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Chapter 24
Electromagnetic Induction
GOALS
When you have mastered the content of this chapter, you will be able to achieve the
following goals:
Definitions
Define each of the following terms, and use it in an operational definition:
Faraday's induction law Lenz's law
self-inductance henry
Applications of Induction
Explain the physical basis for the operation of each of the following:
AC generator
electromagnetic damping
search coil
Lenz's Law
Predict the correct directions for induced current flow in electromagnetic induction
phenomena.
Inductors
Solve problems involving combinations of inductors.
PREREQUISITES
Before beginning this chapter, you should have achieved the goals of Chapter 22, Basic
Electrical Measurements, and Chapter 23, Magnetism.
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Chapter 24
Electromagnetic Induction
24.1 Introduction
What is the physical basis for the static or noise produced in a radio when certain
appliances are used in its vicinity? What is the principle supporting the operation of the
ferrite rod antenna in a radio? How does the power company generate AC voltage? The
answers to all of these questions involve electromagnetic induction. In this chapter you
will study the physical phenomena associated with electromagnetic induction.
= BA cos (24.1)
where is the angle between the magnetic induction B and the line perpendicular to the
area A.
Faraday's law states that whenever the magnetic flux through an area changes, there
will be an emf induced in the perimeter of the area (or equivalently there will be an
electric field induced at the perimeter of the area). We can express this in the following
equation:
E(volts) = - /t (webers/second) (24.2)
where E is the electromotive force in volts and is the change of magnetic flux in
webers in a change of time t in seconds.
The negative sign in the equation is due to Lenz's law which states that the induced
voltage is in such a direction as to oppose its cause; that is, the magnetic field due to the
induced current opposes the changing magnetic flux. The induced current has an
associated magnetic flux which tries to maintain the status quo. This is another example
of inertia in a physical system. Various examples of the direction of induced emf are
shown in Figure 24.2. If B increases into the paper, the field produced by the induced
current would oppose this increase. Hence the current would be in a counterclockwise
direction (Figure 24.2a). If B increases in a direction out of the paper the direction of the
induced current would oppose this; it would be in a clockwise direction (Figure 24.2b).
If the north pole of a bar magnet moves into the coil, the induced current would be in a
direction to oppose this motion as is indicated in the diagram (Figure 24.2c). If the
motion is in the opposite direction, the induced current will also be in the opposite
direction (Figure 24.2d). When the area increases, the induced current is such that its B
field opposes the applied B field passing through the increasing area (Figure 24.2e).
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EXAMPLE
Find the induced emf in a 0.50-m rod moving with velocity of 2 m/sec perpendicular to
a field of 2 x 10-4 Wb/m2, or tesla. Then,
E = 2 x 10-4 x 2 x 0.50 = 2 x 10-4 V
Suppose a coil of wire of 1-cm radius is removed from a field of 0.1 Wb/m2 in 0.01 sec.
The induced emf in the coil will be:
E = (- 0.1 Wb/m2 x (.01)2m2)/10-2 sec = - x 10-3 V = - mV
If the coil has 100 turns of wire, the flux is increased by a factor of 100: = NBA = 100
BA. Such a coil can be used as a search coil to measure an unknown magnetic field
(Figure 24.4).
The key to this measurement is the ballistic galvanometer which measures total
charge flowing through it. The angular deflection x of the galvanometer pointer is a
constant times the total charge passing through it, Q. The search coil is removed from
an unknown field producing an angular deflection, x,
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The induced emf of a rotating coil is shown in the Figure 24.7. Note that this emf is a
sine curve and its direction changes. The electric current flowing in a conductor as a
result of this emf is called an alternating current. This example gives the principle of
operation of an AC generator. Each end of the coil is connected to a given slip ring
which is connected by a brush to an external circuit. The alternating current has a
frequency equal to the number of revolutions per second.
A brush changes its contact from one side of the coil to the other when the side of the
coil is moving parallel to the magnetic field, that is, at zero induced emf. A plot of
induced emf as a function of time is shown in Figure 24.9, in which Emax = BAN. This
is a pulsating unidirectional current called direct current (DC).
