Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
No.119B
2017
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017)
CONTENTS
1. Experimental Studies to Verify the Effect of Chip Shrinkage Coefficient on Cutting Forces 1 16-107
and Surface Roughness in High Speed Milling of A6061 Aluminum Alloy
Pham Thi Hoa1,2, Mac Thi Bich1,2, Banh Tien Long1, Nguyen Duc Toan1*
1
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
2. Dynamics and control of a four-bar mechanism with relative longitudinal vibration of the 6 16-158
coupler link
Nguyen Van Khang1, Nguyen Sy Nam2*
1
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
2
National University of Civil Engineering
3. Development of Plasma-Mig Hybrid Welding Process for Butt Joint Welding of Thick 11 16-115
Plate Steel
Lam Tran1*, Van Anh Nguyen2, Shinichi Tashiro2, Manabu Tanaka2,
Thuc Ha Nguyen1
1
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
2
Osaka University
4. The Influence of Electrical Parameters on the Penetration of Tungsten into the SKD61 16 17-009
Workpiece Surface in PMEDM using Tungsten Carbide Powder
Le Van Tao1,2,*, BanhTien Long1, Tran Xuan Thai 1, Nguyen Thi Hong Minh 1
1
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
2
Military Technical Academy
5. Modeling and Force Analysis of an Electrothermal Micro Gripper with Amplification 22 17-011
Compliant Mechanism
Dang Bao Lam1*, Nguyen Tuan Khoa1,2, Nguyen Dang Thuan3, Pham Hong Phuc1
1
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
2
Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, Australia
3
Smart System Laboratory, Hanbat National University, Korea
7. A Method for Capturing Accuracy and Pose Repeatability of Articulated Industrial Robots 32 16-041
Duong Minh Tuan*, Le Duc Do - Hanoi University of Science and Technology OL
8. Optimal Parameters of Linear Dynamic Vibration Absorber for Reduction of Torsional 37 16-159
Vibration
Vu Xuan Truong1, 2, Khong Doan Dien2, Nguyen Duy Chinh2, Nguyen Duc Toan 3,*
1
Graduate University of Science and Technology, VAST
2
Hungyen University of Technology and Education
3
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017)
9. Effect of quenching media on distortion of C-Ring specimen made by 100Cr6 steel - 43 16-036
Simulation and Experiment OL
Tran Thi Xuan1*, Nguyen Van Tu1, Le Thi Chieu2, Vu Dinh Toai1
1
Hanoi University of Sciense and Technology
2
Vietnam Casting Metallurgy Society
10. Dynamic Analysis of Complex Composite Tubes by Continuous Element Method 48 16-026
Le Thi Bich Nam1, *, Nguyen Manh Cuong1, Tran Ich Thinh1,
Duong Pham Tuong Minh2, Le Quang Vinh3
1
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
2
Thai Nguyen University of Technology
3
Viet tri University of Industry
11. Fatigue Life Prediction under Multiaxial Variable Amplitude Loading Using a Stress 54 16-057
Invariant Based Criterion
Vu Quoc Huy*, Vu Dinh Quy, Le Thi Tuyet Nhung
- Hanoi University of Science and Technology
12. Performance Evaluation of a 2D Front Tracking Method a Direct Numerical Simulation 59 16-137
Method for Multiphase Flows
Vu Van Truong - Hanoi University of Science and Technology
14. Effects of Compaction Pressure on the Properties of In-Situ Hybrid Carbide-Reinforced 71 16-039
Copper-Based Composite Synthesized by Powder Metallurgy OL
Le Minh Hai - Hanoi University of Science and Technology
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 001-005
Abstract
This paper studied the relationship between the cutting force, surface roughness and chip shrinkage
coefficient through the affect of cutting parameters, i.e., cutting speed, feed rate and uncut chip thickness.
Experimental results of the chip shrinkage coefficient, cutting force and surface roughness at various cutting
parameter values for high-speed milling of A6061 aluminum alloy were presented in this study. The results
show that the cutting force and surface roughness can be derived based on the relationships with chip
shrinkage coefficient.
Keywords: High-speed milling, A6061 aluminum alloy, Chip shrinkage coefficient, Surface roughness,
Cutting force.
2
Journal of Science and Technology
Fig. 4. The relationship between K and cutting parameters V, t and f. a) Fixed V, b) Fixed f, c) Fixed t
3
Journal of Science and Technology
Fig. 5. The relationship between F and cutting parameters V, t and f. a) Fixed V, b) Fixed f, c) Fixed
Fig. 6. The relationship between Ra and cutting parameters V, t and f. a) Fixed V, b) Fixed f, c) Fixed t
Fig. 7. The relationship between F and K Fig. 8. The relationship between Ra and K
Figure 6 indicates that Ra increases with f and t on the relationship between F and K as well as
increasing f and t but reduces with increasing V. This Ra and K, the five-level full factorial design was
is because under high-speed cutting, the built up edge assigned for cutting speed (V) of 1000, 1064, 1128,
phenomenon would disappears leading the reduction 1192, 1256 m/min; feed rate (f) of 800, 1050, 1300,
of surface roughness [11]. Similar to K and F, the 1550, 1800 mm/min and uncut chip thickness (t) of
optimized values of V, f and t for minimizing Ra are 0.5, 0.75, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50 mm, respectively.
1256 m/min, 1800 mm/min and 0.5 mm, respectively.
It is seen that minimum values of F and Ra are
4.2 The relationship between F and K, Ra and K 117N and 0.403m, respectively, which are all
obtained at K = 1.312. When K is equal to 1.154,
This section analyzes the relationship between F
maximum values of F and Ra are obtained equal to
and K as well as, Ra and K based on Eqs. (2-4). By
eliminating V, f and t from Eqs. (2-4), the relationship 146N and 0.64m, respectively.
between F and K, Ra and K are found. As shown in The figures 7 and 8 also summarize the affected
Figures 7-8, In order to verify the effect of various V, trend of cutting parameters i.e., cutting speed, feed
4
Journal of Science and Technology
rate and uncut chip thickness on the cutting force (F) prediction of cutting forces in end milling with
and surface roughness (Ra) related with chip application to cor-nering cuts, International Journal of
shrinkage coefficient (K) as discussing in detail on Machine Tool Design and Research 22 (1982) 722.
section 4.1. From those figures, the optimal cutting [3] H.J. Fu, R.E. DeVor, S.G. Kapoor, A mechanistic
parameters can be obtained by minimizing cutting model for prediction of the force system in face
force (F), surface roughness (Ra) and chip shrinkage milling oper-ation, ASME Journal of Engineering for
coefficient (K). In order to minimize the F and Ra, the Industry 106 (1984) 8188.
maximum of cutting speed (V) and minimum of feed [4] W.P. Wang, Solid modelling for optimizing metal
rate (f) also uncut chip thickness (t) should be set. removal of three-dimensional end milling, Journal of
However, the decreasing of uncut chip thickness (t) Manufac-turing Systems 7 (1984) 5766.
will increase the chip shrinkage coefficient (K)
[5] T. O. Zel, T. Altan, Modeling of high speed
therefore (t) will be chosen based on the productivity machining processes for predicted tool forces stresses
of manufacturing process. and temperatures using FEM simulations, in:
5. Conclusions Proceedings of the CIRP International Workshop on
Modeling of Machining Oper-ations, Atlanta, GA,
This paper presents an experimental study on (1998) 225234.
relationship between cutting force, surface roughness [6] Tugrul Ozel, Taylan Altan, Process simulation using
and chip shrinkage coefficient when high speed finite element method - prediction of cutting forces,
milling of A6061 aluminum alloy. Some conclusions tool stresses and temperatures in high-speed flat end
are given as follows: milling, International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture 40 (2000) 713738.
1. The relationship between the cutting force, surface
roughness and chip shrinkage coefficient through [7] Mehmet Alper, lhan ASLTRK, Effects of Cutting
cutting parameters e.g., cutting speed, feed rate, uncut Tool Parameters on Surface Roughness, International
chip thickness are explicitly described by Refereed Journal of Engineering and Science, 4(8)
(2015) 15-22.
mathematical functions.
[8] Ali Mamedo, Ismail Lazoglu, An evaluation of micro
2. The optimal cutting parameters for chip shrinkage milling chip thickness models for the process
coefficient, cutting force and surface roughness can mechanics, the International Journal of Advanced
be found by maximizing the cutting speed (V) and Manufacturing Technology, (2015) 1-7
minimizing the feed rate (f), which are useful for
[9] Swan MS. Incorporation of a general strain-to-failure
practical milling of A6061 aluminum alloy.
fracture criterion into a stress-based elasticity model
Acknowledgements: This research is funded by through a time-to-failure softening mechanism. M.Sc.
Vietnam National Foundation for Science and Thesis in Mechanical Engineering University of Utah,
Technology Development (NAFOSTED) under grant USA.(2012)
number 107.02-2016.01. [10] K. Venkata, M. Krishnam, G. R. Janardhana,
Optimization of Cutting Conditions for Surface
References Roughness in CNC End Milling, 12( 3) (2011) 383
[1] Wu Baohai, Yan Xue, Luo Ming, Gao Ge, Cutting 391.
force prediction for circular end milling process, [11] Banh Tien Long, Tran The Luc and Tran Sy Tuy.
Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, 26 (4) (2013) 1057 Metal Cutting Principles, 2nd Ed, Science and
1063. Technics Publishing House, (2013) (In Vietnamese)
[2] W.A. Kline, R.E. DeVor, J.R. Lindberg, The
5
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 006-010
Abstract
In the mechanisms and machines operating at high speeds, the elastic vibration of links is inevitable. In this
paper the dynamic modeling and controller design for a flexible four-bar mechanism are studied. The fully
coupled non-linear equations of motion are obtained by using the Lagranges equations with multipliers for
constrained multibody systems. The resulting differential-algebraic equations are solved using numerical
methods. A simple PD controller is designed to reduce the influence of the elastic link on the desired motion.
Keywords: Dynamic analysis, control, Four-bar mechanism, Ritz-Galerkin method, Vibration.
*
1. Introduction A fourbar mechanism OABC is shown in
Figure 1. The mechanism consists of the rigid crank
Traditionally, dynamic analysis and control of
OA of length l1, the flexible rod AB of length l 2 and
mechanisms have been based on the assumption that
the rigid rod BC of length l 3, the distance OC is l0,
the links behave as rigid bodies. The demand for high
speed lightweight machinery requires a redesign of is the external torque acting on the crank joint. e1(0)
the current mechanisms. Unfortunately, reducing the and e(20) are the unit vectors of the fixed coordinate
weight of four-bar mechanisms and/or increasing
system Ox0y0. e1 and e 2 are the unit vectors of the
their speed may lead to the onset of elastic
oscillations, which causes performance degradations reference coordinate system Axy which is rotated
such as misfeeding in the case of the card feeder with an angle 2 to the fixed one. Three
mechanism in Sandor et al [1]. Therefore, the variables 1, 2 and 3 are the angles between the x0-
dynamic analysis and control vibration of flexible axis and crank OA, the x0-axis and flexible link AB,
mechanisms are required. Although dynamic analysis the x0-axis and output link BC, respectively.
of flexible mechanisms has been the subject of
numerous investigations [1-6], the control of such u(l2,t)
systems has not received much attention [2-4]. Most l2 B x
of the work available in the literature which deals y
u(x,t)
with vibration control of flexible mechanisms employ x
an actuator which acts directly on the flexible link. y0 e2
A 2
The effect of the control forces and moments on the e1
overall motion is neglected. An alternative method
would be to control the vibrations through the motion e(20) 1 3
x0
of the input link. O C
( 0)
e 1
The current study deals with the control of a
Fig. 1. Diagram of the four-bar mechanism
four-bar mechanism with a flexible coupler link. An
actuator is assumed to be placed on the input link
which applies a control torque. A simple PD control It should be noted that in general the constraint
is designed which requires measurements of the equations depend on the elastic deformations. In this
position and angular velocity of the input link only. study, the transverse deformations are neglected.
