
so unlike those experienced by the non-learning disabled population. The
distinguishing factors appear to lie in the persistence of the difficulties and
their complex, encompassing nature (p. 520).

Adults with learning difficulties demonstrate many critical characteristics that

affect their daily lives (Reiff, Gerber, & Ginsberg, 1993). First, academic skills not mastered
in school remain difficult. Problems continue in the skill areas of reading, spelling, writing,
and math. In reading, word analysis, grammar and reading comprehension difficulties are
common. Oral speaking and reading before peer groups create anxiety for adults with

6
learning difficulties. In spelling, the sequence of letters, syllables, and prefixes and suffixes
makes little sense for these adults. In writing, punctuation, poor organization of thoughts,
and illegible penmanship create problems for learning. In mathematics, adults may have
problems using concepts and logic both in daily living activities and in the classroom.
Learning difficulties are manifested in many areas. The following are
manifestations of special learning needs according to experts:

Attention: easily distracted, impatient

Reasoning and Processing: cant recognize mistakes, tasks take longer

Memory: cant remember information easily, problems recalling instructions

Oral Communication: omits or uses words inappropriately, trouble expressing

thoughts concisely

Reading: trouble reading applications and forms, reverses letters, words, phrases

Writing and Spelling: poor handwriting, spelling demonstrates simplistic writing

pattern

Mathematical Calculation & Application: cant do written calculations, has

difficulty managing money

Teachers may observe the following characteristics in adult learners who have learning
difficulties (HEATH Resource Center 1989):

1. Pronounced difficulty with reading, writing, spelling, and number

concepts, although other skills are average to superior

2. Poorly formed handwriting that may be printing instead of script and that
may have uneven spacing between words

3. Difficulty in listening to a lecture and taking notes at the same time

4. Severe difficulty in sticking to simple schedules, repeatedly forgetting

things and losing things

5. Confusion about up and down and right and left

6. Excessive anxiety, anger, or depression because of frustration when coping

with social situations

7
 7. Misinterpretation of the subtleties in language, tone of voice, or social
situations

Other problems dominate adults with learning difficulties. Noise distracts them.
Therefore step by step lessons presented in quiet, tranquil settings contribute to success.
They have difficulty integrating information so applications must be part of lessons. They
lose focus resulting in changing conversations in mid-stream, making illogical statements,
and interrupting others. Combat these tendencies by incorporating group work, utilize
dialog as a major strategy, and provide activities which help adult learners monitor their
behaviors. (A thorough list of specific difficulties experienced by adults with learning
difficulties from Vogel and Reder, Table 1.1, pp 15-16.)
Many adults experience the effects of learning difficulties without realizing why. For
instance, they often fear failure and lack confidence to interact socially (Spekman et al.,
1992). Stress may result as adults try to hide their learning problems.
Keep in mind that great diversity characterizes the population with learning
difficulties. An adult with learning difficulties may have one or more specific problems
which manifest themselves in individual ways. Some problems can be mild, while others
can be quite serious (Dowdy & Smith, 1994; Gerber & Reiff, 1991).

Secondary Characteristics
There also are numerous secondary characteristics relevant to adults who experience
learning difficulties. These characteristics equal primary characteristics in effect on the adult.
Coping mechanisms emerge and thoughts and positive or negative feelings surface. Instructors
of adults with learning difficulties must hone their skills in discrimination because the
complexity of the problems reveals itself in various forms.

Secondary Characteristics:
Self Concept
Control of ones life
Resilience
Adaptation

One of the most common secondary characteristics among adults with learning
difficulties is in the area of social and emotional characteristics. Feeling of little self-worth,

8
low self-esteem, and a poor self-concept can be pervasive (Barton & Fuhrmann, 1994).
Many adults with learning difficulties experienced unhappy school-age years during which
they felt dumb, stupid, and incompetent. The resulting pain and destruction lives deep
within their emotions regardless of the level of success attained during adulthood (Gerber,
Ginsberg, & Reiff, 1992). The idea that I cant rather than I can contributes to a sense of
helplessness, incompetence, and dejection (Groteluschen, Barkowski, & Hale, 1990). In
other words, they feel they can do nothing right because they are dumb. Clance (1985)
found that adults with learning difficulties who experience success feel it is undeserved;
they are impostors." They are unworthy of success. It must be a mistake. As impostors,
they carry the fear that they will be found out for what they really are, dump, incapable,
fake.
Consequently, adults with learning difficulties carry emotional baggage into their
social, school, and daily lives (Barton & Fuhrmann, 1994). Lifes challenges add to self-
doubt which in term contributes to stress and anxiety (Gerber & Reiff, 1991). Adults with
learning difficulties become overwhelmed by the enormity of tasks and their perceived lack
of ability to accomplish what must be done. When difficulties dominate their thought and
actions, adults with learning difficulties may develop more serious problems such as
depression and denial. Within the social and emotional realm, motivation is situation-
specific. Instructors must be careful of generalizing between students or even from one
situation to another for one individual. For example, lack of motivation may be the result of
accumulated failure; while on the other hand, when fueled by success motivation becomes
intrinsic. Providing opportunities for success can open small windows of motivation which
can make a great difference in learning. These opportunities need to be real situations such
as reading to children, taking a drivers test or balancing a checkbook. Adults with learning
difficulties want and need to take control of their lives and emotions.
Another secondary characteristic leads to control of ones life and, consequently,
success. Some adults with learning difficulties are resilient despite past failures. Often
their lives are punctuated with successes and failures. Adults who move on unscathed by
failure have a greater sense of inner strength and self-confidence. They may actually gain
strength through the experience (Gerber, et al., 1994).

9
 Resilience is another secondary characteristic that affects adults with learning
difficulties in different ways. Some learners are much more resilient than others. For
instance, it has been found that adults who attend literacy classes have a greater capacity
for resiliency that those who do not.
Adaptation is a positive characteristic of some adults with learning difficulties.
They have "learned creativity," a way of devising learning strategies or adapting techniques
for mastering tasks or learning new routines (Gerber, et al., 1992; Reiff, et al., 1997). They
approach tasks uniquely, and thus are able to problem solve.

A Learning Disabilities Checklist

A checklist is a guide, a list of characteristics. However, characteristics of adults with

learning difficulties are difficult to list because the most common characteristic is the differences
they possess and most adults exhibit some of these characteristics at one time or another.
Determining that adults display given characteristics from the checklist certainly does not mean
they are a person with a learning difficulty. Even if several of the characteristics match a person,
that does not mean he or she has a learning difficulty. However, if most of the items fit a person
who experiences these difficulties to such a degree that they create problems in the workplace,
classroom and/or daily living, it might be informative to discuss the observations.
There are many worthwhile checklists available from a number of organizations. The
following checklist was adapted from lists of learning disabilities' characteristics developed by
the following organizations: Learning Disabilities Association of America, For Employers... A
Look at Learning Disabilities, 1990; ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education,
Examples of Learning Disability Characteristics, 1991; The Orton Dyslexia Society's Annals of
Dyslexia, Volume XLIII, 1993; and the Council for Learning Disabilities, Infosheet, October
1993.
While individuals with learning difficulties may have average or above average
intelligence, they do not excel in employment, education, and/or life situations at the same level
as their peers. Identified characteristics are as follows:

May perform similar tasks differently from day to day;

May read well but not write well, or write well but not read well;

10
 May be able to learn information presented in one way, but not in
another;
May have a short attention span, be impulsive, and/or be easily
distracted;
May have difficulty telling or understanding jokes;

May misinterpret language, have poor comprehension of what is said;

May have difficulty with social skills, may misinterpret social cues;

May find it difficult to memorize information;

May have difficulty following a schedule, being on time, or meeting

deadlines;

May get lost easily, either driving and/or in large buildings;

May have trouble reading maps;

May often misread or miscopy;

May confuse similar letters or numbers, reverse them, or confuse their

order;

May have difficulty reading the newspaper, following small print, and/or
following columns;

May be able to explain things orally, but not in writing;

May have difficulty writing ideas on paper;

May reverse or omit letters, words, or phrases when writing;

May have difficulty completing job applications correctly;

11
 May have persistent problems with sentence structure, writing
mechanics, and organizing written work;

May experience continuous problems with spelling the same word

differently in one document;

May have trouble dialing phone numbers and reading addresses;

May have difficulty with math, math language, and math concepts;

May reverse numbers in checkbook and have difficulty balancing a

checkbook;

May confuse right and left, up and down;

May have difficulty following directions, especially multiple directions;

May be poorly coordinated;

May be unable to tell you what has just been said; and

May hear sounds, words, or sentences imperfectly or incorrectly.

Adults with learning difficulties may exhibit some but not all of these characteristics. If
someone exhibits several or many of these characteristics to the point that problems persist at
work, in the classroom, or in everyday life, adaptations should be made in lesson presentations to
accommodate the learner for dealing with those particular life situations. Nonetheless, Ross-
Gordon (1989) points out that many adults with learning difficulties exhibit strengths that enable
them to compensate for their difficulties and to perform successfully even without supportive
services.

Workplace

Though adults may not be legally labeled, they may suffer with learning

12
difficulties that contribute to unemployment or low-status positions that
consequently result in lower wages and fewer weeks worked. The research reports
that with proper authentic (contextualized) education, employment opportunities
tend to improve over time (Blackorby & Wagner, 1997).

What Are the Types of Learning Disabilities?

"Learning difficulty" is not a diagnosis in the same sense as a physical illness,
implying a known cause as predicted by a set of symptoms. The term learning difficulties
is a broad term indicating problems due to many possible causes, symptoms, treatments,
and outcomes. Learning difficulties can show up in many forms, so that it is difficult to
diagnose the causes.
Not all learning problems are necessarily learning difficulties. Many adults are just
slow in developing certain skills.
The criteria and characteristics for diagnosing learning difficulties appear in a
reference book called the DSM. According to the DSM (short for the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) learning difficulties can be divided into three broad
categories:
Developmental speech and language disorders
Academic skills disorders
Other, a catchall that includes certain coordination disorders and learning
handicaps not covered by the other terms
Each of these categories includes a number of more specific disorders as described below.

Developmental Speech and Language Disorders

Speech and language problems are often the earliest indicators of a learning
difficulty and should be professionally diagnosed. People with developmental speech and
language disorders have problems producing speech sounds, using spoken language to
communicate or understanding what other people say. Depending on the problem, the
specific diagnosis may be:
Developmental articulation disorder
Developmental expressive language disorder
Developmental receptive language disorder

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Developmental Articulation Disorder Persons with this disorder may have trouble
controlling their rate of speech. They may substitute one sound for another; for example,
pruck for truck. Developmental articulation disorders are common in children, however
they are often outgrown.

Developmental Expressive Language Disorder Some adults with language impairments

have problems expressing themselves orally. They often call objects by the wrong names
This disorder is therefore called a developmental expressive language disorder which can
take many forms.

Developmental Receptive Language Disorder Adults with learning difficulties may have
trouble understanding speech. Their brains seem not to be tuned in to the correct
frequency, therefore the reception is poor. It may seem that adults with this learning
difficulty are not following directions and consequently perform poorly, when actually they
can't make sense of certain sounds, words, or sentences they hear. They may even seem
non-responsive, thus the name Receptive language disorder.

Academic Skills Disorders

Adults with learning difficulties display academic skills disorders. Therefore they
attend Adult Basic Skills classes to gain the skills they lack. They may exhibit very low
reading, writing, and/or arithmetic skills. The diagnoses in this category include:
Developmental reading disorder
Developmental writing disorder
Developmental arithmetic disorder

Developmental Reading Disorder -- This widespread reading disorder affecting 2 to 8

percent of adults is known as dyslexia. Reading is involved in developing the other "three
R's"-- 'riting, and 'rithmetic. To read the adult must do the following:
Attention on the printed marks
Control eye movements across the page
Recognize the sounds associated with letters
Understand words and grammar
Build ideas and images
Compare new ideas to what you already know
Store ideas in memory

14
 Mentally juggling all one does when reading requires a massive, integrated network
of connections among the brain's centers for vision, language, and memory.
A person can have problems in any one or all of the tasks involved in reading.
Researchers have found that many adults with dyslexia share an inability to distinguish or
separate the sounds in spoken words. Yet they have found these skills fundamental to
learning to read. Specialized techniques can help many people with dyslexia acquire these
skills, even in adulthood.
There is more to reading than recognizing words. One must be able to form images
or relate new information to old already stored in memory, otherwise the reader can't
understand or remember the new concepts. This is known as comprehension.