Physics Including Human Applications 552
By adding more planes of coils and more segments to the commutator one can
approach a constant direct current generator. For a four- segment commutator, one with
a two-plane armature, the representation of the induced emf would appear as in Figure
24.10.
24.5 Self-Inductance
A single coil of many turns has inductive properties due to the magnetic interaction of
adjacent loops in the coil. If the loops are wound in the same direction the total effect of
this interaction is an induced back emf that opposes the initial current change. This self-
inductance is a form of inertia resisting current change in the coil. The self- induced emf
Physics Including Human Applications 553
24.6 Inductors
An inductor is a device that stores energy in the magnetic field set up by the current
through a coil. By analogy the inductor plays the same role for magnetic field energy
that the capacitor does for the electric field energy. We can derive an equation for the
energy stored in an inductor as follows: the work done in moving charge q against the
back emf is Eq or in equation form,
w = E q = - L i/t x it
since q = it. If we start with the current at zero and the current increases at a constant
rate to the final value I, we can use the average value of I/2 to get the work done. We
then get the following equation for the work done in building up the magnetic field:
w = LI(I/2) = ()LI2 = energy stored in the field (24.10)
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This represents the work done in building up a current of I in the self-inductor and
establishing the magnetic field. It also represents the energy that is stored in the
magnetic field and that becomes available if the current is reduced to zero. This is
shown by the flash on opening a switch in a DC circuit in which there is an inductor.
EXAMPLE
The back emf induced in a coil when the current changes from 100 mA to zero in 1 msec
is 1 V. Find the self-inductance of the coil and the energy dissipated when the current
goes to zero.
L = E b/(i/t) = 1 V/100 A/sec = 10 millihenries (mH)
w = ()LI2 = 1/2 x 10 x 10-3 x 0.12 = 0.5 x 10-4 J
EXAMPLE
Inductors of 3 H, 5 H, and 10 H are connected
a. in series
b. in parallel
c. with the 3-H inductor in series with a parallel connection of the 5-H and 10-H
inductors. What is the effective inductance of each configuration?
a. Series
Leff = 3 H + 5 H + 10 H = 18 H
b. Parallel
Leff = 1/3 H + 1/5 H + 1/10 H = 10/30 + 6/30 + 3/30 = 19/30
Leff = 30/19 1.6 H
c. Combination
Leff = 3 H + ((5 H x 10 H)/(5 H + 10 H)) = 95/15 6.3 H
ENRICHMENT
24.9 Conservation of Energy
We consider the simple generator shown
in Figure 24.13. A conducting rod slides
without friction at a constant velocity
over a conducting track. The entire
circuit formed by the track and rod is in
a constant magnetic field B (into the
paper). The total resistance of the circuit
is R (). We wish to determine the emf
induced across the rod due to the flux
change through the circuit, and we want
to compare the electrical power supplied
to the circuit with the mechanical power
needed to keep the rod moving at a
constant speed.
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ENRICHMENT
24.10 Calculus Derivation for Current through an Inductor
Many of the examples cited above can be treated with more rigor using calculus
methods. Faraday's law becomes
E = - d/dt (24.13)
In many cases = f(t) so
E = - d f(t)/dt
Also, d = B dA:
d/dt = B dA/dt for constant field.
For self-inductance,
E = -L di/dt (24.14)
Energy in a magnetic field,
E = - L (di/dt) i dt = Li di
= ()LI2 (24.15)
Let us consider a DC circuit with a
resistor R and an inductor L in series
with an emf as shown in Figure 24.14.
Physics Including Human Applications 557
in which E is the emf of the battery, L (di/dt) is the emf induced in the inductor and is in
the opposite sense to E, and iR is the potential drop resulting from the resistance in the
circuit. In this equation, i is the instantaneous current and is equal to zero at t = 0 and
becomes equal to I or E /R for steady state. The instantaneous current at any time is
i = (E /R) (1 -e-Rt/L ) (24.17)
Show that this is a solution of the equation above by either of the following
methods:
a. Showing that this value of i satisfies Equation 24.16.
b. By direct solution of the differential equation.