Therefore, the constraint equations here depend on
2. Equations of motion of the four-bar mechanism
the longitudinal deformations:
f 1 l1 cos 1 l2 u( l2 ,t ) cos 2 l3 cos 3 l0 0
* f 2 l1 sin 1 l2 u( l2 ,t ) sin 2 l3 sin 3 0
Corresponding author: Tel.: (+84) 977.244.292
Email: nam.nguyensy@gmail.com (1)
6
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 006-010
Ritz-Galerkin method is applied to the coupler The strain energy according to Reddy [9] is given by
link. The axial deformation of the coupler link is l 2
u N N
2
EA dx EA kij qi q j
written as [7, 8] 1 1
(9)
N
2 0
x 2 i 1 j 1
u( x ,t ) X i ( x ).qi ( t ) (2) l2
i 1
where k ij X X dx
i j
where qi(t) are the modal coordinates and Xi(x) are 0
rM rA x u e1 l1l 22 l23
N
(6) 1 cos1 2 l11 cos1 2 Ci qi 2
2 i 1 3
The coordinates of the point M in the fixed N N l l 2
N
coordinate system are given as:
2 2 Di qi mij qi q j 1 2 12 sin1 2
i 1 2
i 1 j 1
xM l1 cos 1 ( x u ) cos 2 N N N N
y M l1 sin 1 ( x u ) sin 2
(7) l112 sin1 2 Ci qi 2 2 Di q i
mij q i q j
i 1 i 1 i 1 j 1
By differentiating the equations (7) combined l 2 u B sin 2 .1 l 2 u B cos 2 .2
with equation (4), and then substituting into the (12)
equation (5), the kinetic energy is obtained as
I C3 l3 sin3 1 l3 cos3 2 0 (13)
l l 2
1
1
T I O l12 l2 12 I C 32 1 2 1 2 cos1 2 N
l11 sin 1 2 C i mij q j
2 2 2
l23 2 2 N N N
2 2 2 Di qi mij qi q j
j 1
6 2 i 1 N
l1 12 cos 1 2 C i 22 Di mij q j
i 1 j 1
(14)
N N N
2
mij qi q j l112 cos1 2 Ci qi
i 1 j 1 i 1 N
j 1
N EA k ij q j 1 cos 2 2 sin 2 i
l11 sin1 2 Ci qi (8) j 1
i 1
l2 l2 l2 where i = 1,2,..,N;
where Ci X i dx , Di xX i dx ; mij X i X j dx when i 2 k 1, k 1,2 ,...
1
0 0 0 i
1 when i 2 k , k 1,2 ,...
7
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 006-010
3. Dynamic analysis clearer, since the larger torque causes larger elastic
deformations.
A set of (3+N) differential equations (11-14) and
two algebraic constraint equations (1) are the motion Table 1. Parameters of four-bar mechanism
equations of mechanism with an elastic link.
Constant Description Value
Therefore, we have (5+N) differentialalgebraic
[unit]
equations with (5+N) variables given as
l0[m] Length of the ground link 0.4064
M( s ,t)s sT (s,t ) p1 (s, s, t ) (15) l1[m] Length of the input link 0.0635
f(s,t) = 0 (16) l2[m] Length of the coupler link 0.3048
l3[m] Length of the output link 0.3048
where s = [1 2 3 q1 qN 1 2]T ; is vector of
Lagrange multipliers; f is the vector of constraint IO[kgm2] Moment of inertia of the 7.466
equations. In this paper, the Lagrange multipliers input link x10-6
partition method is used to solve the system of IC[kgm2] Moment of inertia of the 2.002
differential-algebraic equations (15) and (16) output link x10-3
numerically. Some other algorithms can be found in [kg/m] Mass per unit length 0.2237
Khang [8]. E[N/m2] Modulus of elasticity 2.06x1011
For comparison purposes, another set of
A[m2] Cross-sectional area of 8.19
simulations is carried out by assuming that the
the coupler link x10-6
coupler link behaves as a rigid body (i.e., neglecting
m1[kg] Mass of the input link 0.0142
the longitudinal deformations). The values of the
parameters used in the simulations are given in Table m2[kg] Mass of the coupler link 0.0682
1. The torque on the input link is given by:
m3[kg] Mass of the output link 0.0682
sin( 2t / Tm ) t Tm
(t ) 0 (17)
0 t Tm
8
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 006-010
1 1d y1
2 2 d y2
Fig. 4. Crank angle, 0 = 0.1 Nm (18)
rigid, flexible. 3 3 d y3
y3i qi
where 1d, 2d, 3d represent the rigid mechanism
trajectory; y1, y2, y3 are deviation of flexible trajectory
versus rigid trajectory. It is assumed that y1, y2, y3 ,
y3+i are small.
In order to investigate whether it is possible to
suppress vibrations of the flexible link by a control
torque applied to the input link, a simple control
strategy, in particular PD controller is used. The
target of the controller is that y1, y2, y3 , y3+i approach
zero when time approaches infinity (or large
enough). The control torque applied to the input link
is given by:
c K P y1 K d y 1 (19)
Fig. 6. Longitudinal deformation of flexible coupler Fig. 7. Crank angle with PD controller, 0 = 0.1 Nm
link, 0 = 0.1 Nm. rigid, flexible.
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Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 006-010
10
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 011-015
Abstract
Welding is present in all industrial sectors as a necessary technological process. One of the principal
directions for the progress of the welding is the development of hybrid welding processes. Plasma-MIG
hybrid welding was developed several decades ago. Nowadays, it becomes a bright technology in materials
processing. One of the versions of the PlasmaMIG processes is basically a combination of a keyhole
plasma arc with a MIG arc in order to deliver greater welding speeds, deeper weld penetration, and reduced
heat input. In this paper, plate to plate butt joint welds were conducted on mild steel plates and the aims of
this research is developed a Plasma-MIG hybrid welding process for single pass welding of thick steel
plates. As a result, it was found that the successful single-sided welding in one pass with complete
penetration and improve the weldability of welding joints in comparison with MIG welding process.
Keywords: Plasma keyhole, GMAW, Plasma-MIG hybrid welding, Hybrid arc.
aims of this research is developed a Plasma-MIG constant current characteristics and base metal. The
hybrid welding system for single pass welding of configuration of the torches were set up based on the
thick steel plates. As a result, it was found that the distance and angle between the crossing positions of
successful single-sided welding in one pass with the electrodes-axis and surface on base metal shown
complete penetration and improve the weldability of as Fig.2, thus the leading Plasma and trailing MIG
welding joints in comparison with MIG welding were configured. Concerning the arc ignition steps,
process. In addition, the metal transfer from MIG Plasma arc was started firstly and weld pool was
wire was imaged by using high speed video camera formed on the surface of base metal, and then MIG
(HSVC) in order to know the interaction between the arc was started. In addition, metal transfer from MIG
plasma arc flow and the MIG arc promotes wire wire filler was imaged by using a high speed video
heating and current transfer at the anode spot (at the camera for evaluating the condition under which the
end of the MIG wire) where the molten weld metal metal transfer was stabilized as shown Fig.3.
droplets form and subsequently detach.
In order to develop a Plasma-MIG hybrid
2. Experimental procedure welding process for single pass welding of thick steel
plates, plate to plate butt joint welds were conducted
The classical representation of Plasma-MIG
on mild steel plates by varying experimental
hybrid welding process was shown in Fig.1. This
parameters such as the plate specifications including
Plasma electrode establishes an arc at the leading
the thick and initial position of base metal plate,
position of the welding process, and a keyhole is
plasma current, the energy input rate of MIG process,
created within the base material by the plasma arc.
the wire feed rate, welding speed. This paper also
GMAW follows and operates typically in the
presents an example of experimental results in which
conduction welding mode to fill the void created by
the weld has complete penetration, very good
the plasma arc. The interaction between the plasma
metallurgical, without porosity, cracks, and undercuts
arc flow and the GMAW arc promotes wire heating
in comparison with MIG welding process. The
and current transfer at the anode spot (at the end of
parameters of tests were shown in Table.1 and the
the GMAW welding wire) where the molten weld
initial plate positioning for hybrid welding of plate to-
metal droplets form and subsequently detach. The
plate butt joints was shown in Fig.2. The bead
resultant magnetic force F, shown in Fig.1, occurs as
appearance and the bead cross section of Plasma-
a result of the interaction of the electric currents
MIG hybrid welding and MIG welding was observed
passing through the two electrodes [1].
using the conventional techniques of macrograph on
The experimental apparatus consists of a Plasma cross-sections taken from the welded test plates (300
torch, a MIG torch, MIG power source with the mm bead). For each test plate, a cross-sections was
constant voltage characteristics, plasma source with cut approximately in the middle of the bead.
12
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 011-015
Fig.1 Principle of Plasma MIG hybrid welding. 1Work-piece; 2Plasma jet; 3Plasma nozzle; 4Melting
metal; 5Plasma arc electrode axis; 6Wire axis; 7Angle between electrodes axes; 8-Tungsten electrode; 9
Consumable electrode (wire); 10MIG arc; 11Low temperature plasma; 12Wire current Iw direction; 13
Plasma current Ip direction; 14Magnetic forces F applied to plasma arc; 15Magnetic forces applied to MIG
arc
Droplet Droplet
Fig.4 Observation of weld pool and droplet during welding. (a) The metal transfer of MIG welding
imaged by HSVC; (b) The metal transfer of Plasma-MIG hybrid imaged by HSVC.
Fig.5 The bead appearance of MIG welding (Welding current: 105 A; welding voltage: 21V; wire
feed rate: 240 cm/min; welding speed: 12 cm/min)
13
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 011-015
14
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 011-015
arc rigidity and stability leading to a substantial [2] Plasma Laser Technologies. Hybrid Plasma/MIG
increase of penetration depth and welding speed. Welding Reduces Welding Time. Power Engineering,
ProQuest Central. 112(8), (2008) 75-77.
2) The Plasma-MIG hybrid welding technology
is capable of achieving single-sided complete joint [3] Jeff Palms. Joining Methodologies for Titanium Alloys
- Hybrid Plasma and MIG combination. Advanced
penetration welds of the butt-joint welding of thick Industrial Technology, (2004).
plate steel with good weld shape, dimensions, and
metallurgical integrity in comparison with MIG [4] Emel Taban, Erdinc Kaluc and Alfred Dhooge. Hybrid
welding process. (plasma + gas tungsten arc) weldability of modified
12% Cr ferritic stainless steel. Materials and Design. 30
Acknowledgements (2009) 42364242.