Developmental Writing Disorder Writing also involves a variety of brain functions

requiring circuitry in good working order. When the circuitry breaks down at any point, a
developmental writing disorder may result. One skill breakdown may create problems for
other skill functions. For instance, an adult who is unable to speak in complete sentences
probably will be unable to compose complete, grammatical sentences.

Developmental Arithmetic Disorder Arithmetic involves logical reasoning, recognizing

numbers and symbols, memorizing facts and understanding abstract concepts like place
value, fractions and geometry. Any of these may be difficult for adults with developmental
arithmetic disorders.
Many aspects of speaking, listening, reading, writing, and arithmetic overlap and
require the same brain capabilities. Consequently, people can be diagnosed as having more
than one area of learning difficulty. The ability to understand language underlies learning to
speak which underlies the ability to read and write. Like a massive electrical network, a
single break in the brains circuitry can disrupt activity.

"Other" Learning Disabilities

The DSM also lists additional categories, such as "motor skills disorders" and
"specific developmental disorders not otherwise specified," which impact language
acquisition, motor skill development, and academic progress. All of these affect the ability
to learn.

15
Attention Disorders
There are adults whose learning difficulty is the inability to focus their attention.
Some adults who have attention disorders appear to daydream excessively and/or are
easily distracted. In the past the term hyperactive has been used to describe this person.
The current term is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder--ADHD. ADHD adults may act
and make decisions impulsively, as accidents ready to happen. They may talk incessantly,
blurt out answers in class and interrupt conversations. They are impatient in lines and have
a hard time waiting their turn at the bank or in the grocery store counter. These problems
are usually not hard to identify.
By adulthood physical hyperactivity usually subsides into fidgeting and restlessness
and the problems with attention and concentration often continue. At school, adults with
ADHD often have trouble organizing tasks or completing their work; and when they do, it is
messy and appears careless. Instructors tend to chalk it up to inattentiveness and
carelessness when following directions.
Attention disorders, with or without hyperactivity, may be considered learning
difficulties in themselves, but not learning disabilities.

Challenges

How can adults with specific learning

difficulties make their needs and wishes known?

16
 Chapter 3: Education

This chapter focuses on teaching to the needs of adults who have difficulty
learning. It emphasizes the need for learning to be relevant and interesting through
meaningful adult, rather than child, level activities. Adults with learning differences
require instructional help to accomplish educational goals and instructional
methods that assist adults in the learning process. It discusses strategies proven
effective in helping adults with learning difficulties realize their goals as a result of
instructors who carefully plan each facet of every lesson.
There are many types of learning difficulties, however the research
emphasizes that a key to successful life adjustment is the support of another
significant adult, a family member, a mentor on the job, or an instructor in an adult
education program (Gerber & Reiff, 1994) who accepts the individual
unconditionally. Because the instructor may be the key to the adults success, she
should carefully plan to make the classroom an accepting atmosphere. The
instructor is the key to actually making or breaking the educational attempts of an
adult with learning difficulties.
When adults with learning difficulties enter an Adult Basic Skills program,
the instructor should take the responsibility to make the learning environment a
safe, comfortable, and accepting place. Time should be spent establishing rapport
among the students by allowing them to interact. Assessment and diagnosis should
be understood by the learner as non-threatening. Adult Basic Skills programs tend
to provide very few testing accommodations for adults with learning difficulties,
even for important tests like the GED. Prepare appropriate lessons that serve adults
who may have a variety of limitations. Adult students with learning differences may
become frustrated in class. It is stressful to live day to day not knowing why one
cannot do certain tasks. Not only adult students but their employers as well become
aware that their skills dont cut the mustard. Often adults turn to Adult Basic
Education for support only to find programs unprepared to serve their special
needs.

17
Goal Setting
The literature on setting goals and objectives with adult students with
learning difficulties emphasizes the need to involve them in the process. Ask them
what they want to learn. The reply may be very general or very specific. Record the
response. Question the students about the steps necessary for meeting the goals
and record the steps as sub-goals. Meeting these sub-goals helps the students
recognize progress toward the larger goals. Some students with learning difficulties
may find it difficult to communicate their goals. Patiently work with them to put
into words as near theirs as possible the goals they wish to meet.
A life goal for all adults is self-determination. Adults with learning
difficulties are particularly susceptible to depending on others for help and support.
Feelings of failure easily creep into daily situations at home, work and in social
endeavors. Instructors should recognize the importance of self-determination and
integrate activities into content and skill lessons that help students become goal
directed and positive about their learning. According to the research completed by
Hoffman and Field in 1995, five factors contribute to self-determination:
Self-knowledge
The ability to plan
The capacity to act based on self-knowledge and planning
The ability to learn from experience
The nature of the environment (NCSALL p. 53).

How are goals currently set in

your classroom?
How could you make the
process more student-centered?
How do students document
their progress?

18
 Setting goals is a major element of learning. Without clear goals, how is one
to measure success? Adults with learning difficulties need to set both short and
long-term goals. Short-term goals are specific, demonstrable, and may be realized
quickly. They supply points of closure that serve to contribute to self-esteem. Long-
term goals take more time and may be a collection of learned skills.

Ability to Plan
Goal setting precedes the ability to plan. Meeting goals motivates greater
success. Setting and accomplishing goals are learned skills that can be encouraged
and modeled by instructors. They should allow adults with learning difficulties to
participate in the planning of individual and class goals and methodologies to give
students feelings of control. Planning with the class eliminates taking risks,
suffering failure, and fearing embarrassment for the students. Learning contracts
also teach the value of planning and give students a means for tracking
accomplishments, no matter how small.
Once the partnership of instructor and adult has established goals, they
must be broken into subsequent pieces to serve as lesson objectives.

Select a goal recently set by an adult student

with learning differences. Break it down into
objectives, being sure to include all the steps.

Challenge

What are the advantages for students

who become actively involved in class
planning?

Classroom and Accommodations

Establishing a comfortable learning environment complements a well-planned
lesson. A pleasant room temperature contributes to concentration on the task at hand.

19
Areas arranged for quiet and for soft music usually benefit the various learning styles.
Adult size chairs arranged in groups, around tables, or in reading centers keep the
classroom inviting. Attractive displays of accessible pictures, books, and learning materials
contribute to an aesthetically pleasing environment and encourage students to make
decisions about what and how they learn. Three environmental components according to
Wehmeyer (1997) are:

Situations that help adults with learning difficulties to improve abilities

Components that contribute to success

Control of circumstances that determine adults lives.

When environmental factors are contrary to learning styles and living habits, the
adult with learning difficulties is destined to fail.
Adults with learning difficulties know themselves. Solicit their opinions about
where, what and how they want to learn. Adapt instructional environments and plans to
accommodate requests. Use non-traditional settings if it best fits the learning need. Let
students decide where they would like to go on field trips or who they would like to invite
to class as a guest speaker. The classroom is theirs. They overcome obstructions to learning
when they are allowed to make choices and carry out plans.
Independent skills do not have to be pieced together like pieces of a puzzle. They
are learned in conjunction with each other so the whole picture can be seen. Transfer of
skills is always easier when the skills are learned in an authentic situation. Teaching skills
in context eliminates the need for transfer concerns; learning and transfer become one.

How much choice are your students

given?
How much latitude are your students
given when planning lessons?
How often are whole lessons taught
rather than isolated skills?

20
Curriculum
To foster learning for adults with learning difficulties, the process begins
with curriculum development. The following suggestions may help when planning
curriculum and lessons for adults with learning difficulties:
1. Plan specific lesson content, outlining the steps students will take to
accomplish the lesson objective.
2. Place an agenda on the board in the same location each day.
3. Focus instruction on the students and their identified needs.
4. Tell students exactly what the lesson covers, and then explain each
step necessary to accomplish the objective.

When explaining the objective instructors should use several student

examples to meet everyones needs: one for family application, one for the
workplace, and one for everyday life in the community. Plan examples with which
the students can identify, thus enhancing learning.
Provide a finished model for review. Being able to see a completed model
will usually help students understand exactly what is expected of them. Students
need to understand that their completed products, however, need not replicate the
model. It is just that, a model. Often it is difficult to give examples and models while
at the same time challenging the adults to use their new knowledge, take risks, and
develop a unique product that demonstrates understanding.
In addition to planning and implementing the curriculum, instructors should
support students both in and out of the classroom. Instructor attitude contributes to
an environment that affects students learning. Students are more likely to develop a
positive self-concept and work harder to overcome their learning difficulties in an
accepting environment. To foster learning:

21
 Provide an environment in which students feel good about how they
learn
Speak positively to them
Smile
Listen
Avoid embarrassing and/or discouraging comments
Praise students for hard work
Question students about what they learned
Guide them to learn from their mistakes

Instructional techniques, personal invitations, and learning environment

dramatically affect the classroom experience.

Planning Instruction
Instructors actually begin the teaching process when they plan for meeting
the needs of the adult students with learning difficulties. Much effort is required to
plan lessons for learners who need extensive directions, lesson accommodations,
reinforcement, and encouragement. Instructors should spend much time thinking
about the following questions:
What is to be taught and why?
How does the lesson relate to the students goals?
What strategies will be most effective and efficient?
What is the time frame?
What materials will be needed?
How will the lesson transfer to life?
What will be the introduction to the lesson?
How will it be adapted to a variety of student levels and learning
styles?
How will learning be documented?

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 Lesson plans can be written in detail for class distribution so students with
learning difficulties have specific concrete notes. Hard copies of assignments and
class schedules keep these students on track. Distribute plans so students have
clear, concrete class notes. Students can add information as they like.

To give the attention to planning lessons for adults with learning difficulties
instructors can:
Plan and provide directions, tests, assignments, and schedules in as
many different forms as possible.
Give both oral and written student information.
Be aware that students learn differently and at different speeds.
Provide study questions, study guides, outlines.
Correlate new information with students personal experiences.
Limit the amount of information given in a single class period.
Stress key concepts rather than facts.
By including these suggestions in planning and presenting, instructors are
more likely to establish an educational environment conducive to all learning styles
(Davis, 1993).
Instructors should plan focused, skill-based, and content rich lessons that tie
into the students knowledge-base. Concrete examples supply learners with mental
images on which to link abstract concepts. Adult students have a content base to
which they can add new information, skills, and applications. Instructors can use
information gleaned from student interviews to construct content examples, find
words for skill application, or select passages for reading comprehension. Since
dialog is important for internalizing information, every class should allow students
to learn from each other by discussing the lessons in small or large groups.

Planning for Multi-level Groups

Adult Basic Education classes generally have a mix of students who come
and go as their schedules permit. This open structure makes it difficult to keep

23
everyone at the same place in a group lesson. It is just easier for students to work on
different levels at different paces in different materials about different topics.
However this arrangement does not allow for sharing through dialog. It is hard to
meet the challenges of different interests and different learning styles. Jeannie
Sutcliff gives the follow ideas to meet these challenges in multi-level classes:
Plan activities that can be done unsupported by the instructor
Organize materials for easy access by students
Set up a buddy system
Use the Ask three before me system (ask three other students for help
before the instructor)
Adapt activities to individual needs. Students could
o Use a word-processor
o Hand-write
o Dictate
o Record
o Interview
o Draw pictures
o Use photographs
o Watch videos
o Use computers
o Use symbols

Instructors can plan units of work across the curriculums around a central
theme. All students do not have to do the same thing, nor even concentrate on the
same subject at the same time. Learning activities can be individualized, yet,
because the theme is common, there is a place for practice of oral communication.
For instance, a central theme might be fractions. Beginning students may identify
fractions, write fractions, and cook using fractions for measuring. Other students
may add or subtract fractions with like denominators, measure perimeters as an
application of their skill, or learn the different ways fractions are used in daily

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activities. Another group may find the greatest common denominator or least
common factor, while another group may be using the four processes of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division with fractions that have different
denominators. All students are working on fractions but at their readiness levels.