Notice that the ratio L/R is a measure of the time response of this circuit. It is called
the time constant of this circuit and is the time in seconds required for the current to
reach 63 percent (1 -e-1) of its equilibrium value.
EXAMPLE
Given L = 10 H and R = 693, find the time it takes for the current to reach half its
equilibrium value.
Substituting the given values in Equation 24.17, i = E/2R, since E/R is equilibrium
current.
i = E/2R = E/R [1 -exp (-693t/10)]
1/2 = 1 - exp (-693t/10)
exp (-693t/10) = 1/2
(693/10) t is the exponent to which e, the base of the natural logarithms, must be raised
to get 2.
Since e.693 = 2
693/10t = 0.693
t = 0.01 sec
Physics Including Human Applications 558
ENRICHMENT
24.11 Calculus Derivation for Current through a Capacitor
In Chapter 21 we considered the properties of capacitors. A capacitor which consists of
an insulator between two conducting plates will not support a steady flow of electric
charge. However, during the charging and discharging processes charges will flow in a
circuit that includes a capacitor. Let us consider a circuit with a resistor R (), in series
with a capacitor C (farads), and an emf E. Ohm's law becomes, upon the closing of the
switch.
E = iR + q/C (24.18)
where iR is the potential difference across the resistor and q/C is the potential difference
across the capacitor.
i = dq/dt
E = R dq/dt + q/C (24.19)
The instantaneous charge on the capacitor at any time t is
q = E C(1 - e-t/RC) (24.20)
where the charge is zero at t = 0. The current in the circuit as a function of time is found
to be
i = dq/dt = (E /R) e-t/RC (24.21)
Notice that the product RC is a measure of the time response of the circuit. It is called
the time constant of the circuit and is the time in seconds required for the current to
reach 0.37(e-1) times its equilibrium value.
EXAMPLE
Given C = 10mF and R = 1.44 M, find the time it takes for the current to reach one-half
its equilibrium value. Substitute the given values in Equation 22.33
E/2R = E/Re-t/1.44
e-t/1.44 = 1/2 = e-.693
.0693t = .693
t = 10 sec
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SUMMARY
Use these questions to evaluate how well you have achieved the goals of this chapter.
The answers to these questions are given at the end of this summary with the number of
the section where you can find related content material.
Definitions
1. The magnetic flux can be found by multiplying the ___________ by the ____________.
2. List the properties of the magnetic flux that can influence the emf induced in a wire in
the region where the flux exists.
3. The direction of the induced emf is determined by _____________ law which is
another statement of the ___________ properties of an electromagnetic system.
4. The ______________ law equates the magnitude of the ____________ to the
____________ rate of change of the _________________ .
5. In a coiled wire the neighboring coils are linked by ____________ when a current is
flowing in the coil, and if the ______________ changes with ______________ , a back
emf will be ________________ giving rise to the effect that is called
__________________.
6. The henry is the unit of measurement for _______________.
Applications of Induction
7. Without the aid of the text, explain
a. the principles and operation of an AC generator
b. the principles and operation of a DC generator
c. the principles and operations of a search coil
Faraday's Law
8. The coefficient of self-induction of a coil is 0.015 henries (H). If the current changes
from 0.20 A to 1.0 A in 0.010 sec, what is the emf of self-induction?
9. What is the maximum induced emf in a 400-turn coil of area 400 cm2 revolving at 30
rps about an axis in the plane of coil and perpendicular to a field of 0.050 tesla(T)?
Lenz's Law
10. A flip coil is originally in a horizontal plane and is free to rotate about a north-south
axis in the Northern Hemisphere. It is suddenly rotated through 90. What is the
direction of the self-induced emf in coil? Draw a sketch of the system, and show all
related directions.
Inductors
11. If you have one 4-H and one 12-H inductor, what inductances can you achieve by
using them together? What configurations would you use to obtain these
inductances?