The work was jointly supported by JICA Project [5] Shinichi Tashiro and Manabu Tanaka. Development of
(AUN/SEED-Net) with SRJP program and plasma MIG brazing process for dissimilar metal
TANAKAs Lab, JWRI, Osaka University, JAPAN. joining of aluminum to steel. International Symposium
on Interfacial Joining and Surface Technology (IJST),
References (2014).
[1] Madison Heights. Hybrid Welding: An Alternative to
SAW. Welding Solutions, Inc. (2007).
15
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 016-021
Le Van Tao1,2,*, BanhTien Long1, Tran Xuan Thai 1, Nguyen Thi Hong Minh 1
1
Hanoi University of Science and Technology No. 1, Dai Co Viet Str., Hai Ba Trung, Ha Noi, Viet Nam
2
Military Technical Academy - No. 236, Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Viet Nam
Received: January 10, 2016; accepted: June 9, 2017
Abstract
In the study, the authors studied the effect of the electrical current (Ip); the time-on discharge (Ton) on the
penetration of tungsten into the surface of SKD61 steel at different concentrations of tungsten carbide
powder used in powder mixed electrical discharge machining. The research has shown that the electrical
current and the time-on discharge can impact greatly on the penetration of tungsten and the carbidation of
the steel surface. In the mode of low electrical discharge, the penetration of tungsten into the surface and
the carbidation of the surface is better than that of the mode of high electrical discharge.
Keywords: EDM, PMEDM, Surface modification, Tungsten carbide powder.
16
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 016-021
resistance. Also authors pointed that coating Table 4. The Particle Size in Weight Percentage of
thickness increased with increasing concentrations of Tungsten Carbide Metal Powder
nickel powders.
5.5m 11m 16m 22m 31m
In the world, very few authors studied tungsten 5.23% 25.98% 59.74% 89.35% 98.93%
carbide powders mixed in the dielectric liquid of
EDM process to alter surface properties of workpiece. 2.1. Materials and Equipment
Within the framework of the paper, the authors
investigate the impact of electrical parameters on the The experiment used Daido Steel SKD61-
surface properties such as micro hardness of the steel Amistar (JIS- Japan) with the chemical composition
SKD61 as well as the study of carbidation process of as shown in Table 1. The dielectric fluid is Shell Oil
the surface after PMEDM. EDM Fluid 2. The technical properties are shown in
Table 2. The particle size and the chemical
2. Experiment composition in percent by weight of tungsten carbide
The total experiment plan is shown in Figure 1. metal powder is shown in Table 3 and Table 4.
The following sessions describe in details the
materials and methods of the experiments. 2.2. Experiment Method
An electrical discharge machine from the
Aristech Company, model CNC-460 EDM, was used
to remove the upper part of the SKD61 workpiece
to obtain dimensions as in Table 5. The copper
electrode polarity was negative. In this experiment,
tungsten carbide metal powder was mixed into the
dielectric fluid with the concentrations as in Table 5.
Table 5. Experimental Conditions
Deposition Condition Detail
Current (A) (Ip) 1A, 2A
Pulse on (s) (Ton) 16 s, 32 s, 50 s, 200 s
Pulse off (s) (Toff) 50s
The dielectric fluid Shell EDM Fluid 2
Polarity of Cu-electrode Negative ()
Fig. 1. Experimental flow
Current voltage (V) 80-120 V
Powder concentration (g/l) 20; 40; 60
Table 1. The Chemical Composition in Weight The parameters of the process are given in Table
Percentage of SKD61 5. The chemical composition was measured by
C% Si% Cr% Mo% V% Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) on a
0.38 1.0 5.0 1.25 1.0 scanning electron microscope JSM6610LA- JEOL
(JAPAN). Layer coating in surface of workpiece
was taken by a microscope AXIO-A2M. Micro
Table 2. The Technical Properties of Shell Oil EDM hardness of surface was determined by micro
Fluid 2 hardness tester DURAMIN- STRUERS
Properties Unit Value
3. Results and discussion
0
Velocity at 40 C cSt 2.25
Density at 150C kg/l 0.773 3.1. Analyzing the content of the element tungsten
0 penetration into the surface of workpiece
Freezing temperatures (max) C -27
Thermal conductivity W/m 0C 0.01 Using the EDX method to determine the
chemical composition of surface by region. As shown
Table 3. The Chemical Composition of Tungsten in Figure 2
Carbide Metal Powder As shown in Figure 3a;3b;3c, the chemical
composition of surface is determined at the mode I p =
C% Co% Fe% W% Other components 1 A, Ton = 16 s, 60g/l. The tungsten content of the
5.56 11.9 0.02 82.5 <0.01 surface is averaged among the three surface region on
the workpiece.
17
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 016-021
2100 W: 62.13%
Si
1800
W
1500 Fe
Cr
Counts
1200
V W
900 C Fe W Mo FeKesc
Fe
Cr Cr W
600 Mo W W
V V V Cr Fe Fig. 4. The tungsten content penetration into the
W
300 surface of workpiece at Ip = 1A
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
keV
2100
Si
1800
W
W: 62.38%
1500
Counts
Cr
1200 Fe
V W
900
Fe FeKesc
C Fe
Cr W Mo Cr W W
600 V Mo W
V V Cr Fe W
300
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
keV
2100
Si W: 62.71%
1800
Fe
W Fig. 5. The tungsten content penetration into the
1500
Cr surface of workpiece at Ip = 2A
Counts
1200 Cr
V W FeKesc
900 Fe The tungsten content penetrate into the surface layer
C Fe W Mo Cr W
W W of workpiece at Ip = 1A; Ip = 2A from figures 4 and 5:
600
V Mo
V V Cr Fe W
300 According to the graph in Figure 4, 5:
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
Considering at the pulse on time, or time-on
keV
(Ton), the element tungsten always penetrated into the
surface of SKD61 steel. The only at two modes of Ton
Fig. 3c. The region III = 200 s, Ip = 1A, the concentration of 20 g/l and 40
18
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 016-021
g/l (Figure 2), the tungsten does not penetrate into the dielectric or the based material. This explains the fact
surface of workpiece. that the micro hardness on the surface of workpiece
in PMEDM is higher than the micro hardness on the
The cause of this phenomenon can be explained
surface of workpiece in EDM. The improvement
as follows: The heat of the electrical discharges has
comparing between the micro hardness on the surface
molten the tungsten carbide powder which later on
of workpiece in PMEDM and the micro hardness on
penetrate into the surface of workpiece. The element
the surface of workpiece in EDM is lowest by 2.76%
tungsten does not penetrate into the surface of
at the mode Ton = 200 s; Ip = 1 A and concentration
workpiece at Ton = 200 s mode, Ip = 1A, the
20g/l. The highest improvement of micro hardness on
concentration of 20 g/l and 40 g/l, is due to the
the surface of workpiece between PMEDM and EDM
prolonged sparks time, the high bubble pressure of
is 129.17% at the mode T on = 16 s; Ip = 1 A and
the previous period reduced the concentration of
concentration 60g/l.
tungsten powder in the next period, leading to little or
no penetration of tungsten carbide into the workpiece
surface.
At the short time of eletrical discharges (Ton),
the tungsten content in the surface of workpiece are
more than that at the long time of eletrical discharges
(Ton). At the mode Ton = 16 s, the tungsten content
in the surface of workpiece is more than at the Ton =
32 s; 50 s; 200 s at Ip = 1 A and Ip = 2 A. Also,
according to the diagram in Figure 4, Ton = 16 s; Ip =
1 A and concentration of 60 g/l having the highest
tungsten content into the surface of workpiece, which
is 62.407%.
This phenomenon is due to the short time of
electrical discharges, which leads to the low bubble
pressure of the previous period, leading to a higher
concentration of tungsten powder in the next period. Fig. 6. Micro hardness on the surface of
Therefore, during the next electrical discharge period, workpiece (HV) at Ip = 1 A
the tungsten penetration into the surface of workpiece
in the discharge channel forming region is much
higher. Also, the time of electrical discharge and the
current of electrical discharges are at reasonable
levels to generate a heat channel to melt the tungsten
powder and then generates the energy imbalances in
the surface of workpiece, enabling of tungsten
penetration into the surface of workpiece.
3.2. Micro hardness on the surface of workpiece.
Using the micro hardness tester DURAMIN-
STRUERS to determine the micro hardness of
surface. The micro hardness of the surface is an
average value of three point on the surface of
workpiece.
According to the graph in Figure 6, 7, the micro
hardness on the surface of workpieces in PMEDM
method are higher than the micro hardness of the
surface of workpieces in the EDM method. Fig. 7. Micro hardness on the surface of
workpiece (HV) at Ip = 2 A
This phenomenon can be explained by the
appearance of the tungsten content in the surface of
workpiece after machining, according to Figure 8, 9.
The tungsten content are changed in to carbide on the
surface of workpiece under the thermal effect of the
EDM process. The carbon may come from the
19
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 016-021
20
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 016-021
[3] A. Erden, S. Bilgin, Role of impurities in electric International Symposium on Machine Tool
discharge machining,in: Proceedings of 21st Designand Research, UK, 1985, pp. 329336.
International Machine Tool Design and Research
Conference, Macmillan, London, 1980, pp. 345350. [7] N. Mohri, J. Tsukamoto, M. Fujino, Surface
modification by EDMan innovation in EDM with
[4] C.H. Wang, Y.C. Lin, B.H. Yan, F.Y. Huang, Effect semi-conductive electrodes, in: Proceedings of Winter
of characteristics of added powder on electric Annual Meet ASME, vol. 34, 1988, pp. 2130.
discharge machining, J. Jpn. Inst. Light Met. 42 (12)
(2001) 25972604. [8] Y. Uno, A. Okada, Y. Hayashi, Y. Tabuchi, Surface
integrity in EDM of aluminum bronze with nickel
[5] N. Mohri, N. Saito, M.A. Higashi, A new process of powder mixed fluid, J. Jpn. Soc. Elec. Mach. Eng. 32
finish machining onfree surface by EDM methods, (70) (1998) 2431 (in Japanese).
Annals CIRP 40 (1) (1991) 207210.
[6] N. Mohri, J. Tsukamoto, M. Fujino, Mirror-like
finishing by EDM, in: Proceedings of the 25th
21
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 022-027
Dang Bao Lam1*, Nguyen Tuan Khoa1,2, Nguyen Dang Thuan3, Pham Hong Phuc1
1
Hanoi University of Science and Technology, No. 1, Dai Co Viet, Hai Ba Trung, Hanoi, Viet Nam
2
Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, Australia
3
Smart System Laboratory, Hanbat National University, Korea
Received: January 13, 2017; accepted: June 9, 2017
Abstract
This work reports a novel design of a micro gripper, in which V-shaped electrothermal actuators are used to
create gripping force and a compliant mechanism is integrated to amplify displacements of the actuators.