Instructional Principles for Adults with Learning Difficulties

Instruction for adults with learning difficulties requires interventions or
accommodations to facilitate the processing and application of information. The
intervention or accommodation depends on the type and level of difficulty experienced by
the adult. Ross-Gordon (1989) categorizes intervention strategies for adults with learning
difficulties according to their goals:

1. Basic skills remediation, the model often used in adult basic education
2. Subject-area tutoring, such as preparation for the General Educational
Development (GED) Test

3. Compensatory modification that involves changing the environment or the

conditions under which learning takes place or helping the adult develop
alternative means of accomplishing a goal

4. Cognitive or learning strategies training (learning to learn)

5. Instruction in survival skills

6. Vocational exploration and training

Because no single approach is ideal for all, instructors may combine two or more
approaches (Ross 1987). They can combine skill building, compensatory techniques, and
learning strategies to maximize patterns of learning strengths and weaknesses. Ross makes
the following suggestions:

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 1. Teach transferable strategies such as listening, paraphrasing, SQ3R
(survey, question, read, recite, review), error monitoring, note-taking
methods, sentence combining, and paragraph organizing
2. Teach memory techniques such as chunking and mnemonics
3. Discuss the situations in which the strategies will be useful and discuss
which strategies will be useful across situations

Teaching Techniques
As with intervention strategies, no single set of teaching techniques is likely
to meet the needs of all adults with learning difficulties. The following techniques
have been suggested (Clearinghouse on Adult Education and Literacy 1989; Ross
1987, 1988; Ross-Gordon 1989).
Teach important skills. Include adults in deciding what is important to
learn and identify functional skills.
Teach less better. When you teach fewer skills, students can have
enough practice to master them.
Teach explicitly. Clearly identify what is being taught rather than
using discovery techniques.
Teach contextually. Teach skills that can be practiced and applied to
real-life situations.
Explain what is to be learned and why it is important. Explaining
purpose and relevance can increase motivation.
Check the old before teaching the new. Many individuals have difficulty
retaining what they have previously learned. Include practice
exercises of previously learned material to check on retention and
allow for reinforcement.
Model what is to be learned. A clear demonstration helps students see
the important components of the skill or strategy to be learned.
Support practice. Learners with learning difficulties need guided
practice before they are asked to apply a skill independently.

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 Use controlled materials. New learning should be applied in easy
materials and the task difficulty gradually increased.
Provide practice, practice, practice (and more practice). Individuals
with learning difficulties often have difficulty retaining new
information or skills. Practice to the point of automaticity helps new
learning stick.
Require frequent responses. Students benefit from active and frequent
questioning to maintain attention and involvement.
Provide corrective feed back. Specific and immediate positive and
corrective feedback is a powerful force in guiding the learning
process.
Promote generalization. One common attribute of individuals with
learning difficulties is difficulty in applying new learning to situations
beyond the instructional setting. Having learners identify real-life
tasks in which new learning can be applied is important in making
new learning functional.
Be prepared. Adult students with learning difficulties benefit from
well-organized and explicit instruction. This takes planning.
(Instructional Principles. Source: NCSALL p. 63. Adapted from Hughes, 1998.)

Once students begin to understand new information, the instructor assists

them in retaining and retrieving that information through active learning (Barbara
Davis (1993), Tools for Teaching). Adults with learning difficulties do not learn well
in lab situations. Instructors nurture and advance student learning through
activities that require interaction such as class discussions, games, role playing,
teamwork, group work and peer teaching. Students need to realize that traditional
class methodology did not help them learn, and the techniques used in the adult
class are geared toward helping them learn, retain and apply information. A caution
for instructors is appropriate here: Regardless of the class format, adults with

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learning difficulties need clear and concise notes, encouragement and constructive
feedback.

Classroom Coaching
Classroom coaching increases effectiveness and educational efforts.
Coaching means giving constant feedback on how to improve reading
comprehension and retention, how to take notes, how to participate in class
discussions, and how to study for tests (Joyce, et al. p. 183), just as a sports coach
gives constant feedback to an athlete. Practicing skills correctly enables the learning
process to move away from fact regurgitation to ownership of information,
development of concepts, nurturing of ideas, application, synthesis and expression
of thought.
The coaching process of translating lesson plans to actual classroom practice
requires professional skill to assist the adult learners to overcome learning
difficulties. The coach assures a comfortable, safe and supportive learning
environment in which open discussion is accepted. Students share in the overall
goal of learning. They interact as they greet one another, establishing a learning
community. The instructor coach reviews information learned in the last class by
encouraging adult students to exchange freely about what they learned and how
they have applied their new knowledge. Instructor coaches carefully navigate
through the lessons objectives. The professional instructor coach connects the
students desired learning and goals with the necessary sequence of instruction,
executing the game plan.

Classroom Instruction
Many Adult Basic Skills (ABS) classes are comprised of students at multiple
levels, and many instructors find it difficult to plan and hold heterogeneous classes.
Often students are placed at a given level in a workbook and told to work through
the material or seated at a computer to work through a sequenced program, raising
the hand to request help. This is the very technique that placed many of these

28
students in ABS classes in the first place and is the very technique that creates
their exit without meeting their learning goal. The constructivist theory and the
work of Freire (Purcell-Gates and Waterman, 2000) reveal that learning is a social
activity. Adults need to learn in an environment that invites them to share ideas,
build on one anothers knowledge, and take chances without fear. To meld these
philosophies, classes should be built around a concept on which everyone works at
his particular level, yet all work together.
Instructors pass along tips to augment and reinforce learning outside the
formal class. For instance, a teacher tells a student to place new words from the
lesson on the refrigerator or bathroom mirror. Continue by telling adult students
that often children see their parents studying and learning as encouragement for
their own. The parents serve as a model. Another student might be reminded to
take home a DVD used in class. As the students leave the instructor could remark
that a specific television program might be fun to watch at 8:00 with the family.
Notice the atmosphere established between the teacher and the adult students by
such personal and encouraging comments.
There are specific strategies that tailor a class to meet the needs of adults
with learning difficulties. For instance, making eye contact is important because it
encourages students to remain on task. Call on students who know something about
the topic being discussed. Call on different students to respond when the subject
changes and other areas of expertise are required. Use the students knowledge
base to add to the information presented and build their self-confidence at the same
time. Designate students to serve as experts in their areas of competence, thereby
communicating to them a sense of class ownership. Today certain students act as
the subject experts; tomorrow student experts change. It is important to build on
students strengths rather than always focus on weaknesses. Adults already know
what they cannot do; instructors need to encourage them in what they can do.
Lessons should relate to practical applications. It is relatively simple to do
this in reading and writing lessons because we use these skills in some form every
day. Reading materials are dictated by students instructional reading levels. Select

29
a topic, perhaps one derived from student interviews, and provide reading materials
across the spectrum of abilities. Instructors teach on students reading levels,
insuring they can read about the given topic and have information to contribute to
follow-up discussions. Everyone in class does not have to read the same material.
Due to the variety of materials used in the classroom, the class discussion is richer
and includes everyone in the class. This method of planning instruction meets
individual needs while, at the same time, develops a sense of community among the
adult learners.
Selecting objectives that meet learners needs for skill development at
various levels contributes to class interaction. Instructors select topics from
students interview information or pretest analysis. They find appropriate material
on the objective to meet the learning needs in the class and then teach the objective
to everyone at the same time. For some it may be review; for others it may be new
information. After the introduction of the material, every student practices at his or
her appropriate level and pace. Some students extend their skill to a higher level
while others practice a new concept. For example, in a lesson that teaches how to
read and use information from graphs and charts, the instructor may use
demonstrations and maps for some students and incorporate the use of charts and
graphs for others. Some students may require the use of colored transparencies to
discriminate print from background and aid in processing information
(www.irlen.com). Using the transparencies helps some students and makes no
difference to others, so they become a part of the presentation package. Later in the
class seminar on reading and using information from graphs and charts, everyone
participates in the discussion. Applying this means of individualized instruction
within the large group works effectively for adults with learning difficulties.
Everyone enjoys success when instructors vary teaching strategies and learning
materials, question at all thinking levels, and honor student contributions.
Teaching by topic to the whole group while varying the reading level of the
materials serves another purpose. It makes the class student-centered. Students
take ownership of their learning and their class. The instructor monitors the class

30
by teaching and re-teaching to individual needs. Since teaching is an effective means
of learning, the instructor need not be the only person in the class teaching. Adults
should be encouraged to help each other. Talking through information with
classmates reinforces learning.
Just as it is beneficial for students to talk about what they are learning, it is
likewise beneficial for instructors to work together, sharing ideas and opinions on
the best methods to meet the needs of adults with learning difficulties. Discussing
teaching experiences with other professionals generates reflection about the
learning process. Teaching adults with learning difficulties requires that instructors
be continuously conscious of what they are doing and how it affects students.

Compensation
The classroom that has students with learning difficulties, and most classrooms do,
requires hands-on student involvement for learning to be internalized. Some ideas for
adapting instruction to these students learning needs are:
1. teach the students techniques such as word processing and recording
2. use computer-assisted instruction
3. develop aids students can carry with them (such as a list of number words they
will need to write checks)
4. encourage students to obtain or provide note-takers, readers, tutors, and
recorded texts

Organization
Organization with the adults needs in mind will make a tremendous difference in
the ability to learn. An instructor plans special techniques that will be especially helpful to
the adult with learning difficulties but will also benefit other students as well. Make the
following organization adaptations an integral part of planning.

1. Help students identify organizational patterns

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 2. Make clear transitions from one topic or task to another

3. Use color coding whenever possible

4. Break lessons into manageable parts

5. Help students set realistic goals

6. Make directions specific, concrete, and understandable

7. Change schedules, assignments, and/or examinations both orally and in writing

8. As a check for accuracy, ask the student to repeat verbally what has been taught

Keys to Successful Learning

What helps an adult with learning difficulties learn more successfully?
There are several keys to success. (The following is adapted from: Two Frameworks for
Learning Difficulties-Appropriate Instruction. 1999. From Bridges to Practice: A Research-
based Guide for Literacy Practitioners Serving Adults with Learning Disabilities.)

# 1: An environment that promotes adult learner independence. The most effective

teaching moves learners to more and more independence. As adults with learning
difficulties understand how they learn, they become more in charge of their learning and
their lives.

# 2: A teaching / learning team. Instructors need to understand the learning options

from which a learner may choose and involve the learner in making choices at all stages of
learning. When teaching adults with learning difficulties, teachers need to know how to
plan and structure instruction for learner success. This involves instructor 'know-how' and

32
an attitude of a mentor who works collaboratively with the learner.

# 3: Learning Difficulties Appropriate Instruction

What are effective methods of teaching and learning for adults with learning difficulties?

Characteristics of Effective Instruction for Adults with Learning Difficulties:

Direct - Instructor tells and shows; learner practices.
Intensive - Instructor asks many questions; learners respond frequently.
Structured and Systematic - Instructor and learner proceed step by step.

Instructional Frameworks
Explicit instruction is an effective model. Instruction will take into account the ways
in which a learner processes information: how she focuses on something to be learned,
takes it in, perceives it and remembers it.

Putting Learning Difficulties Instruction into Practice: To meet the challenge of

effectively teaching adults with learning difficulties, teachers need to develop teaching
behaviors that focus on how adults learn and approach tasks.

# 4: Instructional Adaptations, Accommodations, & Technology

Adaptations are changes that make learning more manageable for anyone, whether or not
they have a diagnosis of learning difficulties. Some examples are:
Changes in the pace of learning

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 Changes in the amount of material presented at one time
Changes in the environment (e.g. a quieter space)

Accommodations are legally required adaptations that ensure adults with (diagnosed)
learning difficulties an equal chance for success in learning. Some examples are:
Extended time for completing a task or test
Change in the environment (e.g. frequent breaks), quieter space
Getting information in both print and audio
Using a computer for writing tasks
Recording notes instead of writing them down
Technology can assist in many different ways and with many different tasks. The use
of technology can be as simple as recording a lecture or as complex as using a computer
program for reading or writing.