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Answers
1. area, B component perpendicular to area BAcos (Section 24.2)
2. direction of flux, change in flux, time used to change the flux, direction of the wire
(Section 24.2)
3. Lenz's, inertial (Section 24.2)
4. Faraday induction, induced emf, time, magnetic flux (Section 24.2)
5. magnetic flux, current, time, induced, self-inductance (Section 24.5)
6. inductance (Section 24.5)
7. a. (Section 24.3) b. (Section 24.3) c. (Section 24.3)
8. 1.2 V (Section 24.5)
9. 150 V (Section 24.3)
10. (Sections 24.1 and 24.2)
11. series, 16 H; parallel, 3 H (Section 24.7)
ALGORITHMIC PROBLEMS
Listed below are the important equations from this chapter. The problems following the
equations will help you learn to translate words into equations and to solve single-
concept problems.
Equations
E(volts) = - /t (webers/second) (24.2)
E(volts) = - /t = Bls/t = Blv (24.3)
Bx = (x /s ) Bs (24.5)
E = BAN sin t (24.6)
Emax = BAN (24.7)
Problems
1. What is the maximum flux through a coil that has an area of 400 cm2 and a value of
0.500 T (weber/m2) for B?
2. The total flux within a coil of one turn is reduced from 0.0400 Wb to 0 in 0.0100 sec.
What is the induced emf?
3. What is the direction of an induced current in an east-west conductor moving north
horizontally in a vertical magnetic field pointing upward?
Physics Including Human Applications 561
4. An emf of 2.00 V is induced in an inductor when the current is changing at the rate of
8.00 A/sec. What is the self-inductance of the inductor?
5. What is the energy required to establish a magnetic field by a 5.00 H inductor
carrying a current of 10.0 A?
Answers
1. 0.020 Wb
2. 4.00 V
3. east
4. 0.250 H
5. 250 J
EXERCISES
These exercises are designed to help you apply the ideas of a section to physical
situations. When appropriate, numerical answers are given in brackets at the end of the
exercise.
Section 24.2
1. The north pole of a bar magnet is inserted in a flat coil (closed) of 20 turns resting on a
table. If the flux changes from 10-4 Wb to 10-3 Wb in 0.25 sec, what is the induced
emf? What is the direction of the induced current in the coil as you look down upon
the coil-Clockwise or counterclockwise? [0.07 V, counterclockwise]
2. A search coil has 60 turns, each of an area of 5 cm2. It is moved from a magnetic field
of 0.5 Wb/m2 to one of 0.0 Wb/m2 in 0.15 msec. What is the induced emf? [100 V]
3. A coil with a radius of 2.00 cm and 20.0 turns is removed from a magnetic field of
0.300 T in 4.00 msec. Find the emf induced in the coil. [1.88 V]
4. A coil of wire in the plane of the paper has a permanent magnet dropped (north pole
down) through it. Draw a sketch showing the direction of the induced current in the
coil when the north pole is just above the coil and when the north pole is just below
the coil.
Section 24.3
5. Suppose a student decides that he wants to make a simple generator on his
automobile by using a straight horizontal conductor moving in the earth's field. The
conductor is 1.5 m long. How much emf will be induced between the ends of the
conductor if he drives north at 25 m/sec, and the vertical intensity of the earth's field
is 7.0 x 10-5 T. Which end is at the higher potential? Is this a practical generator? [2.6
x 10-3 V, west end has higher potential]
6. A rectangular coil of 100 turns has dimensions of 10 cm by 15 cm. It rotates about an
axis through the midpoint of the short sides. The axis of rotation is perpendicular to
the direction of the magnetic field of strength 0.50 T, and it is rotating at 600 rpm.
a. When is the emf induced in the coil a maximum?
b. Is the induced emf ever zero? If so, when?
c. What is the maximum induced emf?
[a. when = 0 and /t is max; b. yes: when is max, and /t = 0; c. 47 V]
Physics Including Human Applications 562
7. If the coil in exercise 3 is rotated in the field at 100 rad/sec, find the maximum emf
induced in the coil [0.75 V]
Section 24.7
8. Suppose you have a collection of three inductors of 2.00 H, 4.00 H, and 8.00 H, how
many different values of inductance can you make using all of these inductors in the
same circuit? [all series 14.00 H, all parallel 1.14 H, 2 H + 8 H in series in parallel
with 4 H = 2.86 H, 2 H + 4 H in series in parallel with 8 H = 3.43 H, 4 H + 8 H in
series in parallel with 2 H = 1.71 H, 2 H and 4 H in parallel in series with 8 H = 9.33
H, 8 H and 2 H in parallel in series with 4 H = 5.60 H, 8 H and 4 H in parallel in
series with 2 H = 4.67 H]
PROBLEMS
These problems may involve more than one physical concept. Problems requiring the
material from the enrichment section are marked with a dagger . The answer is
given in brackets at the end of each problem.