The gripper is designed to handle micro samples of various sizes from 5 m to 50 m by applying
appropriate driving voltages. Those voltages are ranged from 5 V to 25 V, which are relatively low in
comparison with driving voltages of the electrostatic micro grippers. The compliant mechanism with
amplifying ratio 5.2, arranged between the actuators and the jaws, is aimed to compensate small strokes of
the actuators. Simulation by Finite-Element Analysis has also been carried out to confirm results of the
theoretical calculation and designing process. The micro gripper can be implemented in micro devices such
as micro robots or micro assembling systems, in which it can perform gripping and transporting tasks.
Keywords: Micro gripper, V-shaped actuator, Compliant mechanism.
of the V-shape beam will expand and push the main Because only geometrical displacements of the
beam (5) forward. The compliant mechanism (2) with compliant mechanism and the jaws are taken into
the flexural joints (6) is designed to convert consideration, we substituted the flexural joints with
displacement in y-direction into rotation movement of revolute joints and omit the elastic forces. The
the jaws (3), and also to amplify displacement of the equivalent model of the gripper is shown in figure 2.
actuators. Calculation is being carried out with only one wing
due to the symmetries of the gripper structure.
43
y Because three points F, B and C belong to one
rigid body, in order to find out displacement of the tip
x F of the jaw, position of the points B and C must be
36
2 determined. In figure 3 we can see under the input
displacement , the jaw i.e. BC will rotate an angle .
Using geometrical equations, the displacements of the
04 point B and C in x-direction and y-direction can be
calculated as:
65
) (1)
Dy DD' x OO' x AB 2 ( AU d )2 AB.sin( BAU
1 ) (2)
Cy CC' x OO' x AB 2 ( AU d )2 AB.sin( BAU
Fig. 1. Configuration of the micro gripper
Bx BBx' BC 2 CO x BC 2 CO 2
2
(3)
F
) (4)
By BB' y OO' AB2 ( AU d )2 AB.sin( BAU
Where B,C,D are the new position of B, C, D under
influence of the input displacement . From position
of BC and BC we can find the virtual center of
E
rotation I as below:
W
B 'C y' BH x BC y BH x'
I D
C H
B L L L B 'C y' BC y
L I (5)
60 L
90 B 'C y' BH y BCx BH x' BCx BH x BC y BH y
C
D D
B 'C y' BC y
A
60
And the rotation angle can be expressed as follows:
Fig. 2. Equivalent model of the micro gripper 2
L L
3L2 3
2
y
2
cos (6)
I 2L
C
H
B
H
C Where the length of BC, CD and BD at the initial
O
O
position is L. And finally, we have the lateral
B
D displacement of the jaw tip F as well as the
D amplifying ratio KA of the compliant mechanism:
d
cos cos .IF (7)
A U U x
K A 5.2 (8)
Fig. 3. Displacement of the links For example, there is input set of parameters
with AB = 200 m, BD = BC = 100 m, FH = 600
2.1.2. Geometrical displacements
m, and the angles are designed with the values as
shown in figure 2. We can calculate that for creating
23
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 022-027
25 m displacement for one gripper jaw, only 4.8 m beam (5) FS1 equals 100 N (see figure 6). Assuming
input displacement is needed. that deformation in the gripper structure is purely
elastic, meaning that relation between the input force
2.2. Displacements of the V-shaped actuators
and displacement of the gripper jaws is linear. With
Calculation for the V-shaped electrothermal the value 3.15 m of output displacement, we can
actuators has been presented in [15]. According to calculate the stiffness of the gripper structure: kS =
that paper, if we have the thermal actuator with FS1/3.15 = 31.75 N/m.
dimension as shown in figure 4, we can calculate
force F and displacement S as follows:
18 18
16 16
14 14
Displacement (um)
12 12
Force (mN)
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
Force
Fig. 7. Simulation of gripping force
2 2
Displacement
0 0 3.2. Displacements
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Voltage (V) To drive the gripper, the V-shaped electro-
thermal actuator with following specification was
Fig. 5. Relation between voltage and displacement, chosen: number of beams n = 10, the length of each
force of the actuator beam l = 750 m, beam width b = 4 m, beam height
Where b, h and l are the width, height and length of h = 30 m, and the range of the driving voltages 030
V. Table 1 shows the relation between voltages and
the actuator beam. is the slope angle of the beam.
displacement S of the actuator. We have to take into
And n is the number of the beams in the actuator. In
consideration that simulation was carried out just
figure 5 is the graph showing the relation between
only for the thermal actuator itself.
driving voltages and forces, as well as displacements
of the V-shaped actuator. Table 1. Relation between displacements and driving
voltages of the actuator
3. Simulation
3.1. Stiffness calculation U(V) 5 10 15 20 25 30
Simulation was carried out with simulating S(m) 1.76 3.12 5.39 8.56 12.64 17.63
thermal-expansion force located at the tip of the main
24
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 022-027
To simulate whole system with AB = 200 m, Comparing S and , we can find the compressing
BD = BC = 100 m, FH = 600 m, we can find the ratio KC between displacements of the main beam of
displacements of the jaw tip of the gripper (see in the V-shaped actuator when it works alone and when
table 2). In section 2.1, we have already found the it is integrated into the gripper:
amplifying ratio of the gripper KA is 5.2. Therefore,
KC S
we can also find out the displacements of the 2.4 (11)
thermal V-shaped actuator while it is integrated into
the gripper. Deviation between displacements and S 3.3. Calculation of the minimum voltage for
can be explained by the fact that when the actuator is gripping micro objects
connected to the compliant mechanisms and the jaws,
it will operate as a member in the complex system
and can only be able to produce smaller
displacement.
In figure 8, we can see simulation result of the
displacement = 18.46 m of the jaw under the
driving voltage of 20 V. The calculated and simulated
displacements of the gripper are shown in figure 9.
The curve of the theoretically calculated
displacements and the curve expressing simulating Fig. 10. Jaws and micro object
results are almost identical. In figure 10, we can see the jaws and the micro
Table 2. Relation between driving voltages and sample with diameter D m. Supposed the initial gap
displacements and between the jaws is G m.
25
and displacement (Figure11 - table 2), if we consider
that this relation with U ranged from 15 V to 20 V is
20
approximately linear, corresponding with x = 15 m,
15
we can obtain Umin = 17.47 V.
10
Simulated The process of handling the micro object can be
5
Calculated split into 2 following phases. Firstly, the voltage
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
increases to the value of Umin, and the jaws are
Driving voltage (V) approaching and touching the object. And secondly,
the voltage continues to increase to U*, and generates
Fig. 9. Displacements of the gripper the gripping force Fk. In this second phase, the
gripping force has the value equaling the elastic force
25
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 022-027
generated when one jaw is compressed by x, and Fk systems, in which it can perform gripping and
can be expressed as follows: transporting tasks.
Fk kG . x => x= Fk/ kG Acknowledgments
This research is funded by Vietnam National
The stiffness kG = 40.32 N/m has been
Foundation for Science and Technology
obtained by simulation (Fig. 7). We can calculate the
Development (NAFOSTED) under grant number
voltage U for gripping the micro sample with
107.01-2015.18
diameter D with the gripping force Fk as follows:
U= Umin+ Ux (14) References
[1]. Heng-Chung Chang, Julius Ming-Lin Tsai, Hsin-
From (14), the gripping force generated while Chang Tsai, Weileun Fang - Design, fabrication, and
working with the sample with diameter 30 m can be testing of a 3-DOF HARM micromanipulator on (1 1
calculated as shown in the table 3. 1) silicon substrate, Sensors and Actuators A 125
(2006) 438445.
Table 3. Relation between driving voltages and
gripping force Fk [2]. A.Nikoobina, M.Hassani Niaki. - Deriving and
analyzing the effective parameters in microgrippers
Fk(N) x(m) Ux(V) U(V) performance, Scientia Iranica B (2012) 19 (6), 1554
100 2.48 3.26 20.73 1563.
200 4.96 6.97 24.44 [3]. Olivier Millet et al. - Electrostatic actuated micro
gripper using an amplification mechanism, Sensors
300 7.44 10.71 28.19 and Actuators A 114 (2004) 371378.
400 9.92 13.25 30.73
[4]. S.K. Nah, Z.W. Zhong - The A microgripper using
500 12.40 15.57 33.04 piezoelectric actuation for micro-object manipulation,
Sensors and Actuators A 133 (2007) 218224.
60
[5]. Chang-Seong Jeon, Joon-Shik Park, Sang-Yeol Lee,
50 Chan-Woo Moon - Fabrication and characteristics of
out-of-plane piezoelectric micro grippers using
40 MEMS processes, Thin Solid Films 515 (2007) 4901
Diamerer D (um)
4904.
30
[6]. Bong-Seok Kim, Joon-Shik Park, Byoung Hun Kang,
20 Chanwoo Moon - Fabrication and property analysis
of a MEMS micro-gripper for robotic micro-
10
manipulation, Robotics and Computer-Integrated
Manufacturing 28 (2012) 5056
0
5 10 15 20 25
Voltage (V)
[7]. S.B.Choi, Y.M.Han, J.H.Kim, C.C.Cheong Force
tracking control of a flexible gripper featuring shape
memory alloy actuators, Mechatronics 11 (2001) 677-
Fig. 11. Relation between sample diameter and 690.
driving voltage
[8]. Z.W. Zhong, C.K. Yeong - Development of a gripper
4. Conclusion using SMA wire, Sensors and Actuators A 126 (2006)
375381.
In this paper, the design, calculation and
simulation of the electrothermal micro gripper have [9]. M.Kohl, B.Krevet, E.Just - Shape memory alloy
been presented. The compliant mechanism with the device, Sensors and Actuators A 97-98 (2002) pp.
646-652.
amplifying ratio KA= 5.2 was used to magnify the
input displacement of the V-shaped actuator. The [10]. Timothy Moutlon, G.K. Ananthasuresh -
gripper is designed to work with the driving voltages Micomechanical devices with embedded electro-
ranged from 5 V to 25 V, and to grip the micro object themal-compliant actuation, Sensors and Actuators A,
vol. 90 (2001), pp. 38-48.
with diameter ranged from 5 m to 50 m. This
device can be fabricated by the bulk micromachining [11]. B.E. Volland et al. - Duo-action electro thermal micro
technologies using only one photomask on a SOI gripper, Sensors and Actuators A, vol. 97-98 (2007),
(silicon-on-insulator) wafer. Simulation has been pp. 646-652.
carried out to confirm the results of calculating work. [12]. Sridhar Kota et al. - Design of Compliant
The micro gripper can be implemented in micro Mechanisms: Applications to MEMS, Analog
devices such as micro robots or micro assembling
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Integrated Circuits and Signal Processing (2001), [14]. Byoung Hun Kang, John T. Wen - Design of
29,pp. 715. Compliant MEMS Grippers for Micro-Assembly
Tasks, Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE/RSJ,
[13]. Xiantao Sun, Weihai Chen, Yanling Tian, Sergej DOI: 10.1109/IROS.2006.282626.
Fatikow,Rui Zhou, Jianbin Zhang, and Manuel
Mikczinski - A novel flexure-based microgripper with [15]. Nguyen Tuan Khoa, Dang Bao Lam, Dinh Khac
double amplification mechanisms for micro/nano Toan, Phm Hong Phuc - Design and fabrication of
manipulation, Review of Scientific Instruments 84, the micro bi-directional motor driven by electro-
085002 (2013). thermal actuators, Journal of Science and
Technology, Vol. 69(2013), pp. 62-68.