Appropriate Instructional Frameworks for Students with Learning

Disabilities

Explicit Instruction Information Processing

Assists us in teaching skills and procedures:
By offering a four phase structure for
teaching: provide objectives,
establish expectations, and introduce
the skill; introduce and model the
skill; guided practice with feedback;
and independent practice with
generalization
That can be used with both basic and
more advanced skills
Directs us in how to help the learner:
Develop higher-order thinking skills
so that he or she can remember
information
Develop strategies to attack
intellectual tasks
Remember information through use
of graphics and images
Use stories and episodes from his or
her life to attach meaning to

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 experiences.

Explicit Instruction
The explicit instruction model is fundamental to teaching basic skills. It can be used
to teach basic skills such as decoding three-letter words and more advanced skills like essay
writing. The explicit instruction model of teaching fits both cognitive and behavioral
learning principles. There is much research supporting the use of explicit instruction to
effectively teach individuals with skill deficits.
Four essential phases or steps comprise the explicit instruction model; a teaching
technique characterized by teacher control of an explicit step by step presentation of the
skill or information. The instructor then models and provides time for guided practice
while monitoring progress with extensive, elaborated feedback to the learner. Once a skill is
mastered in the classroom, the adult learner takes responsibility for using and adapting the
skills learned to meet real-life demands.
To effectively conduct explicit instruction the teacher must devote time to planning
learning tasks that tie directly to clear objectives appropriate for the adult learner. Of
course conducting a task or content analysis of the skill or information precedes the
matching of objective to skill development. Teachers need to precisely diagnose the specific
skill or information needed to prescribe the particular instruction and tasks to help the
adult with learning differences perform to the desired level.

The four phases of explicit instruction are as follows:

Phase 1: Provide Objectives, Establish Expectations, and Introduce the Skill

Begin by explaining the lessons purpose to the learner in terms of expected
understandings and skill development. The learner then knows the expectations and the
lessons rationale, knowledge which prepares the adult for learning. Helping students
understand the lesson rationales, providing an overview of the lesson, and helping them to
connect what they will learn with what they already know sets the stage for presenting new
information. This stage takes very little time, but it is particularly important for motivating
students.

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Phase 2: Introduce and Model the Skill
Present the skill by demonstrating/modeling each step. All information should be
presented by using as many of the senses as possible. For instance, the teacher should
present the information both visually and verbally. Tell the student to observe behaviors as
well as listen to the words. Instruct him to pay close attention to your self-talk or think
alouds, which verbally demonstrate what is going on in the mind as the skill is performed.

Phase 3: Guided Practice with Feedback

Provide a series of experiences to allow the learner to try out the skill while you
carefully monitor performance. The initial practice should allow the learner to actively
practice the skill with the support and feedback needed to perform the skill correctly. For
example, if a student is learning how to paraphrase, then guided practice can begin with the
learner reading a short paragraph and putting it into his or her own words, rather than
starting with longer reading passages such as a page or a chapter. By starting small, you can
more easily monitor this phase, and the learner does not get too frustrated.
Some would argue that giving feedback is the most important task instruction. Without
clear and explicit feedback, a student can practice incorrectly or never be able to
distinguish a skilled from an unskilled performance. Feedback should be immediate and
specific. Learners benefit from praise that is clearly targeted at what was done well and
from corrective feedback followed by another chance to do the skill correctly. Maintain this
phase until the learner is able to demonstrate that he or she can perform the task correctly
with little help from you.

Phase 4: Independent Practice and Generalization

Independent practice takes the form of the learner completing tasks without
instructor assistance and can easily be accomplished through homework. Identifying
specific situations outside of the instructional sessions where the skill can be applied in real

36
life encourages generalization. However, the ability to identify such situations does not
come naturally for some individuals. You can promote generalization by planning with the
learner when the skill can be used and then by having the learner keep track of skill use
outside of the session.
You can use the explicit instruction model to help students learn basic skills and knowledge.
This model of instruction comes from systems analysis, cognitive psychology, and teacher-
effectiveness research, and is supported by an extensive research base on its effectiveness
for individuals with learning disabilities.

Information Processing
Whereas the explicit instruction model assists us in learning skills and procedures,
the information-processing model directs us in how to help the learner develop higher-
order thinking skills so that he or she can remember information, develop strategies to
attack intellectual tasks, remember information through use of graphics and images, and
use stories and episodes from his or her life to attach meaning to experiences. Information-
processing theory arises from work in cognitive psychology. This theory offers a useful
framework that represents the multi-faceted processes involved in learning information
and higher-order thinking skills. Information-processing theory is particularly useful when
working with individuals with learning disabilities because it helps practitioners think
about how information can most clearly and explicitly be presented so that the learner is
actively and appropriately involved in the learning process.
Examining the basic processes that govern learning can help literacy providers
think about the problems individuals with learning disabilities can have when they try to
learn new information. For learning to occur, the material must be input through one or
more of our senses, attended to, perceived, and remembered.

Input
According to information-processing theory, experiences are first received as input
through one or more of the senses. Typically, reading instruction can be presented using

37
visual, auditory, tactual, or kinesthetic input. For most individuals, and especially the
individuals with learning disabilities, the more modalities that are used, the better the
chance that the input will be remembered. Thus, many programs for individuals with
learning disabilities encourage the use of multiple input channels.

Attention
Once information is presented to one or more of the senses, attention comes into
play. Attention is the learners ability to focus on the information at hand. In most
situations, the learner can only pay attention to selected information. Sometimes the
learner pays attention to information that does not help him or her learn. For example,
during a lesson on the short a sound, the learner may pay attention to the teachers red
shirt or the rainy weather outside the window rather than the content of the lesson. In
other situations the learner may pay attention to the information presented, but not to the
critical attributes of the lesson. For example, an instructor may present words that begin
with the letter b, such as band, banjo, or bong, and the learner may pay attention to the
meaning of the words rather than the sound of the first letter. It is critical to identify clearly
what the learner should specifically pay attention to and to check throughout the lesson
that his or her attention is focused on the critical attributes of what is being taught.

Perception
Once input information has been attended to, how the information is perceived can
be a challenge. Based on a persons specific learning disability, that individual may have
difficulty correctly interpreting information from one or more of the sensory input
channels. For example, a person with an auditory processing disability may misperceive
what is said to him or her. The statement she was very bad could be misperceived as she
was very mad. An individual with a visual perceptual disability may read slowly due to
difficulty perceiving the difference between b and d. This disability makes recognizing
those letters challenging.

Working Memory

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 Once information is perceived, it enters working memory (also known as short term
memory) where the information is briefly stored. Working memory has a limited capacity
and functions most effectively when the perceived information is immediately acted upon.
For example, Marketa asks for an unfamiliar telephone number in order to make a phone
call. Once Marketa recognizes the number, the information enters working memory; this
allows Marketa to briefly store the information at hand. In order for Marketa to remember
this unfamiliar series of numbers, she must perform some sort of mental work to keep the
information active. In this case she might keep repeating the numbers as she dials. Working
memory can easily become overloaded when too much information is presented and
attended to. If a learner does not perform some sort of mental work, like self questioning,
thinking about how the new information fits with what he or she already knows, or looking
for patterns in new information, the information that enters working memory is lost.

Long Term Memory

Information in short-term memory can be quickly forgotten unless it is transferred
to long-term memory. Long-term memory has been compared to a computer because it
encodes and stores information. Long-term memory stores four types of information:
verbal knowledge, intellectual skills (i.e. knowing how to perform a complex task like
paraphrasing), visual images, and episodes. This type of memory storage can be compared
to four types of instruction: teaching information, teaching strategies (how to acquire and
remember information), teaching through visual images, and teaching through use of
memorable experiences, stories and narratives.
Long-term memory is conceived as an intricate network of connected information
and memories which help individuals make sense of their world. Information-processing
theory tells us that connecting new information with a persons prior knowledge helps new
learning find a place in long-term memory. Highly successful learners actively and
appropriately engage in new learning and automatically take new information and connect
it with what they already know, naturally building on their long-term memory knowledge
networks. Many individuals with learning disabilities do not automatically do this and thus
need help connecting new information and experiences with what they already know. Use

39
of mnemonics, concept maps, visual images, and graphic displays can be important tools for
enabling individuals with learning disabilities to remember what is being taught. These
devices help the learner see how information is organized and can aid long-term memory.
A learning disability can interfere with any of the stages of information processing.
Understanding the learners unique set of information processing strengths and needs can
guide you in structuring instruction to build on those strengths, as well as help the learner
compensate for his or her areas of need.

Principles of Effective Practice

Facilitating effective practice requires an understanding of how adult learning
differs from that of children. Brookfield (1986) lists principles of effective practice with
adult learners as paraphrased here:

Participation is voluntary. Adults vote with their feet. They walk away from experiences
that are uncomfortable. Intimidation or coercion may cause students to choose not to
participate and then decide not to show up for class.
Effective practice is characterized by respect between instructors and students.
Everyone shares responsibility for setting and evaluating objectives.
Group collaboration and individual reflection continually impact outcomes.
Questioning dominates the learning process.
Instructors facilitate adults to become self-directed learners.

These principles guide the components of a quality program for adults with learning
difficulties. However, other components must be present according to Wrigley (1993). For
instance, basic skills must specifically be taught and the adults must recognize success
while mastering them. Social skills should be addressed and practiced through
opportunities provided as a part of the instructional program. Process takes precedence
over factual learning for todays adults who need to be able to use information, make
decisions, and work toward outcomes. Meeting personal goals gives relevance to learning

40
and provides motivation. The diversity within society demands that the cultural, societal
and political issues be an integral part of program design. And last, but certainly not least,
technology plays a major role in the educational expectations of all adults, especially those
with learning difficulties. These learners recognize that future success depends on the
knowledge and application of technology skills both in their personal and work lives. An
effective program that meets the numerous needs of the adult with learning difficulties is
complex and must be planned using professional knowledge and skill, thus guiding adult
students toward accepting responsibility for learning success.
Multi-sensory, structured approaches provide the greatest success for adults with
learning difficulties, such as using as many of the senses as possible to teach a skill. For
instance, the VAKT method uses the visual (V), auditory (A), kinesthetic (K), and tactile (T)
senses to process information. Seeing a word, hearing it spoken, pronouncing it, and
writing it engages multiple pathways to learning.
Progressing from the simple to the more complex involves presenting concepts
systematically. Adults are taught how letters represent sounds, sounds combine to form
words, and words spoken or written in a series make sense and form a sentence. Explicit
instruction is necessary for most adults who have learning difficulties. Never take for
granted that lessons transfer. Continual informal assessments feed the instructional
process. Instructors constantly observe learners and make adjustments to the lessons
based on student feedback. No lesson is learned until it is internalized. Only authentic
practice leads to transfer at an acceptable level of automatic application. Moving between
whole to part and part to whole teaches adults how the language of letters and numbers
work to form the system.

Integration
The Constructive Theory of learning emphasizes the need for learning to be
integrated if knowledge is to transfer as needed. The very definition of integration is to
form into a whole (www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary). Instructors desire students to
internalize knowledge and skills for an automatic application. Consequently, integration in
every sense of the word should be a part of the education of adults with learning

41
difficulties. Content should be integrated; skills development should be integrated; people
should be integrated in the learning environment. Classroom integration with a variety of
learning styles, ages, and goals gives students access to a wide distribution of personalities.
A hidden curriculum permeates every class; make it work positively for all students by
planning and integrating the social skills they are to learn. Integrate adults with learning
difficulties with other students to complete projects. Varying grouping strategies
encourages students to meet each other. Provide opportunities to develop new friendships
as well as working partnerships.
Specific lesson suggestions for adults with learning difficulties are found on page 77.

How have you involved adults with

learning differences as partners in
the planning and learning process?