9. An experiment is carried out to determine the flux density between the poles of an
electromagnet. A 50-turn coil with 20W resistance and enclosing an area of 2.0 cm2 is
placed perpendicularly to the field. When it is quickly withdrawn from the field, a
calibrated detector shows a charge of 8.0 x 10-4 C flowing in the circuit. What was the
flux density? [1.6 T]
10. You are given 100 cm of 16 gauge copper wire (cross-sectional area 0.0214 cm2) with
a resistance of 0.010 W. It is formed into a circular loop and placed in a plane
perpendicular to a magnetic field which is changing at the rate of 1.0 x 10-2
Wb/m2/sec.How much energy is converted into heat per second? [6.33 x 10-5 J/sec]
11. An earth inductor is a large coil which rotates through 180. the coil is connected to a
ballistic galvanometer which gives a deflection of 15.0 cm when cutting the vertical
component of the earth's magnetic field and a deflection of 6.0 cm when cutting the
horizontal component. What is the angle of dip at this position? What deflection
should you get if the coil is placed so that the earth's total field is cut, and how
would you place the coil? [6812', 16.2 cm]
12. Given two identical coils, one directly above the other, answer the following
questions for this system.
a. A clockwise current is started in the top coil. What is the direction of the induced
current in the bottom coil?
b. A clockwise current is flowing in the bottom coil, and the top coil falls onto it.
What is the direction of the induced current in the top coil?
c. A clockwise current is flowing in the top coil, and the bottom coil is rotated
through 90. What is the direction of the induced current? (Give a sketch for each
answer). [a. counterclockwise; b. counterclockwise; c. clockwise]
13. An airplane with a wing span of L meters is flying south with a speed of v meters
per second in the earth's magnetic field (vertical component is 5 x 10-5 T). Find the
induced emf across the wing of the plane, and give its polarity. (Hint: the induced
electric field force just balances the magnetic force on the charge carriers moving
with the wing, i.e., qE = qvB) [5 x 10-5LvV]
Physics Including Human Applications 563
14. The flux within a circular coil of wire changes in accordance with = 2 + 3 sin 120t
Wb. What is the general expression for the induced emf in the coil? What is the
maximum induced emf? What can you say about the direction of the induced emf?
[360 cos (120t), 360 V]
15. Given a long rectangular loop of length l and width w, derive an expression for the
self-inductance per meter of the loop assuming w>>r, where r is the radius of the
wire.[L = (0/)ln(w-r/r)]
16. A circuit is made up of a battery , switch, inductor L, and resistance R connected
in series. What is the rate of increase of the current at any time t after the switch is
closed. [E /L exp (-Rt/L)]
17. The time constant of a circuit containing only resistance R and inductance L is equal
to L/R and is defined at the time required to get within 1/e of final value. Find the
time constant for the circuit in the example problem in Section 24.10. Plot curve for i
versus t for closing the switch and also upon opening the switch. Interpret the
meaning. [t = 1/69.3 sec]
18. A circuit is made up of a battery E, capacitor C, and resistor R connected in series.
What is the rate of decrease of the current at any time t after the switch is closed?
[(E/R2C)e-t/RC)
19. Assume the circuit in problem 18 has had the switch closed for a time much greater
than RC. What is the current? What is the charge of the capacitor? The switch is
suddenly opened at a time t = 0, and at the same time the resistor is placed in series
with the charged capacitor (possible with the proper switch) to form a closed circuit.
What is: (i) the charge on the capacitor as a function of time? (ii) the current in the
circuit at any time t? (iii) the total amount of energy dissipated in the resistor? [0,
EC, E Ce-t/RC, (-E/R)e-t/RC, E2C/2]