27
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 028-031
Abstract
The Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer is widely utilized for the detection and identification of
gas in laboratories and open environments. The measurement sensitivity and range of the spectrometry are
limited due to the strength of the absorption or emission signals. This study proposes the use of the
sinusoidal phase modulation technique to improve the signal to noise ratio (SNR) of the detected signal of
an FTIR spectrometer. In this technique, a sinusoidal signal is applied to a voice coil to create movement of
a mirror. Hence, the intensity of the interference signal is a series of harmonics. A synchronous detection
(lock-in amplifier) is then utilized to detect and amplify only one suitable harmonic and removed all other
harmonics and noise. Therefore, the SNR of the harmonic is improved significantly. In this paper, a weak
infrared emission from a commercial heat-lamp is detected successfully using the proposed system.
Keyword: FT-TR spectroscopy, Frequency modulation, Phase modulation, Michelson interferometer.
28
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 028-031
29
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 028-031
(a)
(b)
30
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 028-031
31
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 032-036
Abstract
This paper presents a low cost method for measuring accuracy and pose repeatability of industrial robots,
which can be used for robot home calibration, accuracy improvements, robot control compensation or
evaluating robot features. The method is proposed based on the kinematical relations of the robot joints and
the geometrical data from the robot controller with respect to several defined coordinate systems. The
experimental setup consists of three dial gauges, capturing position measurements of a KUKA KR6/2 robot
end-effector. The positions of the end-effector are employed to estimate robot pose accuracy and
repeatability. Moreover, experimental results demonstrate the efficiency of the method and can be used for
improving the robot accuracy as well as robot pose repeatability in industrial applications.
Keywords: Pose Repeatability, Accuracy, Industrial robot, KUKA KR 6/2
pose 2, it needs a transformation matrix called 1 T2 The real or measured transformation matrix from
and these poses are expressed in the World pose 1 to pose 2 can be computed as
coordinates defined by w T1 and w T2 , respectively.
F1m
1 u
u
F2m u F1m 1T2m and 1T2m u
F2m , (5)
Similarly, with respect to the User frame, one can
derive two transformation matrices for pose 1 and 1R m 1
p2m
pose 2 written as u F1 and u F2 , respectively. The
1
T2m 2 , (6)
0 1
controlled transformation matrix from the World
coordinate system to the Tool one describing pose k with 1 R2m and 1 p2m are the rotation matrix and
is evaluated as the position vector from pose 1 to pose 2,
w Rc w
pkc respectively.
w
Tkc wTk1 1Tk2 2Tk3 3Tk4 4Tk5 5Tk6 k , (1)
0 1 The robot absolute pose accuracy or the
positioning and orientation accuracy are defined as a
where wTkc is the transformation matrix from the difference between the measured transformation
w frame to Tool frame of pose k; i 1Tki presents the matrix 1T2m and the controlled counterpart 1T2c .
transformation matrix from joint frame i to joint Obviously, these matrices are independent on the
World and the User frames.
frame i-1, (i=1,2,,6); and w Rkc is the controlled
rotational matrix from the w frame to Tool frame of 2.2 Experimental Setup
pose k calculated as
0 sin Ak cos Ak
(2)
w c
with p is the controlled position vector
k
pkc xk yk zk .
w T
expressed in the w system reads as Fig. 1. Coordinate system definition
Moreover, we obtain the relation for controlled
transformation matrices of poses 1 and 2 with respect
to different frames as seen in Fig. 1
T2c wT1c
1 1
T2c wT1c 1T2c
w 1
T2c . (3)
1R c 1
p2c
1
T2c 2 , (4)
0 1
33
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 032-036
cube is fixed on the end-effector at the origin of the indications of the dial gauges are recorded. The next
Tool frame and three orthonormal faces with respect step is to measure and record the coordinates of point
to x , y and z axes are well calibrated. The three P in Fig. 3. At last, the measures Px , Py and Pz are
dial gauges have resolution of 0.05 mm and their substituted into Eq. (7). Therefore, the actual position
stroke is of 18 mm. When the three orthonormal faces coordinates; u pkm ( xk , yk , zk ) of the robot end-effector
of the tooling cube touch the tips of the gauges, the
with respect to the User is achieved.
slide rods of the gauges are depressed in the x , y
and z directions. If the movement range of the cube 2.4 Orientation Accuracy
is within the stroke, the dial gauges can directly To determine the orientation of the robot end-
indicate the change of the tooling cube position. The effector, the dial gauges can be placed so that they are
setup is fixed on the table and referred to the not orthogonal together i.e. their axes do not intersect
reference plate (User frame). into a point. Consequently, three measuring points
2.3 Positioning Accuracy P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and P3 ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) create
The Tool Center Point can be measured. We call a plane on which the orientation of the robot end-
a reference point on the gauge fixture is P with which effector is defined. By investing this plane for each
sample one can obtain the orientation of the robot
the TCP at pose k can be calculated by
tool frame.
xk Px (0.5 A M1 D1 ) Mathematically, the plane passing the three
yk Py (0.5 A M 2 D2 ), (7) points is constructed and the P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) lies in the
z P (0.5 A M D )
k z 3 3
plane yields the plane equation as
P
1
D
34
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 032-036
x axis is x cos xm l cos xm m cos xm h when the Table 1. Positioning repeatability (mm)
x axis passing P1 and P2 Direction x Axis y Axis z Axis
Max errors 0.125 0.165 0.115
cos xm ( x2 x1 ) / r Min errors -0.145 -0.115 -0.170
cos x ( y2 y1 ) / r ,
m
(15) Mean -0.025 -0.036 0.045
STD 0.045 0.036 0.069
cos x ( z2 z1 ) / r
m
u Rm u
pkm
u
Fkm k . (17)
0 1
u
Substituting Fkm into Eq. (5) the measured
transformation matrix 1F2m from pose 1 to pose 2 is
explicitly obtained in which both the robot position Fig. 4. Measurements of repeatability.
accuracy and orientation accuracy are evaluated.
Thus, we can clearly define the accuracy of the robot The orientation accuracy represented by the
formulated as rotational matrix in (16) can be derived from the
corresponding triangle. As shown in Fig. 5, the
R2 R2 R2
1 1 c 1 m
triangles connecting three measurement points
1 . (18)
( P1, , P2 , and P3 ) describe the orientation errors from
p2 p2 p2
1 c 1 m
35
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 032-036
36
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 037-042
Vu Xuan Truong1, 2, Khong Doan Dien2, Nguyen Duy Chinh2, Nguyen Duc Toan 3,*
1
Graduate University of Science and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Hungyen University of Technology and Education, Hungyen, Vietnam
3
School of Mechanical Engineering, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
Received: October 24, 2016; accepted: June 9, 2017
Abstract
This paper presents three analytical methods to determine optimal parameters of the passive mass-spring-
disc dynamic vibration absorber (DVA), such as the ratio between natural frequency of DVA and shaft, damping
ratio of DVA. The original model presented by Den Hartog, Luft and Warburton are solved and has shown in
good agreement. Three analytical methods is then adopted for torsional shaft model. The simulation results
indicate that the effectiveness in torsional vibration could be reduced. Finally, the optimal parameters of DVA
were applied to decrease the shaft torsional vibration considering the vibration duration and stability criterion.
Keywords: Dynamic vibration absorber, Torsional vibration, Fixed-points theory.
*
Corresponding author: Tel.: (+84) 988.693.047
Email: toan.nguyenduc@hust.edu.vn
37
Journal of Science and Technology
2. Shaft modeling and equations of vibration J a J aa nca e22a nka e12a 0 (5)
ka ks
a s (6)
ma Jr
e1 e2
The mass matrix, viscous matrix, stiffness matrix
r a and excitation force vector can be derived as
r ka
ca
M(t)
1 2 2 0 0
M 2
C 2 (12)
2
0 n s
M (t )
2 0
Fig. 2. Modeling of the DVA K s 2
F Jr (13)
0 n s
2 2
0
Figure 2 shows the model of the DVA used in this
study. The DVA contains a passive disk and springs-
dampers system. The radius and moment of inertia of 3. Determine optimal parameters of the DVA
the passive disk are R, Ja, respectively. The shaft and 3.1. Fixed-points theory for optimal design
the passive disc are linked together by springs and
dampers system. The stiffness of each spring is ka. The The forced vibration of this system will be of the form
viscous coefficient of each damper is ca. n is the
number of springs-dampers. The angular displacement M (t ) M eIt (14)
of the rotor is r and the torsional vibration of shaft
Thus, the stationary response of this system which can
can be written as (t ) r 0t . be written as
The relative angular displacement between the rotor
(t ) eIt , a (t ) a eIt (15)
and passive disk as a .
The system equations of motion can be expressed by where and a are complex amplitude vibration of
J r J a J aa ks M (t ) (4)
the primary system and DVA, respectively.
38
Journal of Science and Technology
Substituting Eqs.(14-15) into Eq.(11), this becomes some of damping ratio. For c = 0 or c becomes infinite
so the amplifier fuction curve becomes infinite. That
means some where in between there must be a value of
2 1 2 2 damping ratio for which the peak becomes a minimum.
2 Two other curves are draw in Fig. 3, for = 0.1 and 0.4.
2
2i 0 0 1 M The first step of this method is to specify two
0 n 2 0 (16) fixed points. Suppose that two points (S and T) with
a ks
horizontal coordinates as a 1, 2. The conditions for A
s
A32 A42 2
A1 2 2 n 2 2 ; A2 n 2 ;
A12 A42 A22 A32 0 (22)
A3 n n n
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2
From Eq.(22), we have
A4 3 2 2 n 3 2 n 2 n
A1 A2
1
1
(23)
After short caculation the Eq.(17) we obtained the A3 A4
real amplitude of the vibration response, which can be
written as
A1 A2
(24)
A12 A22 2 M M A3 2
A4 2
(t ) A (18)
A3 A4 k s
2 2 2
ks
We obtain the value of A at two points (S, T) these
where A is called the amplifier function that is are expressed as follows
defined by
A2
AS (25)
A A
2 2 2
A4 1
A 1 2
(19)
A A 2
3
2 2
4
A2
AT 2
(26)
A4
* (28)
n 2 1
Fig. 3 The graph of amplifier function
1
1,2
2
1,2
* 2
(29)
Figure 3 shows a plot of the amplifier fuction with 2 2 2 1
39
Journal of Science and Technology
Then, the optimum absorber damping can be 3.2. Minimum of quadratic torque (MQT) for optimal
identified as follows design
A The state equations of Eqs.(9,10) are expressed as [3,9]:
0 (30)
y (t ) By (t ) H f M (t ) (38a)
Eq. (19) gives where
T
A2 A32 A42 2 A12 A22 2 (31) y a a (38b)
s 0
2
2 2
(39)
Substituting Eqs.(28-29) into Eq.(33), this becomes
Matrix of excitation force is obtained as [4,9]
A1 A
A1 A2 A3 3 Hf
1 T
0 M 1F 0 0 J r1
T
J r1 (40)
M (t )
12 (34)
A2 A
A2 A2 A4 4
1
The quadratic torque matrix P is solution of the
Lyapunov equation [3]
40
Journal of Science and Technology
2 n(2 )
2 ctd c td
opt (44) 0; 0 (54)
2 n (1 2 ) * *
After short caculation the Eqs.(4,5) we obtained Table 2. The input parameters for simulation
n ma s 2 r2 a
nma 2 2s 2 r2 a
ctd (52)
2
n mas 2 r2 P34
Fig. 4. Torsional vibration with optimized DVA
nma s r P32
2 2 2 2
41
Journal of Science and Technology
These results show that torsional vibration of shaft (NAFOSTED) under grant number 107.02-2016.01.
without DVA has a harmonic form amplitude of about
References
0.02 rad.