Accommodations
Multi-level classrooms can be accommodated through group work. Group
membership should be based on the lesson objective, task, and learning styles. It should be
flexible, creating a classroom where students can choose working groups. Tasks for group
members may need to be assigned to teach and ensure effective group participation. White
and Polson (1999) conducted an intensive study of accommodations for adults with
learning difficulties and their perceived effectiveness. Below are the accommodations that
were rated effective or better. They are ranked in order of effectiveness, with the first
being the most effective.

Accommodations for adults who are overly active and have difficulty sitting and working
quietly:

Avoid lengthy periods of desk work

Provide a carrel or a quiet corner
Organize work area so it is free from distractions
Use timer

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Accommodations for adults who are very distractible, daydream, or cease activity before
completion and have trouble staying on task:

Provide checklists for completed assignment and those waiting for attention
Use carrel
Use card with a window cut into the frame while reading
Provide specified time frame for task completion

Accommodations for adults who have difficulty paying attention to oral directions or the
spoken word:

Provide visual cues on whiteboard or PowerPoint

Have learner repeat directions orally, or use a written clue
Provide study buddy
Provide written copy to oral directions and lectures
Provide tape recorder

Accommodations for adults who have difficulty getting started, often delaying and
procrastinating:

Break work into smaller amounts

Assign peer coaches
Help learner develop a checklist for each step of a task
Help learner set time goals for each task

Accommodations for adults who have difficulty using the computer:

Table height adjustment

Larger display
Screen to cut glare
Computer in study carrel
Use mouse, not keyboard
Speech recognition software
Soft ware for sequential, not simultaneous, key strokes
Head pointer

Accommodations for adults who have difficulty hearing:

Visual clues
Interpreter
Placement in room
Organizational aids (i.e., cue cards)
Tactile clues
Speech amplification device
Compressed speech

43
Accommodations for adults who have difficulty expressing themselves verbally:

Give extra response time

Computer synthesized speech
Sign language
Accept alternative forms of information sharing (demonstrations, taped instead of
oral report)
Communication board
Respond in a written format

Accommodations for adults who have difficulty reading class material and/or books:

Allow extra time

Provide shorter assignments
Record the material and allow reading along
Use large print
Allow another learner to read material to learner before the learner is required to
read
Rewrite the students text

Accommodations for adults who have difficulty spelling:

Allow use of an electronic spell checker

Provide a dictionary

Accommodations for adults who have difficulty expressing themselves in writing:

Give extra time for written assignments and shorten the amount required if possible
Accept alternative forms of reporting (i.e., oral report, recorded report, debates)
Allow student to dictate work to someone else
Have the learner prepare an outline, brief notes, or short phrases to show
knowledge

Accommodations for adults who have difficulty solving math problems:

Increased time
Smaller tasks
Computer software
Manipulatives
Calculator
Graph paper
Abacus

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Accommodations for adults who have difficulty taking tests:

Reader
Scribe/recorder
Increased time
Separate testing area
Large print
Recorded presentation of items
Shortened test periods
Spell checker
Use of record booklet vs. answer sheet
Computer administration
Braille
Accommodations for adults who have difficulty writing legibly:

Allow learner to type or use word processing

Have learner dictate to someone else
Extended time for completion
Avoid setting time limits
Shortened work intervals
Allow student to copy from nearer point instead of copying from board
Adapted work surface
Use manuscript paper or lined paper
Use paper to help space letters
Use wide line paper
Use adapted pen or pencil for better grip
Use oversized pencil
Use textured paper (raised lines)
Use universal cuff

Making accommodations for adults with learning difficulties is usually relatively

easy. Most effective accommodations are actually quite simple and inexpensive. In some
cases, some more high-tech accommodations are warranted. (See the chapters on Assistive
Technology and Resources.)

Learn From Experience

Learning is fun when the learner understands the purpose. Learning in real-life
situations helps the adult with learning difficulties see the purpose. Real-life situations
focus on family, work, leisure, relationships, sports, hobbies, or other topics of interest. The

45
adult learners will be motivated to learn with others for a particular purpose with clear
goals and outcomes in a familiar situation that integrates knowledge.
Learning from experience requires that adults with learning difficulties develop
habits of reflection. Upon completion of a task, it should be mentally debriefed by
considering what happened, what went as expected, what needed to be changed, and how
to make necessary adjustments. Learning from experience is a metacognitive skill that
helps the learner see relationships between what is known, what is not known, and what
can be done to build knowledge. Based on this information, instructors must provide real-
life experiences, and then to minimize failure and maximize learning by building in
reflection time.
One experience that should be integrated into each class is the application of
technology. Computer features such as spell and grammar checkers can be used by adults to
improve writing. Electronic calendars and to do lists can help adults with learning
difficulties keep track of their accomplishments. Voice recognition software opens the
world of computers to some adults with learning difficulties. Small daily accomplishments
serve as motivation.
Learning to be a part of a family may involve the students family members. No one
is good at everything, and that includes living in a family. Adults with learning difficulties
often are expected to live in family situations without any special training. The skills
required as a part of a family need to be taught just as other skills. Skills include taking
responsibilities for keeping the house in order, cooking meals, and doing the wash.
Domestic training can be integrated into the classroom by adhering to rules about
maintaining an organized workspace, fulfilling assigned tasks, and working together on
group projects. Use the classroom to foster the concept of family and the responsibilities
that make that relationship successful.
Learning for work can be integrated into lessons. Visiting places of employment to
talk with employers about the skills necessary for the job will help instructors integrate
school and the workplace. Teach work ethics such as reporting to work on time,
concentrating on the task, getting along with others, using proper language and taking
pride in a job well done.

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 Learning planned around leisure is applicable to adult learners with learning
difficulties. Find out what they like to do in their free time or as a hobby. Allow them to
share their talents with the class. Group students with common interests to study together
or prepare a class presentation about their interests. Plan Learning Experience Approach
reading activities around these interests. Use words that are already a part of their
vocabulary to teach word analysis skills. Use the students explanations of how to do their
hobbies as material to teach sequencing or following directions. If instructors tie into
interests, the learning takes on special meaning.
Building relationships is often an area of need for adults with learning difficulties.
The class is the perfect environment for students to learn social skills that will make them
more comfortable around people. The classroom is a safe environment. Opportunities for
making new friends abound. The adult students can bring to class invitations to weddings,
graduations, parties, and other gatherings. Lessons built around these social events will
integrate social skills with academic skills. The class can also use skills to plan celebrations
for achievements, birthday parties, or cultural events, and special times for practicing
relationship skills. Involve students in planning the event with tasks such as deciding on the
theme, writing invitations, planning and preparing the menu, and deciding what
entertainment to have. Classes could integrate the skills needed to make guests feel
welcome. These skills include knowing how and when to shake hands or give hugs, take
wraps, offer refreshments, and talk to friends as well as strangers. Many adults with
learning difficulties have limited experiences developing social skills. The classroom is a
prefect setting to learn and practice them.
Introducing adults with learning difficulties to a variety of activities to develop their
interests in sports, hobbies, dancing, or any other self-development activity can expand the
world of learning. Invite guests from the community to hold mini-classes that involve all
interested students, not only those with learning difficulties. Combine the interests; for
instance music might be combined with dance, decorating with flower arranging, or
photography with computer use.
The most practical and versatile education is derived from experience. Valuable
resources reside in the community; use them. Working on projects of interest to the students
motivates learning; therefore integrate hobbies and other leisure time activities as the basis of
47
learning a variety of skills. Plan lessons for personal development. Plan some lessons on themes
around subjects just because they are fun.
Challenge
How can lessons be developed to give
greater opportunity for empowerment,
choice, decision-making, and involvement
in the planning process?
Teaching Models
Both bottom-up, explicit instruction, and top-down, strategy instruction, are
necessary in the adult classroom. Both are taught through instructor modeling, self-talk,
and providing multiple practice sessions in a variety of situations. In Models of Teaching,
Joyce, et al. (2000) draws comparisons between different educational teaching models and
student learning. While all instructors develop their own teaching style, methods, and
models, the examples provided by the authors furnish educators with an assortment of
possibilities to assist and substantially benefit the teaching/learning process.
Lesson plans may contain one or more strategies. Several ways of teaching may be
necessary since students learn differently in their own style. The following teaching
strategies may be helpful:
Demonstrationshow a skill then require students to copy you
Promptprovide clues as to the sequence. Prompts may be physical, gestural, or
verbal.
Discoverybegin with the last step, the finished product, and work backwards.
Chaininggo through steps one-by-one
Authentic learninguse actual experiences to accommodate transfer of learning
Discussiontalk, listen, reflect
Role playsimulate skill use in the safe environment of the classroom
Use a variety of materialsequipment may be different at home or on the job so
teach for transfer
Show visual mediaengage as many of the senses as possible

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 Joyce and colleagues categorize teaching models into several distinct families. The
families that most benefit students with learning difficulties are the social family of
teaching and learning, the personal family, and the behavioral systems family.
The social family of teaching and learning model emphasizes teamwork to create
learning communities. Examples of teaching/learning models in the social family include
the following:
1. Partners-in-Learning This model emphasizes cooperative learning. Through
cooperation and community learning, whether in large or small groups, the goal is to
help students educate themselves (Joyce, et. al. p.15). This model can be integrated
into the Adult Basic Skills curriculum, especially for adults with learning difficulties.
Often, however, this model does not match the adults understanding of school or
learning, in which case instructors must reshape the students paradigm.

2. Group InvestigationThe main focus of this model is on group work that stimulates
cooperative learning and delves into important social and academic problems
(Joyce, et. al. p. 16). Through defining problems, asking questions, and collectively
analyzing their various perspectives, students not only increase their knowledge of
the subject matter but also develop their social competence (Joyce, et. al. p. 16).
Group investigation strengthens critical problem-solving skills, builds knowledge
bases, and increases social skills.

3. Role PlayingEssentially, this model allows students to walk a mile in someone

elses moccasins. By taking the role of another, students face various points of view,
expand their understanding of social issues (understand the concept that everything
is not black or white), and better comprehend their own societal roles. At first adults
with learning difficulties may exhibit discomfort with role-playing, however a
discussion prior to the activity may clarify roles and expectations.

For some adult learners modeling is valuable. The instructor progresses through
each step or a procedure describing the thinking and questioning process as the task

49
continues. Often the instructor and student develop a mnemonic to cue the memory. For
instance Schumaker, Denton and Deshler (1984) recommend the mnemonic RAP for
understanding paragraphs. R stands for reading; A stands for asking oneself the main ideas
and supporting details in the paragraph; and P stands for putting the information in ones
own words.
The personal family is another set of teaching/learning models depicted by Joyce, et
al. Examples of personal family teaching/learning models that may assist students with
learning difficulties include the following:

Nondirective TeachingThis model is characterized by a partnership between

students and instructors. This method empowers students in their own learning
process. Through nondirective teaching, instructors help adult students with
problem solving, while at the same time providing progress reports. With instructor
help, the emphasis is on students developing questions primarily through their own
efforts
Enhancing Self-EsteemIn this model instructors assist students with learning
through building self-image. Most instructors know through personal experiences
that building students self-concept by providing meaningful classroom experiences
enhances learning.

The last teaching/learning family category specified by Joyce, et al., are models in
behavioral systems. Other names for the behavior systems family include the social learning
theory, behavior modifications, cybernetics, and behavioral therapy. The focus here is on
students abilities to correct or modify behavior in various environments, thus improving
learning. The models closely associated with the behavioral systems family are as follows:

Mastery Learning and Programmed InstructionAs instructors provide information

from the simple to the complex, students progress from novice to master of the
material. Material mastery is traditionally assessed through testing, but today it may
be assessed through authentic applications such as portfolios and demonstrations.

50
 When mastery of the material is incomplete, students repeat the steps using
different strategies until mastery is reached. Strategies that fail the first time will not
succeed with repetition. Students with learning difficulties must be taught as they
learn best.
Explicit InstructionInstructors clearly communicate requirements for a course,
provide supervision, and construct learning through direct feedback. Explicit
instruction follows the I do, we do, and you do model, gradually releasing
responsibility to the learner. Many adult learners with difficulties are comfortable
with this model.