[1]. Den Hartog J.P., Mechanical Vibrations, 4th Edition,
Figure 4 shows that in the first 0.4s, the amplitude McGraw-Hill, NY, (1982).
of the torsional vibration reduces rapidly. Effectiveness
of the optimal DVA using FPM is highest in [2]. Luft, R.W., Optimal Tuned Mass Damper for building,
comparison to the two other methods, however, the J. Struct. Div., ASCE, 105(12) (1979) 2766-2772.
difference between the viration response curves are [3]. Warburton G.B., Optimum absorber parameters for
negligible, especially vibration responses of the system various combinations of response and excitation
with MQT and MEVR are nearly the same. This shows parameters, earthquake Engineering and Structural
the strength of the fixed-points theory compared to Dynamics, (1982) 381-401.
other analytical methods. After the above period, the [4]. Khang N.V, Engineering Mechanics, Viet Nam
torsional vibration of the shaft shifts to the steady state Education Publishing House, (2009).
with a very small amplitude of about 1.20E-03 rad. At
[5]. Brock J.E, A Note on the Damped Vibration Absober,
this stage, the vibration responses with optimal DVA J. Appl. Mech., 13(4). A-284, 1946
determined by all methods are almost identical.
[6]. Nishihara O, and Asami T, Close-form solutions to the
5. Conclusions exact optimizations of dynamic vibration absorber
(minimizations of the maximum amplitude
In this paper, three analytical methods have been
manification factors), Journal of Vibration and
developed and examined for new shaft model. The Acoustics, 124, 576-582, 2002.
same procedure as in the conventional analytical theory
has been used to derive the optimum tuning and [7]. Liu K, and Liu J, The damped dynamic vibration
damping ratios of the device. Research results are absorber: revisited and new result, Journal of Sound
and Vibration 284, 1181-1189, 2005.
verified by numerical simulation with high reliability.
The optimal parameters were determined in analytical [8]. Anh N.D, and Nguyen N.X, Design of TMD for
form and furthermore leads to the simple explicit damped linear structures using the dual criterion of
formulas. The results presented in this paper may offer equivalent linearization method, International Journal
new ways of using the device over the conventional one. of Mechanical Sciences 77, 164-170, 2013.
42
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 043-047
Abstract
Polymer quenchants based on polyalkylene glycols (PAG) are currently the most widely used type of
aqueous quenchants. In this paper, the numerical simulation method by Sysweld software was used to
predict the distortions of C-ring model using 100Cr6 steel when quenched in the difference media. The
simulation results are in good agreement with the experimental values, and they also showed that the top of
C-ring was opened after deformation. The gap opening of C-ring specimens when quenched in PAG 20%
solution is the smallest in comparison to the specimens quenched in water, oil and PAG 10% solutions. On
the other hand, the research results also show that the distortion at the top of C-ring is the largest and they
are decreased from the top downward the bottom of C-ring.
Keywords: Distortion, quenching, numerical simulation, C-ring, 100Cr6 steel, poly(alkylene glycol)
Oil
44
Journal of Science and Technology
45
Journal of Science and Technology
bottom zone of the C-ring is the smallest, namely the Table 2 presents a comparison between
displacement of the node 432 is zero. the experimental and computation values for the
distortion of the specimen when quenched in PAG
Comparing these results with the sample results
20% solution. In this case, the gap opening
are quenched in PAG 10% solution we can see that in
computation result of the C-ring is only of 0.086 mm
this case, the samples have the smaller deformation.
and the measuring result on the coordinate measuring
This means that when quenching in polymer
machine is 0.08 mm. Thus, the corresponding error,
quenchants if the concentration of polymer is higher
in this case, is 7%.
then the distortion of the sample is smaller. This can
be explained by the cooling rate of the specimen to be 3.3. Distortion of the C-ring specimen when
quenched in PAG 20% is lower than it has been quenched in water
quenched in PAG 10% [5].
With such samples, in water heat treatment as we
Table 2. Comparison of experimental and simulated obtain the results as shown in Fig. 10. The simulation
distortions of C-ring after quenched in PAG 20% results in this case also reflect a trend of deformation
of the sample is similar to the heat treatment in the
Quenchant Gap opening (G) (mm) Difference polymer quenchants. That is, after quenching, the C-
Experimental Simulation (%) ring samples are also deformed with trend opens and
PAG 20% 0.08 0.086 7 the deformation of the sample is also distributed
symmetrically through the center. The nodes in the
Table 3. Comparison of experimental and simulated right half are moved in the positive direction of the
distortions of C-ring after quenched in water Ox axis, while the nodes in the left half are moved in
Quenchant Gap opening (G) (mm) Difference the opposite direction, making the sample was opened
Experimental Simulation (%) - This is like observing in experimental samples. The
Water 0.176 0.18 2.2 simulated deformation in Ox direction at node 480, in
this case, is 0.09 mm and -0.09 mm at nodes 402.
That is the gap opening of the C-ring is 0.18 mm.
Comparing these results with the results of the
specimen to be quenched in PAG 10% and PAG 20%
solution, we see that the samples, in this case, have
the greater deformation. It is caused by the cooling
rate of the sample when quenched in the water is
higher than PAG solution [6].
Compare the measuring gap opening of the C-
ring with the simulated values when quenched in
water, we received the result as shown in Table 3. In
this case, the relative difference for gap opening is
smaller than 3%.
Fig. 9. Simulated displacements in the x direction of 3.4. Distortion of the C-ring specimen when
the C-ring, after quenched in PAG 20% solution. quenched in the oil
When the simulation of the quenching process of
the research model in traditional quenchant is oil, we
received the displacement in an x-direction of the C-
ring model as shown in Fig. 11. Like the simulated
results of the quenched model in water, PAG 10%
and 20%, when the specimen was quenched in oil, the
displacement in the x-direction at node 480 is also
largest (about 0.059mm). In this case, the gap
opening of the C-ring model is about 0.118 mm.
Thus, the distortion of the C-ring model, when
quenched in oil, is smaller in compare with the model
which quenched in PAG 10% and water, but larger
than the quenched model in PAG 20%.
Fig. 10. Simulated displacements in the x direction of The comparison between the experimental and
the C-ring, after quenched in water. simulated distortions of the C-ring when quenched in
46
Journal of Science and Technology
oil as shown in Table 4. It is seen that the relative also reflect the properties of the quenching media as
difference for gap opening is smaller than 5%. shown in the Fig.s 4 and 5: the HTC of the specimen
to be quenched in PAG 20% is smallest, it will have
The simulated and measured distortions of the
minimal distortion.
C-ring specimens, when they were quenched in the
different quenchants, are shown in Fig. 12. We see Acknowledgments
that if the specimen is quenched in water then the gap
This research is funded by Hanoi University of
opening of C-ring is largest; whereas if that was
Science and Technology (HUST) under project
quenched in PAG 20% solution, it will have minimal
number T2016-PC-150.
distortion.
4. Conclusions
Table 4. Comparison of experimental and simulated
distortions of C-ring after quenched in oil. Based on the simulation and actually measuring
results of C-ring deformation above, the following
Quenchant Gap opening (G) (mm) Difference conclusions can be drawn:
Experimental Simulation (%)
Oil 0.113 0.118 4.2 The simulation results based on finite element
method are in good agreement with the experimental
values. The maximum difference between the
experimental and the simulated values for the C-ring
gap opening was only about 7%. I.e. above
simulation method is accurate and reliable.
The gap opening of the C-ring specimen that
quenched in PAG 10% solution is smaller than the
specimen quenched in water but larger than quenched
specimen in oil.
The quenching distortion of C-ring specimen is
the largest at the top (including the nodes 480, 402,
474 and 396) and decreases to zero at the bottom of
C-ring (node 432).
With PAG 20% aqueous solution, the gap
Fig. 11. Simulated displacements in the x direction of
opening of the quenched C-ring specimen is the
the C-ring, after quenched in oil.
smallest. i.e. the PAG 20% quenchant is most suitable
to quench the 100Cr6 steel when compared with oil,
water or PAG 10% quenchants.
References
[1] George E. Totten, Polymer quenchants for introduction
heat treating applications: The basic, Union Carbide
Corporation 771 Old Saw Mill River Road Tarrytown,
NY 10591.
[2] ESI Group, Sysweld 2010 Reference manual, January
2010.
Fig. 12. Comparison of distortion when quenched in
different quenchants: simulation and experiment. [3] M. Manivannan, D. O. Northwood & V. StoilovNavy,
Use of Navy C-rings to study and predict distortion in
The simulated and measured results also shown heat treated components: experimental measurements
that the distortion of the specimen, when quenched in (2014), University of Windsor, Ont., Canada.
PAG 10%, is nearly equal to the distortion of the [4] Bathe, K. J., Finite Element Procedures in Engineering
sample when quenched in the oil. In the process of Analysis (1982) Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
measuring the deformation, due to the device's
accuracy and the operator's subjective factors, the [5] Mr. P.K.Deval, New Generation Polymer Quenchant for
heat transfer coefficient is additionally calculated Heavy Forgings, Dy. General Manager Hardcastle
Petrofer Pvt. Ltd
based on the simulation software through the cooling
speed value provided by experimental measurements. [6] M. Eshraghi-Kakhki, M.A. Golozar, A. Kermanpur,
These factors can also lead to some minor differences Application of polymeric quenchant in heat treatment
between experiment and calculation. These results of crack-sensitive steel mechanical parts: Modeling and
experiments (2010), Elsevier Ltd.
47
Journal of Science and Technology
48
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 048-053
48
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 048-053
those of FEM and with available results in other with R=R1+s.sin (3)
investigations and good agreement was obtained and
advantages of CE model have been confirmed. 2.1.3. Force resultantsdisplacement relationships
k 1 4 k 1 u0 A12 v B
N S A11 u0 sin 0 w0 cos B11 S 12 S sin
1 N 1 N s R s R
Bij Qijk ( z k21 z k2 ), Dij Qijk ( z k31 z k3 ) (i, j 1,2,6)
2 k 1 3 k 1 w0 cos 1 w0
QS kA55 S , Q kA44 0
where Ei,Gij, 12, 21: elastic constants of the kth layer, s R R (4)
Aij, Bij, Dij: laminate stiffness coefficients and zk-1 and u0 A22 v B
N A12 u0 sin 0 w0 cos B12 S 22 S sin
zk are the boundaries of the kth layer. s R s R
2.1.2. Strains, stress and forces resultant v 1 u 0 sin 1 S sin
N S A66 0 v0 B66
s R R R s R
Following the First Order Shear Deformation u0 B12 v0 w0 cos S D12
Therory (FSDT), the displacement components are M S B11 u0 sin D11 S sin
s R R s R
written as (see Fig. 1):
u0 B22 v D
M B12 u0 sin 0 w0 cos D12 S 22 S sin
us, , z, t u0 s, , t zs s, , t , s R s R
v0 u 0 sin 1 S sin
vs, , z, t v0 s, , t z s, , t M S B66 0 D66
s R R R s R
ws, , z, t w0 s, , t (2) where k is the shear correction factor (k=5/6), (Ns, N,
Ns) are force resultants, (Ms, M, Ms) are moment
with u0,v0,w0: displacements of the point Mo at the
resultants and (Qs,Q) are shear force resultants at s
median radius of the shell and S, : rotations of a and directions, respectively
transverse normal about the -axis and s-axis.
2.1.4. Equations of motion
The equations of motion using the FSDT for
laminated composite conical shell are [8]:
N S sin N S
N S N 1 I 0u 0 I 1 S
s R R
N S 2 sin 1 N cos
N S Q I 0 v0 I 1
s R R R
M S sin
Fig. 1. Geometries of a shell edge by FSDT M S M 1 M S QS I 1 u0 I 2S
s R R (5)
2.1.2. The strain-displacement relations of conical
M S 2 sin 1 M
shell M S Q I 1 v0 I 2
s R R
u 0 1 S sin QS 1 Q sin cos
S k S kS s QS N I 0 w 0
s R s R s s R R R
N zk 1
1 v 0 cos 1 w0
u 0 sin w0 cos , Z 0 with I i z dz (i 0,1,2)
(k ) i
R R R k 1 zk
1 v0 1 u 0 sin
where (k): material mass density of the kth layer.
k S sin S v0 ,
R s R R
49
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 048-053
The equations for cylindrical shells and annular 4.1. Continuity conditions
plates can be derived from equations (4), (5) by using
The continuity conditions for assembling tubes
= 0o and = 90o respectively.
composed by cylinder, cone and annular plate are
3. Continuous element for thick composite shells of
revolution expressed as follows [3]:
3.1. State vector u1 = u2 cos w2 sin, v1 = v2, s1 = s2 , (9)
The state-vector for the investigated conical w1 = u2 sin + w2 cos, Qs1 = Ns2 sin + Qs2 cos,
shells is yT = {u0, v0, w0, S, , NS, NS, QS, MS,
Ns1 = Ns2 cos - Qs2 sin, Ms1 = Ms2, Ms1 = Ms2
MS}T. Using the Fourier series expansion, state
variables for the circumferential wave m are written 4.2. Assembly procedure
as:
The performant assembly procedure of
uo (s, , t ), wo (s, , t ), s (s, , t ), N S (s, , t ), QS (s, , t ), M S (s, , t )T Continuous Elements presented in our previous
u
research [8] is used to construct the Dynamic
( s), wm ( s), s m ( s), N S m ( s), QS m ( s), M S m ( s) cos me it
T
m
m 1
Stiffness Matrix for combined cylindrical-annular
vo ( s, , t ), ( s, , t ), N ( s, , t ), Q ( s, , t ), M ( s, , t )T plate-conical shells. First, the dynamic stiffness
matrix for cylinder, annular plate and cone must be
v ( s ), m ( s ), N m ( s), Q m ( s ), M m ( s ) sin me it (6)
T
m
evaluated separately. Then the dynamic stiffness
m 1 matrix for the tube can be constructed by employing
Substituting (6) in (4) and (5), a system of the assembly procedure similar to those of FEM for
differential equations in the s-coordinate can be assembling stiffness matrix illustrated in Fig. 3.
expressed in the matrix form as: dym / ds Am (s, )y m
Kcylinder
with Am is a 10x10 matrix (7)
Kannular
3.2. Dynamic stiffness matrix K() K() = plate
Kcone
Then, the dynamic stiffness matrix K()m for
conical shell is determined by [8], [9]:
T121 T11 T121
K ( ) m 1 Fig. 2. Construction of dynamic stiffness matrix for
T21 T22 T12 T11 T22 T121 m composite tubes
L
50
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 048-053
matrix method solution. Tiny differences (0.07% to model is valid for analyzing the considered tube with
3.49%) between our formulation and those in [1] different modes and boundary conditions.
confirm that the present solution is exact and the
5.2. Harmonic responses
present formulations can be applied to study the
dynamic behavior of tubes. This section confirms important advantages of CE
models with respect to other methods for complex
There is no comparative data from literature for
structures. Fig. 3 shows the comparison of FE and CE
complex composite tubes. Therefore, obtained natural
harmonic responses for the studied tube subjected to
frequencies of our CE program will be validated with
the C-C (left) and F-C boundary condition (right).
respect to those of FEM. For FE models, the Ansys
SHELL181 elements with the 180x20 mesh assure It is seen that using a raw mesh (10x80) the
good results after a convergence test. The parameters discrepancies between FE and CE curves are noticed
of the considered tube are: h = 0.002m, R1 = 0.1m, R2 from 1495.5 Hz for the 1st test and at 1660 Hz for the
= 0.18m, R3 = 0.2 m, L1 = L2 cos = 0.1 m, Material second one. More precise FE solutions are obtained
1. The comparison of CE and FE results for clamped- by using a finer meshing (20x120) because the FE
clamped (C-C), free-clamped (F-C) and supported- curves coincide with CE one within a larger
clamped (S-C) composite tubes for various vibration frequency range. However, important differences
modes is illustrated in Table 2. It is seen from this between two solutions still occur from 2556 Hz for
table that good agreements are noticed between CE the 1st test and from 2413,5 Hz for the second one. It
and FE solutions. CE model give excellent solutions is clear to remark that FE models converge towards
which are close to FE results with small errors those of CE when reducing the element sizes.
varying from 0% to 3.75%. The precision of our
Table 1. Comparison of R 4 h 2 / D11 for a cross-ply combined conical shell-annular plate with layer scheme
[90o/0o]s, Material 1 and R1 = 200mm, h1 = h2 = 2 mm, R2 = 180mm, 1 = -11.77o
2833.5
709.5
1594.5
2479.5
1.5
178.5
355.5
532.5
886.5
1063.5
1240.5
1417.5
1771.5
1948.5
2125.5
2302.5
2656.5
2833.5
-60 -80
-80 -100
20 log10|w|
20 log10|w|
-100 -120
-120
-140
-140
-160
-160
-180
-180 FEM 80x10 FEM 80x10
-200
-200 FEM 120x20 FEM 120x20
-220 CEM 3 -220 CEM
Fig. 3. Comparison of harmonic responses computed by FEM and by CEM for a C-C cylinder-annular plate-cone tube
(Left) and a F-C cylinder-annular plate-cone tube (Right)
51
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 048-053
Table 2. Comparison of natural frequencies for a composite tube with C-C, F-C and S-C boundary conditions (h = 0.002m,
R1 = 0.1m, R2 = 0.18m, R3 = 0.2 m, L1 = L2 cos = 0.1 m. Material 1)
Using a minimum meshing, CE model The exactness and validity of continuous model
demonstrates considerable advantages when dealing for different properties of geometry, vibration mode
with complex structures in terms of calculating time and boundary conditions have been confirmed by the
and the saving of data storage volume. For example, excellent agreements between obtained results with
the required time for plotting FE harmonic response those published by other researches and by Finite
curves of the 1st test are 143 minutes (10x80 FE Element Method. In conclusion, the proposed
mesh), 289 minutes (20x120 FE mesh) but is only 81 Continuous Element model consists an interesting
minutes for CE model with only 3 elements. These approach to calculate the natural frequencies of thick
CE advantages are verified for different boundary combined cross-ply laminated tube with high
conditions and for all frequency range. accuracy, especially for medium and high frequencies
where other current methods give unreliable
6. Conclusions
solutions. With a minimum meshing for complex
This research has presented a new Dynamic structures, our model accelerates the calculating
Stiffness Matrix for thick combined cross-ply speed and saves the volume of data storage.
laminated tube composed by cylinder, annular plate
The introduced Continuous Element can be
and conical shells taking into account the effect of
developed to resolve the problem of shells on elastic
shear deformations and rotational inertia as well as
foundation and containing flowing fluid, shells on
the continuity conditions at joined sections.
non-homogenous elastic foundations, shells with
damping or shells with stiffeners.
52
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 048-053
53
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 054-058
Abstract
Predicting fatigue damage for structural components subjected to variable amplitude loadings is a complex
issue. In order to estimate fatigue life under those loading conditions, a multiaxial fatigue criterion must
gather with a fatigue damage accumulation rule that allows capturing different damage mechanisms when
they are activated. In this paper, combinations of a stress invariant based fatigue criterion with some
damage accumulation rules are carried out to deal with variable amplitude loadings. An approach combining
three tools, including multiaxial criterion, multiaxial S-N curves and cumulative damage rule are used in this
study. Results show good correlations of fatigue life between experimental and predicted results for 1045
steel.
Keywords: Variable amplitude loading, multiaxial fatigue criterion, Damage accumulation.
introducing quantity J2,mean, the multiaxial fatigue The presence of J2,mean quantity allows capturing
endurance criterion is established as follows: accurately effects of phase shift and frequency on
fatigue limit of material under multiaxial loading. The
f 1 J '2 (t ) 2 2 J 2,2 mean 3 I f I1, a , I1, m prediction capacity of the criterion is tested on 119
iso-frequency axialtorsion experiments and some
(2)
other more complex loadings: biaxial loading and
where 1, 2, 3 and are material parameters; J '2 (t ) asynchronous loading and the results show that the
and J 2,mean capture shear stress effect and phase shift criterion is in good accordance with the experimental
data [1]. Under proportional loading, the assessment
effect. J '2 (t ) is the second invariant of stress of the criterion can be carried out from an analytical
amplitude part defined from the deviator of the solution. Under others loading cases, the numerical
a
amplitude of the stress tensor S (t ) and J 2,mean is the implementation of the criterion is very simple and can
be easily integrated in a damage model or in a finite
mean value of J '2 (t ) during period T: element code.
4
1 2 1 (9) Note that the subscripts 1, 2, K-1, K are the
2
sequence numbers of the loadings as they occurs. A
In order to capture the effects of phase shift and mean
particular interest in (11) is the exponent 0.4. It is
stress, Vu et al. [1] proposed to distinguish two
shown that this value is reasonable for many
categories of metals based on ultimate strength Rm:
materials.