Learning from Simulations: Training and Self-TrainingSimulations that focus on

real-life situations provide students with demonstrations, practice, feedback, and
coaching until the (desired) skill is mastered (p. 24). On-the-job training is an
example of this model.

Adults with learning difficulties benefit from instructors applying the different models of
teaching/learning portrayed by Joyce, et al. Because everyone learns differently, providing
alternative instructional methods benefits the learning process especially for adults in ABE
programs. Combining the different teaching/learning models, as the authors state, is
extremely important to the personal, social, and academic learning of adult students.

Strategies for the Classroom

How should Adult Basic Education (ABE) instructors begin to design a program for
adults who have learning difficulties? What should be done to ensure learning? How should
instructors align strategies with adult characteristics? First, instructors design programs
around individual student needs that can be determined through an interview and/or
formal and informal testing. For example, when they enroll in ABE programs, interviews
often reveal why students decide to continue their education. Commonly, they disclose that
they initially dropped out of school because they felt slower than everyone else, were put in
special classes, and/or felt inferior to other students. As the analysis of ABE students

51
continues, instructors may discover that students decide to return to school to improve job
skills. Seeking a better job resulting an increased pay necessary for supporting a family is
certainly one reason adult students with learning difficulties may enroll in ABE courses.
Improving reading, writing, and math skills may dominate a students mind as a necessity
for getting a better job. While developing these skills definitely helps when applying for
new jobs, students often overlook the need to develop their communication skills as well.
Although conversations with a teacher one-on-one may not be an obstacle, communicating
effectively in a job interview may be. Through the interview, instructors gain a clearer idea
of the type of program needed for the learner.
Instructions begin designing a program from goals set by the adult students. The
students are asked questions such as, Why do you want to come back to school? Students
may answer by saying, So I can get a job that pays more. Instructors would follow up with
another question, To be able to get a better paying job, what do you think you need to
know? Notice that the instructors direct the conversation using the students information
rather than projecting pre-set goals. Students might respond, I need to read and write and
do math better. At this point instructors could build upon their thoughts by replying, Yes,
and improving conversational skills may also be helpful. This is informal dialog that results
in establishing the students goals, which should be written for later reference.
After establishing long and short-term goals, ABE instructors assist the students in
determining how to achieve their goals. First, students with instructors develop action
plans. During the goal-setting process, the instructor listens between the words, discusses
ideas, and observes body language to discover the learners interests and learning styles.
Regardless of content, adults can achieve their personal goals given the opportunity to
learn as they learn best. Instructors should respect students unique characteristics and
encourage risk-taking. They should involve students in the planning process, including
evaluation. When conversing with students who have learning difficulties, it is imperative
that instructors model positive attitudes. They believe in the value of Adult Basic Education
for all adults, even those who may have had a difficult time learning in the past. Positive
attitudes have a powerful impact on students willingness and desire to learn.

52
 The instructor continues the interview and gives the adult ownership of the
experience by asking, How will you meet these goals? What might be an effective way to
learn to read, write and speak so you can get a better job? The instructor then suggests
they look at a variety of creative and different ways to learn the skills necessary to meet the
established goals. The plan is written as a concrete guide and reference.
To guide the goal-setting procedure, instructors might investigate students hobbies
and uses of free time. Often students say they do not have any hobbies, but in the
conversation they talk about special projects they enjoy, such as working on cars. They
often do not see these interests as hobbies or reflections of their talents. Likewise, they may
not recognize the skills they actually have and apply daily. Instructors question to help
students see the possibilities. For instance, they might ask, How did you learn to paint
cars? Questioning helps students understand that they have already developed many skills
and can tap into their existing knowledge to expand learning. As students talk about
watching others and seeking help, instructors reinforce the understandings of learning
from others while valuing ones unique characteristics. We all do things differently, and that
is fine. Students are encouraged to tap into their unique characteristics and take risks when
setting their goals.
Following a positive discussion about students learning processes, instructors turn
the conversation to how students might validate goal accomplishment. Note how the
questioning technique elicits from students the information needed to realize their
potential and goals. At the same time, instructors communicate confidence in the students
and begin building self-esteem. Questions may need to be reworded, redirected, or put in
context. Instructors may provide links with previous conversations as a means of guiding
the students thinking processes by asking. What could be done to prove that your goals
have been met? Lets go back to what you said you wanted to be able to do. Notice that the
statements refer back to you several times denoting students as the center of the plan.
As students generate ideas on what might serve as goal documentation, instructors
reinforce their comments, direct clarification, provide guidance, and recognize the
application of learning to daily living at home, in the workplace, and in everyday life. This
recognition indicates that knowledge is internalized.

53
 The process may seem so simple, and with much practice it is. However, the
following points must be reiterated:

Talk with adult students who have learning difficulties requires a positive attitude if
instructors are to make a lasting difference.
Believe in the possiblilites of Adult Basic Education, even for adults who have had a
difficult time learning in the past.
Demonstrate a belief that given the opportunity adults can learn anything in their
own way.

After students participate in goal setting, instructors use the information to decide
what and how to teach the adult with learning difficulties.
For years the educational community has touted the diagnostic/prescriptive model
for identifying and teaching deficits. For adults with learning difficulties, this model has
flaws. Taking information out of context makes it difficult to learn because there are no
connections to prior knowledge. Using authentic situations allows students to learn as they
live.
Research confirms that when teaching is not interesting and relevant to the students
it will not be retained. Here are some techniques to keep in mind while teaching:

Chunking- Divide information into digestible pieces

Cues- Verbal or physical prompts given to aid recall
Pacing- Proceeding at the speed appropriate for the learner, neither too fast nor too
slow
Language- Keep it simple
Reinforcement- Practice the skill in a variety of contexts with specific feedback
Repetition- Practice of a skill to internalize its use
Rewards- Achievement builds success to become its own reward. Set students up for
success
Task Analysis- Breaking tasks into their component parts

54
Classroom Instruction
Planning lessons that foster learning is crucial! But the next important step in
instructing students with learning difficulties is actually implementing the lesson plans. Of
course, instructors arrive at class before students to get ready and be there to welcome
them. Set a comfortable temperature and arrange the furniture for maximum effectiveness.
Check equipment and set videos to begin at the correct place. Make teaching materials
instantly accessible. Be sure the lesson is well planned, near at hand, and appropriate for
each adult student. Last, be flexible. Instructors never know what situations may impact the
class.
As the instructor teaches and interacts with students in the classroom setting,
he/she should strive to accomplish the following:

Build on the students strengths rather than their weaknesses. Students already
know what they cannot do, encourage them by focusing on what they can do.
Make eye contact with the students. Eye contact encourages students to remain on
task.
Relate objectives to practical everyday applications.
Use information and personal goals gathered
Adjust reading levels of materials to the instructional reading levels of the students.
While the learning objective may be the same for all students, locate appropriate
materials on the reading levels that allow students to learn at their pace.
Use large print on handouts, charts, and the board.
Build on the adult students existing knowledge.
Probe incorrect or incomplete responses until students discover the correct
answer, if there is one. This helps students learn to correct their own mistakes.
Vary teaching strategies, re-teach and review in a variety of ways.
Use multi-sensory strategies to present materials (see, say, hear, and touch). Use
student interviews as relevant examples.
Use many learning tools (show calculators, highlighters, films, demonstrations,

55
 maps computers, etc.)
Use color in transparencies, pictures, graphs, and tables.
Be student centered by encouraging adults to talk, question, and share their
thoughts.
Share ideas and/or opinions with other instructors to expand the teaching
repertoire.
Give and seek suggestions on how students might reinforce learning outside the
class.

Teaching Materials
Teaching materials should be selected on the basis of their adult appropriateness.
They should vary in level and content. They must reflect the adult status of the students and
be relevant to their lives. Clear language and illustrations are essential. These teaching
materials are abundant in everyday life. They are inexpensive and only limited to the
instructors imagination. They should be authentic, real life. They must be relevant to
learner, having meaning within their world. They must be for adults and be age
appropriate. They must be clean and attractive. Writing and sound items need to be clear
and unambiguous. Often, however, instructors adapt and simplify learning materials to
meet student needs and serve more than one purpose.
Authentic and class-made materials tend to be the most appropriate. Commercial
materials have limited use. Since the skills to be learned are those used every day, the materials
to learn those skills should come from every day life. If materials need to be made, make them in
class. Use the activity as a learning activity. Dont do anything for the adults that they can do for
themselves and learn in the process. Students may also enjoy using their own equipment, books,
or other resources. Utilize community resources and facilities to accommodate authentic learning
rather than take time and money to provide an artificial situation that will be less effective
anyway. Libraries, banks, grocery stores and health centers are examples. Collect and learn to
read transportation schedules and plan an outing. Pick up menus before going out for a meal
together. Reading and math are skills that can be directly applied to an enjoyable dinner. Order

56
catalogs and subscribe to newspapers. Unlimited availability of materials awaits the Adult Basic
Education classroom.
Make a list of community resources
and the authentic learning materials
each can provide.

Purchased materials may need to be adapted to be of greatest value to the student.

For students who have difficulty reading and writing, visuals such as pictures, video, and
photographs can be used. To overcome difficulties with number concepts, use well-labeled
measuring utensils, digital scales with large readouts, and talking clocks. A list of materials
and equipment that should be a part of every classroom for adults with learning difficulties
includes the following: (Sutcliff; p. 110)

Print Materials
o Books
o Leaflets
o Flashcards
o Worksheets
o Brochures
o Magazines
o Newspapers
o Labels from food and medicines
o Puzzles and searches
o Learning kits for specific units
o Materials from other classes the students are taking
o Materials of personal interest to the students
Visual Materials
o Pictures
o Computer graphics

57
 o Photographs
Audio-visual materials
o Videos
o TV programs
Auditory materials
o Audio recorders
o Pre-recorded audio
o CDs
Authentic materials
o Real money
o Real clocks, watches
Equipment
o Basic items like paper, folders, cards
o Pencils, pens, paint
o Calculators
o Computers and relevant software
o Photocopier
o Cameras
o TV and DVD player

Often instructors make materials to meet specific learning needs. There are certain
considerations to keep in mind. Use a clear layout with much white space. Use simple
language. Make illustrations relevant to the topic. Use a 12-14 point font for easy reading,
yet dont make it look childish. Write in sequence and small chunks. And, make materials
professional. The appearance of instructor-made materials sends a hidden message to
adults.

Assessment/Evaluation

58
 Assessment plays a major role in educational endeavors. Traditionally it is used to
determine what students do not know, an approach that is not empowering to adults with
learning difficulties. Checklists may be used as a tool to determine sequence of learning.
However for a student who wants to learn about horses or racecar driving, the sequential
checklist is useless and limiting. Instructors of adults need to see them as people with
interests, abilities, and talents who wish to improve their skills and knowledge. Using a
holistic approach to assessment that includes the student as well as the instructor gives
ownership to the process.
The interview is often used with the holistic approach to assessment and
goal setting. Asking simple, open-ended questions creates a relaxed atmosphere for
gathering assessment information of great value for planning a student centered
learning plan. Note that the suggested questions begin with the student talking
positively about him or herself, a subject known best by the individual. The
questions may include the following:

What do you like to do?

What are you good at?
What do you want to learn?
What do you find difficult and would like help to improve?

Using the results of the interview, design a form on which the student can
keep a record of progress. Include the goal with sub-goals, the date began, the
documentation of the goal being met, and the date completed. A record of materials
and resources used to accomplish the goal may be attached to the record of
progress. Assessment is on-going; therefore, it is quite acceptable for the record of
progress to change. The important rule to remember is to include the student in the
process by using their language, goals, and involvement in the selection of material
and resources.

59
 How are students currently
assessed?
How will you change to make the
process more student- centered?

Assessment
The words Assessment and Evaluation often strike fear in the hearts of
instructors and students alike. However, the processes need to be looked at as a
natural part of learning. We must know what we know and what we need to know;
then we need to know when we have learned. Assessment is simply checking to be
sure learning has taken place. Too often assessment is done to a student rather than
with a student. Adult learners want to and should be the center of assessment and
evaluation, partners in the processes.
When thinking about the assessment of adults with Learning Disabilities, Ross-
Gordon (1989) suggests adult educators should be aware of the scarcity of diagnostic tools
appropriate for adults, the importance of enlisting the adults' assistance in the assessment
process, and the fact that assessment is useful only to the extent that it helps adults live
more fully.
She recommends that testing be used only as part (and perhaps not the most
important part) of a comprehensive assessment process. The assessment process is more
beneficial when the adult contributes information about personal goals and learning
strengths and weaknesses. Not only is the information itself important, but shifting the
process from testing to discovery and problem solving increases the adult's involvement
and can decrease the negative aspects of testing (Ross-Gordon 1989).
Using assessment instruments to find out whether an adult student has learning
difficulties has limited value if the information gleaned cannot be acted upon by, for
instance, arranging instruction to help the student learn or making him or her eligible for
resources or services. That is, the advantages of having identified a learning difficulty
student must be weighed against the negative effects of testing and labeling. Ross (1987)
encourages adult educators to ask themselves how they can use more sophisticated
educational practice to meet the needs of learners without assigning labels.

60
 Assessment permeates learning. At the beginning it gives a starting point.
Instructors assess student knowledge recognizing they build on strengths rather
than focus on weaknesses, then tailor lessons to fill the information gaps. Interviews
are very helpful in assessing students with general questions such as:

What do you like to do?

What do you want to learn?
What are you good at?
How would you like to be taught?
How have you experienced successful learning in the past?

Instructors observe throughout the learning process to check on progress.

Check lists represent the students learning goals and can be developed individually.
If the student has reading or writing difficulties, use pictures, audio recorders, or
voice sensitive computers to record data. To help students verbalize how they would
like to learn display a wide variety of samples from which the student can choose.
Examples are manipulatives, workbooks, graphic organizers, videos, CD-ROMs,
computer programs, and any other material available in the class.
At the end of learning, assessment relates the degree to which the
objectives have been met. Assessment is shared information. Adult learners have
the right to know their progress. They adjust their efforts and goals accordingly.
Make assessment a natural process, rather than a negative experience that frustrates
and embarrasses the adult student.

Write an assessment checklist for a skill you will

teach this week. Ask the students to add to you
list.

Evaluation

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 Evaluation is a student-centered reflective activity. It is most effective for
retention of information when included in the lessons closure. Evaluation also
should be scheduled at the end of units, grading periods, or at other regular intervals
throughout the class. Students need to be allocated time to reflect on their progress
and the value of the learning experience.
Record keeping is vital in the classroom for adults with learning difficulties.
Both instructors and students maintain records. One of the most valuable
evaluation experiences is the use of a portfolio. The portfolio is student designed
and maintained. Students select and place in a notebook samples of their work to
document progress toward meeting their goals. Documentation may include videos,
photographs, and certificates, pay stubs that show a raise, audios, or any other
artifact that represents learning and goal accomplishments. Each work sample or
other artifact is followed by a student reflection that describes the document, tells
what was learned, and sets a goal for what needs to be learned next relating to their
new knowledge.
For adults with learning difficulties in reading and writing, adaptations can
be made. For instance, charts can be used to record responses to evaluation
questions using symbols such as smiley faces. Students can record information
about their progress or answers to interview questions posed by the instructor or
colleagues. Questions might include:

What did you learn?

What did you enjoy doing?
What did you not enjoy doing?
How confident are you in _____?
How will you use what you have learned at home or at work?
What would you like more practice on?
What would you like to learn next?

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 Progress logs in the form of diaries or learning tables are useful. By date,
adult students write what they have done and learned then make their plan for the
next class. Ask the students how they would like to evaluate their progress.
Retention of information may be a problem for adults with learning
difficulties. An instructor can do several strategies to help with mental function. If
the objective seems to be too difficult, break it into smaller pieces, revise it to better
meet student needs, or ask the students to phrase the objective for themselves.
Check the instructional materials for appropriateness; do they fit the task and the
students? Be aware of student motivation. Factors interfering with motivation for
learning may be the effects of medication, tiredness due to lifes responsibilities, fear
and anxiety, or any number of other circumstances. When students seem
uninterested, change. There is a saying that matches this situation, When the horse
dies, dismount. Or another, Dont beat a dead horse. In other words, dont waste
time, move to something else.
If goals and objectives are established with the student, so should progress
be assessed and evaluated with the student. Instructors who keep anecdotal records
on individual students often detect patterns in learning that serve as information for
lesson planning, pacing, and interacting with the student.

What if the Adult is not Learning?

Teaching is an awesome responsibility. Frustration and stress sets in when
instructors realize students are not learning. At this time a critical review of the
students work, lessons, and learning situation is necessary. Some considerations
may be:

Revision of learning goals

Use of different teaching methods or materials
Pace the lessons differently
Identify possible distractions
Motivation factors

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 What makes learning successful for you?
What makes learning unsuccessful for you?
Compare the two experiences.
What can your experiences inform you
about your students?

Assistive Technology (AT): Dr. Bill Barber

Assistive technology (AT) refers to devices used to compensate for learning
difficulties. Examples of assistive technology include computers, audio recorders,
spellers, calculators, palms, hearing aids, notebooks, and high-tech items such as
optical character readers (OCR). Instructors need to be familiar with AT if they are
to correctly match the technology to the student. Learning to use assistive
technology can mean the difference between learning and not learning, being self-
sufficient and dependent on others, having a life as normal as possible and defeat.

Resources
This section, resources, contains links to some assistive technology websites.
Assistive technology could include items like talking calculators, word processors
with spell checks, speech recognition software, etc. These resources will help
instructors provide assistive technology for adults with learning difficulties.

Web resources:

LD Online Resource Guide:

http://www.ldonline.org/indepth/technology

An Overview of Assistive Technology:

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 http://www.ncld.org/es/at-school/general-topics/assistive-
technology/overview-assistive-technology

South Carolina Assistive Technology Program:

http://www.sc.edu/scatp/ld.htm

Getting Started with Assistive Technology:

http://www.ncsall.net/fileadmin/resources/fob/2007/fob_8d.pdf

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Self-Advocacy
Self-advocacy is the skill to take up for oneself. It means being listened to and
treated as adults. This skill allows adults with learning difficulties to make decisions
and take control of their lives. Self-advocacy is an outward demonstration of inward
self-confidence.
Instructors have an obligation to foster self-advocacy by providing an adult
student-centered environment. They encourage student involvement in planning
their own learning. Student committees actively create new ways to integrate
learning into life and suggest new courses. The following suggestions for fostering
self-advocacy are given by Jeannie Sutcliffe, National Institute of Adult Continuing
Education (p53)

Plan teaching to maximize opportunities for choices and decision

making by students
Give choices about what to learn and how to learn
Provide time for discussion about things students want to talk about
Support shy students in speaking up
Involve students as equal partners in the learning process
Avoid unhelpful jargon
Help groups to run by themselves, with the instructor in a facilitating
role rather than a dominant one.

Knowledge of ones self and the ability to plan contribute to success,

overcoming challenges, and being proactive. Adult Basic Skill programs help
students with learning difficulties encourage the use of their strengths and creativity
to persevere and achieve personal goals. In the 21 st century employees are expected
to work on teams, make decisions, and perform a variety of tasks. This
characteristic implies that adult students must work together, be allowed to have
control over their own learning and use numerous methods to problem solve. Oral
dialog not only serves to internalize knowledge, but also prepares adults to

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communicate with others in their environment such as employers, peers, family
members and neighbors.
Challenge
How are you providing for developing
self advocacy and self reliance in
everyday classes?

Self-knowledge
Self-knowledge allows the adult to realistically appraise the difficulty and
make adjustments that contribute to positive daily decision-making. Recognizing
ones abilities and limitations is the first step in accepting oneself and making
changes affecting success. Instructors play a significant role in helping adults with
learning difficulties deal with their problems and make adjustments for their
advantage.

Understanding Acceptance Valuing

Impacts of Learning Difficulties in Adults

The impacts of learning disabilities may compound with age. While individuals with
learning disabilities demonstrate some intellectual strengths, their areas of disability may
prevent them from excelling as adults in certain life situations at the same level as their
peers. Areas where learning disabilities may affect adults include:

Self Esteem - Being criticized, put down, teased, or rejected because of failures in
academic, vocational, or social endeavors often leaves adults with learning
disabilities with low self-esteem. Adults with low self-esteem tend not to take risks
or strive to reach their potential. Also, adults with low self-esteem are less likely to
advocate for themselves.

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 Education - Learning disabilities that may manifest themselves in difficulties in
spoken or written language, arithmetic, reasoning, and organizational skills will
affect adults in adult basic education, literacy, postsecondary and vocational training
settings. These students may perform at levels other than those expected of them.
Adult educators are not always prepared to address the unique needs of learners
with learning disabilities.
Vocation - Errors are commonly found in filling out employment applications
because of poor reading or spelling skills. Job-related problems frequently arise due
to learning disabilities that cause difficulties in organization, planning, scheduling,
monitoring, language comprehension and expression, social skills, and inattention.
Social Interactions - Adults with learning disabilities may demonstrate poor
judgment of others' moods and attitudes and appear to be less sensitive to others'
thoughts and feelings. In social settings these adults may do or say inappropriate
things and have problems comprehending humor, for example. They may have
problems discriminating response requirements in social situations. These traits
may result in a difficulty finding and keeping a job or developing long term
relationships.
Independent Living - Responsibilities such as writing checks, filling out tax forms,
or taking phone messages may present problems for adults with learning
disabilities. Adults with learning difficulties may find themselves without the
support systems (parents, schools, social services, etc.) that they relied on as
children and have to incorporate their own accommodations when necessary.

Risks & Rewards

Learning disabilities can affect skills in listening, thinking, speaking, reading,
writing, mathematics and reasoningskills that adults must use every day in
fulfilling their roles as family members, employees and citizens. They may co-occur
with, and be complicated by, problems in attention and social skills.
The experiences and hardships you may have had as a child with learning
difficulties don't always go away during the adult years. In fact, they may hold you
back from reaching your goals even though you may not recognize it.

68
 Recognizing the risks and rewards of having a learning disability as an adult
is the first step in learning how to manage your learning difficulties and lead a
successful life. While the risks may include isolation and more limited educational
and vocational success, there are many rewards too. The rewards of a learning
disability include creative problem solving abilities, an outgoing personality, and
persistence. Other rewards are empathy towards others and the ability to
compensate for weaknesses. The risks and rewards are described in more detail
below:

The Risks
Limited Educational Opportunities: Not all educators understand or are
responsive to the needs of people with learning difficulties. When teaching methods
are not appropriate, people with learning disabilities may become frustrated and
experience failure. This may cause them to drop out of educational programs or
make them afraid to enter other programs.

Limited Vocational Options: People with learning disabilities may have trouble
finding and keeping a job. Often, limited literacy skills and poor organizational skills
are the reasons. Some employers may not understand the nature of learning
disabilities or know if they have a legal responsibility to provide reasonable
accommodations.

Isolation: Adults with learning disabilities may misinterpret others' gestures, facial
expressions and tone of voice. They may have trouble responding appropriately in
social situations. This may cause some adults with learning difficulties to be isolated
from others, both at work and in their communities. Adults with learning difficulties
may feel inadequate and incapable. They may remember being teased, criticized, or
even rejected by their peers. As a result, they may have a poor self-image and lack
the confidence to try new things.

69
Difficulty with Independent Living: Adults with severe learning disabilities may
have difficulty with tasks such as writing checks, filling out forms, taking phone
messages and following directions.

The Rewards
Creative Problem-Solving: Adults with learning disabilities must learn to work
around their disabilities. This experience allows them to think "outside the box,"
often leading to more creative solutions and imaginative answers to problems.

Outgoing Personality: Many adults with learning disabilities develop outgoing

personalities in an attempt to compensate for their learning problems.

Strong Compensatory Skills: To make up for their learning disabilities, many

people develop strong skills in other areas.

Persistence: Often, people with learning difficulties do not give up when attempting
a difficult task. Despite frustrations, they keep trying until they meet with success.

Empathy: Persons with learning disabilities often provide support and

understanding for others. Because they themselves have experienced the frustration
that can result from having a learning disability, they can be that much more
supportive of others (National Adult Literacy and Learning Disabilities, 1999).

Strategies and Supports for Adults with Learning Disabilities

Adults with learning difficulties need a range of skills and abilities to manage
their disabilities in education, training, and employment situations. Appropriate
assessment is the starting point for all other strategies and techniques. Teachers
who suspect learners may have a disability can be trained in screening methods that
will help them recognize when more formal diagnosis is necessary (NALLD 1995b).

70
Teachers may observe that (1) adult learners have average/above average ability but
demonstrate unexpected underachievement; (2) what appear to be problems with
vision or hearing are not the result of physical impairments; or (3) behavioral or
psychological manifestations (attention, concentration, organization) interfere with
learning. Error patterns in reading, writing, speaking, and math may help
differentiate between possible learning difficulties and other causes of low
achievement. If screening results suggest learning difficulties, educators should refer
adults to professionals trained in formal assessment. Assessments should be
appropriate for adults as well as culturally sensitive. The most significant problem
for minority persons with learning difficulties is cultural bias in assessment,
according to Gregg et al. (1996).
Once a learning disability is identified, three categories of assistance are
psychosocial, technological and educational. In the psychosocial area, an individual's
self-esteem can suffer from years of internalizing labels of stupidity and
incompetence and experiencing dependence, fear, anxiety, or helplessness. Four
ways to strengthen self-esteem (NALLD 1994) are "awareness" (knowing about and
documenting the disability), "assessment" (understanding the disability and one's
strengths and weaknesses), "accommodation" (knowing what compensatory
strategies and techniques help), and "advocacy" (knowing their legal rights and
services for which they qualify).
Schools and workplaces offer some accommodations to help with academic
and vocational adjustment. However, less attention is paid to social and emotional
functioning (Telander 1994). Social competence--dealing with pressure, change, or
criticism; holding conversations; using receptive and expressive language and
appropriate humor; being able to make inferences; and being sensitive to others'
feelings and moods--is sometimes impaired by cognitive processing difficulties.
These social skills impairments may be reinforced by isolation and negative
experiences. Adults with learning difficulties may also experience frustration, anger,
and other emotions arising from academic and social failures, rejection, and the
attitudes of others. Laws and accommodations "will only partially redress

71
discrimination of persons with learning disabilities if social/emotional function" is
not addressed (Gerber and Reiff 1994, p. 80).
Assistive technology, "any technology that enables an adult with learning
disabilities to compensate for specific deficits" (Gerber and Reiff 1994, p. 152), has
great potential. Many software developments that were not specifically designed for
persons with disabilities are proving to be of great assistance in increasing,
maintaining, or improving functioning.
Assistive technology ranges from low to high tech, the choice depending on
the individual, the function to be performed, and the context (Riviere 1996).
Examples include the following (Gerber and Reiff 1994; Riviere 1996): (1) for
organization, memory, time management problems--highlighters, beepers, digital
watches, tape recorders, personal management software; (2) for auditory
processing--FM amplification devices, electronic notebooks, computer-aided real-
time translation, voice synthesizers, videotapes with closed captioning, variable
speech control tape recorders; (3) for visual processing--software display controls,
books on disk; (4) for reading--scanners with speech synthesizers that read back
text, books on tape and disk, CD-ROMs; and (5) for writing--word processing tools
such as spelling and grammar checkers, abbreviation expanders,
brainstorming/outlining software. Distance learning networks and the World Wide
Web are beginning to be explored for their potential in compensating for disabilities.
As for educational strategies, adult educators should foster an inclusive
learning environment that includes sensitivity, attitudes, awareness, and
accommodations. Other techniques are described by Gadbow and DuBois (1998):
providing note takers, using activities that represent a variety of learning styles,
permitting technological devices, providing alternative testing arrangements,
extending time allowed for assignments, minimizing distractions, and asking
learners what accommodations they need. Rocco (1997) suggests that discussion of
disability issues be encouraged in adult education, that disability be included in
examining the characteristics that bestow or deny power, and that educators reflect

72
critically on innovative ways to assist learners who learn differently, whether or not
they are classified as having a learning disability.

Primary Secondary Issues: The Affective Domain

Often the adults with learning difficulties who find success in Adult Basic
Skills classes actually take on a new appearance as they gain confidence in
themselves. They want to share what they learn. They find success in the many
roles they play. Their children many times follow the parents model and improve in
school performance. Their bosses compliment them on job improvements. They
have a sense of pride in their community never before experienced.
These successes are attributable to instructors who recognize the
importance in supporting adult students with learning difficulties. And adult
instructors enjoy helping their students be successful. The teachers attitude toward
the students communicated through words, deeds, and body language, seems to
make a significant difference in the adult students progress. Students recognize
instructor support.
Instructors likewise benefit from the affective domain. Students replicate
the model set by their instructors when they make positive comments that impact
teaching. Such comments might include:
My instructor sets such a positive environment. I find that the better I feel
about the class the harder I work.
My instructor pays attention to making me feel good about how I learn.
My instructor says only positive things to me. I never feel embarrassed or
discouraged. She really knows how to approach me, even when I need help.
Even when I dont know something, my instructor smiles and listens to me
as she helps me. Sometimes she is really funny. I have learned to laugh and actually
enjoy learning.
The adult class is not like other classes I have been in where I feel like I am
competing with everyone else and always come out at the bottom of the pile. I know
in this class I dont have to be perfect. I learn from my mistakes.

73
 My instructor makes me think about what I learn by asking me every class
about the lesson.
My instructor praises me. She tells me specifically what I did well. For
instance, she may tell me my writing is clear, or the verbs and nouns agree in all my
sentences.
Even the instructors approaches when talking with adult students are
important instructional strategies. Teaching the adult with learning difficulties
effectively involves knowing the students goals, selecting appropriate instructional
strategies, considering the students learning styles, and communicating respect for
the individual.
1. Talk to students about what techniques work best
2. Use language experience approaches and materials from their home and
work environments
3. Build on students' strengths
4. Give frequent, positive, and explicit feedback
5. Help students recognize success

Certain secondary characteristics have been found to be effective for taking

control of one's life, which, in turn, leads to greater possibilities of successful
adaptation to adult life. One characteristic is the capacity of some adults with
learning difficulties to be resilient despite past failure. In many cases, the lives of
individuals with learning difficulties are punctuated with successes and failures.
Those who have been able to move forward undeterred by failure (and sometimes
strengthened by it) have a greater sense of inner strength and self-confidence. In
essence, in tough times, they know that there are good times ahead, if they are able
to stick with it.

74
 Challenge
How do adults with learning
difficulties want to be treated?

Learning Styles
Just as individuals are born with a specific color of eyes that cannot be
changed permanently, they are also born with a temperament or style for learning.
Teaching new information within the preferred learning style can be the key. For
instance, experiential learning serves as the most effective form of gaining
information for some learners while discussion and drawing on personal
experiences may be most effective for others. Reflection allows learners time to
think about what was learned and put the information in their own words. Often
application of a skill or modeling a concept serves to internalize the knowledge for
later retrieval. Most lessons can be planned so students use all of these learning
styles.
Learning styles also address how one learns, for example, alone, with a peer,
in groups or online. Adult learners often understand learning based on the
traditional approach they experienced in public schools. They think that paper and
pencil tasks from a textbook or a workbook is the only way to learn. If a student
prefers to work alone begin by allowing that style. As the comfort level increases,
other modes can be introduced. Students may need to be slowly introduced to other
modes of learning. Peer teaching, for instance, benefits both parties. The peer
teacher reinforces his or her learning by teaching another student; the learner hears
and watches his or her peer explain and demonstrate a skill in student language.
Group work can be very beneficial to the adult with learning difficulties.
Group work provides opportunities to communicate, interact, listen, and make
decisions. A support network often results. The interchange of ideas builds a

75
learning community otherwise unavailable. The development of social skills is an
added benefit of this mode of learning.
With the advent of technology as a tool, adults have another means for
learning. Videos can be watched at home as many times as necessary to learn the
content then followed with reflection exercises. Online lessons provide the adult
with learning difficulties the advantage of working at times that fit into busy
schedules and to complete assignments at a comfortable pace. A buddy system can
accommodate the learner by providing a study partner who can be reached by
phone or email anytime extra help or encouragement is needed.

1. Assess individuals' learning styles and teach to the stronger modality or style
2. Use multi-sensory techniques when teaching groups
3. Create opportunities for concrete and experiential learning as well as for
abstract and reflective learning
4. Make abstract concepts more concrete by having students handle materials,
relate new information to everyday life, and demonstrate tasks
5. Teach new concepts concretely because it is often easier for students with
learning difficulties to learn the theory after learning its practical applications

Reading
Reading encompasses two functions, the skills of decoding words and
comprehending text. Even though reading research makes a strong connection
between reading difficulties as adults and developmental language deficits as
children, the problem may be more vague (Catts, 1993). For instance poorer readers
tend to read less than good readers thereby limiting their language experience with
vocabulary development and background knowledge, and use of context for
understanding.
Metacognition research indicates that adults can improve their reading
proficiency through instruction in reflection and dialog (Collins, Dickson, Simmons,
and Kameenui 1998). Adults with learning difficulties can be helped through
instruction in strategies that target immediate needs and build skills on prior

76
knowledge. Vygotsky calls this technique scaffolding (1998). Skills may include
using context clues, analyzing word parts i.e. prefixes and suffixes, and consulting
dictionaries and other resource materials. Encouraging students to explain how
they process their reading makes them cognizant of the problems they face and may
provide ideas for overcoming them.

Metacognition, the awareness of ones thinking processes, has three phases:

planning before beginning a task
utilizing strategies actively to constantly check comprehension
evaluating and adapting for continuous improvement.

Instructors can model the analyzing process and demonstrate to students

how to select appropriate strategies for solving reading problems. Not all reading
texts require the same skills. The purpose for reading, the format of the print, and
the content require different skills. For instance, reading for pleasure requires
different skills than reading a textbook in preparation for a class.

77
Lesson Plans
1. Plan a cooking lesson using a students home, cookware, recipes, and familiar
surroundings. Adapt recipes to appropriate reading level. Concentrate on
presenting key words and measurements. During the cooking process talk
about the science principles involved in food preparation.

2. Plan a restaurant meal at which students can practice their social skills in an
authentic situation. Students will have opportunities to make decisions and
plan for themselves.

3. Plan a trip to a nearby center of interest such as a museum, aquarium,

seacoast, or mountain trail. Students make the decisions about destination,
day, times, route, activities, meals, and costs. They need to be involved in
deciding what learning they need and will gain. Integrate writing
experiences such as journal entries, thank you notes, and labeling pictures.
Incorporate technology by putting together a PowerPoint presentation to
present to another class.

4. Prepare shopping lists by collecting labels or pictures of the items needed.

Go to the store. Combine writing and vocabulary study with words that have
meaning in the students lives. Shopping also includes more that making a
list. Students need to determine how to get to a store, the total amount of the
bill, and how to adjust the purchases to accommodate the amount of money
they have.

5. Teach task analysis by preparing sandwiches in class. Analyze the steps.

Perhaps the process could be written prior to making the sandwich. Follow
the written steps then discuss how accurate were the directions.

6. To teach sequence, pick up old equipment (perhaps at an auction or dump) to

take apart and reassemble. Teach the need for order and organization when
dismantling an item and the importance of knowing the order for putting the
equipment back together.

78
Workplace Law

The environment accentuates the benefits for adults with learning

difficulties when they advocate for themselves. Employers need to be aware of the
meaning of learning difficulties and the requirements of the law. According to the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1992, employers cannot discriminate on
the grounds of a disclosed disability and are required to provide whatever
accommodations necessary for otherwise qualified employees to compensate for
disabilities as they perform essential job functions (NCSALL p.56). Because these
adults must advocate for themselves, instructors should include lessons that teach
them to request appropriate accommodations, frame their learning difficulty in a
positive light, and interact with others in work situations.

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