Low-strength metals (Rm < 750 MPa):
3. Application to multiaxial variable amplitude
1 = 0.65 and 2 = 0.8636; I f I1, a , I1, m I1, a I1, m loading
High-strength metals (Rm > 750 MPa): 3.1. Multiaxial S-N curves
1 = 0.65 and 2 = 0.8636;
This paragraph introduces the application of the
I f I1, a , I1, m I1, a
f 1
I1, m mentioned above approach for 1045 carbon steel
t1
under multiaxial variable amplitude loading. The
55
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 054-058
xa
1.2812 Fig. 3. S-N curve under in phase tension torsion
N 1206.39 1.2812
(14) (k=0.5)
xa 190
Under in phase tension torsion (stress ratio
k = 1):
1.2812
xa
N 1206.391.2812 (15)
xa 132
56
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 054-058
reveals that the Vu criterion is suitable for the Miner or DCA damage rule is then used to estimate
prediction of multiaxial S-N curves. the cumulative damage and the coresponding fatigue
life of each load case. Table 2 shows the experimental
3.2. Experiment data
and the predicted fatigue life of all studied loading
A testing campaign of variable amplitude cases.
loading is carried out by Flacelire in [6]. The
Table 2. Fatigue life of 1045 steel
variable amplitude loading is created by multiple
blocks of constant loading. These blocks have Speci Test Miner DCA
different loading natures, including fully reversed Case -men Nf (x105) Nf (x105) Nf (x105)
torsion (denoted as To), fully reversed tension (cycles) (cycles) (cycles)
(denoted as Ta), in phase tension-torsion (denoted as
TaTo) (k = 0.5) and in phase tension-torsion (TaTo) 1 6,27
1 6,02 5,94
(k = 1). Many loading profiles are conducted based 2 6,21
on two principal element blocks (denoted as Block A
1 4,84
and Block B). All the load cases are resumed in Table
1. One or several specimens are tested for each load 2 2 5,59 6,03 6,10
case. For more details, with load case 1, the two 3 9,54
element blocks are fully reversed tension in 105
cycles (Ta) and fully reversed torsion in 105 cycles 3 1 5,65 5,66 5,78
(To). The loading profile of load case 1 includes 4 1 3.93 5,84 5,99
repeatedly one block A followed by one block B until
5 1 5.23 6,24 6,36
the failure of specimen. The same loading profiles are
applied for load cases 2, 6 and 7. For the loading 1 2,58 2,02 1,71
profile of load cases 3, 4 and 5, the block A is 6 2 1,27 2,64 2,54
respectively repeated 1, 2 and 3 times before the
block B is applied until the failure. 3 4,18 2,75 2,65
Table 1. Variable amplitude tests on 1045 steel [6] 1 4,89 5,4 5,32
7 2 6,37
Load Block A Block B 3,55 3,62
Loading profile 3 4,12
case (cycles) (cycles)
1 Ta (105) To (105) (A/B)/(A/B)/... For better comparison of the results, fatigue life
5 5 predictions are illustrated in Fig. 5. These graphs
2 To (10 ) Ta (10 ) (A/B)/(A/B)/...
display the predicted life versus the experimental life
5 5
3 To (10 ) Ta (10 ) (A)/(B/B/...) on log-log coordinates. The solid line represents
4 5
To (10 ) 5
Ta (10 ) (A/A)/(B/B/...) perfect correlation between experimental and
5 5
predicted values. The outer bound (dash lines) is
5 To (10 ) Ta (10 ) (A/A/A)/(B/A/B...) related with a factor of two of fatigue life. Data points
6 TaTo TaTo that fall below the solid line represent conservative
k=1 k=0.5 (A/B)/(A/B)/... estimations and points above represent non-
(105) (105) conservative prediction. The Fig. 5a shows the
correlation between the estimations using Miner rule
7 TaTo TaTo and the experimental data while the Fig. 5b shows the
k=0.5 k=1 (A/B)/(A/B)/... results by using DCA rule. As shown in Fig. 5a and
(105) (105) Fig. 5b, there is not a significant difference in the
predictions using Miner rule and using DCA rule.
3.3. Results and discussion This reveals that the effect of load sequence is
For the experimental tests shown in Table 1, relatively small for the considered loading cases. The
fatigue life predictions were carried out based on the predicted results of both Miner rule and DCA rule are
methodology mentioned in section 2.1. For each quite satisfactory. All the data points are in the limit
block, the life level Ni,f is determined from S-N curve zone. It can be concluded that the fatigue life
functions (12, 13, 14, 15) depending on the nature of prediction method gives good estimation for 1045
loading (Ta, To, TaTo k = 0.5 or TaTo k =1). The steel.
57
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 054-058
1,E+06 1,E+06
Non-Conservative Non-Conservative
Estimated fatigue life (cycles)
Conservative Conservative
1,E+04 1,E+04
1,E+04 1,E+05 1,E+06 1,E+04 1,E+05 1,E+06
Experimental fatigue life (cycles) Experimental fatigue life (cycles)
Fig. 5. (a) Miner rule and (b) DCA rule fatigue life correlation of 1045 steel under variable amplitude loading
58
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 059-065
Abstract
This paper evaluates the performance of a direct numerical simulation (DNS) method called "front-tracking"
for multiphase flows. The interface separating two fluids or two phases is represented by connected
elements that move on a fixed rectangular grid used for solving the Navier-Stokes equations. The phases
values of material properties are specified by an indicator function that is reconstructed from the interface
point location. The interface points are updated by the velocities, which are interpolated from the velocities
on the fixed grid. The method is evaluated through a thorough investigation of the performance using a
variety of verification and validation test cases including advection of the interface, computations of the
surface tension, and interplay of the viscous and interfacial tension terms. The method is then used to
simulate the evolution of the RayleighTaylor instability. Good agreement in comparison of the present
method with the previous literature proved the accuracy and capability of the method.
Keywords: DNS, Front-tracking, Performance evaluation, Multiphase flow, Rayleigh-Taylor instability
59
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 059-065
wij d x f ih d y f jh (5)
1 4h 1 cos r 2h , r 2h
d r (6)
0 , r 2h
I x x f n f dS (7)
f
Fig. 1. An interface represented by connected Then the density and viscosity fields are updated:
elements on a fixed grid. Information is passed
between the front points and the fixed grid 1 I 1 I 2 ; 1 I 1 I 2 (8)
2. Numerical method To calculate the interfacial tension force, we first
The fluids are assumed incompressible, calculate the net force on each front element:
immiscible and Newtonian. All phases are treated as
one fluid with variable density and viscosity . In Fl nds t s ds t 2 t1 (9)
s s
terms of the one-fluid formulation, the governing
equations include: where t is the tangents of the end points of each
element. After that, this force is transferred to the
u t uu p u uT fixed grid (so that it is included in the solution of the
Navier-Stokes equations) using the same smooth
weighting function, i.e. Eq. (6),
g n f (x x f )dS (1)
Fij Fl wij sl h2
f
(10)
u 0 (2) l
Here, u is the velocity vector, p is the pressure, g is Here sl is the length of the element. In the following,
the gravitational acceleration, and t is time. The we briefly describe the solution procedures.
superscript T denotes the transpose. The last term in
Suppose n time steps have been completed, to
Eq. (1) accounts for the interfacial tension force at the
calculate the solution at time level n+1 carry out the
interface. At the interface, denoted by f, is the following steps:
interfacial tension coefficient, is twice the mean
curvature, and nf is the unit normal vector to the 1. Update the position of the interface points
interface. The Dirac delta function (xxf) is zero [Eq. (3)]
everywhere except a unit impulse at the interfaces xf. 2. Reconstruct the indicator function, update the
The above equations are discretized using a second- material properties, and calculate the interfacial
order centered difference approximation for the tension force
spatial derivatives and an explicit predictor-corrector
method for time integration. The discretized 3. Calculate an intermediate velocity field:
u* tA n n u n n 1
equations are solved on a fixed, staggered grid using
the MAC method [1]. (11)
The interface separating two fluids is where the advection, the diffusion, the gravitational
represented by connected points on a fixed grid (Fig. body force and the interfacial tension force in Eq. (1)
1). The movement of the interface points is given as are denoted by A
60
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 059-065
4. Find the pressure field by solving the Poisson u, v 50 y 314, x 50 314 (14)
equation:
The grid resolution is 100100. Fig. 2 indicates
un1 u* t 1
n 1
p (12) that after one revolution, the interface of Zalesak's
disk is almost identical to the initial shape.
where un1 0 3.2. A circular drop in a vortical flow field
5. Compute the divergence-free time level n+1 This accuracy test introduced by Bell et al. [16]
fluid velocity field is to test how well a method to resolve thin laments
on the scale of the mesh which can occur in stretching
u n 1 u* t p n 1 (13) and tearing ows. A circular drop with a radius of
0.15 is initially located at (0.5, 0.75) in a box of
This solution procedure for time integration is first
order, to produce a second-order scheme, the 1.01.0 (Fig. 3a). The velocity field is given as:
technique described by Esmaeeli and Tryggvason u 2 cos t T sin 2 x sin y cos y
[14] is used. More detailed description of the method (15)
v 2 cos t T sin y sin x cos x
2
can be found in [7].
3. Performance tests where T is the period. This velocity field first
The following, we present the verication and stretches the drop into a thinner lament that is
validation of the method. The congurations to be wrapped around the center of the box, then slowly
adopted in these tests follow directly from the reverses and pulls the lament back into the initial
respective references, including dimensions and circular shape, i.e. at the end of the period T, the
velocity elds. shape should be the same as the initial one (Fig. 3a).
The grid resolution is 3232 with T = 8. Fig. 3b
3.1. A notched disc in rotating ow shows the drop shape at time t = T computed by the
Solid body rotation of a notched disc introduced present front-tracking method (FT) the dash line in
by Zalesak [15] (Fig. 2) is a test commonly used for Fig. 3b in comparison with the initial shape.
evaluating the accuracy of a method in maintaining a Obviously, the difference is barely visible. In contrast,
sharp corners. The initial data is a slotted circle the level set method (LS) [17] produced remarkable
centered at (50,75) with a radius of 15, a slot width of difference (the dash-dot line in Fig. 3b) even though a
5, and a slot length of 25. The domain is 100100. much finer grid 256256 was used.
3.3. Stationary drop
This accuracy test is to test how well a method
to predict the pressure difference between the inside
and outside of the drop. This pressure difference is
induced by the surface tension force acting on the
interface, as given by Laplace's law. For a circular
droplet in equilibrium the velocity should be exactly
zero. However, because of numerical errors, the
velocity field is not zero, and is referred to "spurious
currents" (Fig. 4). A good method should produce the
accurate pressure difference with spurious currents as
small as possible. There are three dimensionless
numbers that characterize the flow: the Laplace
number La d D d2 where D is the drop diameter,
and density and viscosity ratios d c and
d c . The subscripts d and c respectively represent
the fluids inside and outside the drop. The maximum
nondimensional velocity, i.e., the capillary number
Fig. 2. Comparison of the Zalesak disk interface
Ca, is defined as Ca dU max .
before (top) and after one rotation (bottom)
The velocity field is given as:
61
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 059-065
We consider a circular drop with a radius of 0.5 different techniques for computing surface tension,
placed at the center of a box of 22 with all other e.g., the continuous surface force (CSF) and the
properties set to unity except for (Fig. 4a). The grid continuous surface stress (CSS) [18], the magnitude
resolution is 6464. Accordingly, the value of is of the spurious currents produced by the front-
equal to the value of La. For instance, La = 0.12 tracking is much smaller as shown in Table 1.
yields = 0.12, and according to the YoungLaplace 3.4. A damped surface wave
equation the pressure difference is pexact = /R =
0.24. Fig. 4 indicates that the method predicts the To verify the interaction of the viscous term
pressure rise reasonable well with Ca = 2.6510-4. In with the surface tension term, we perform a
comparison with the VOF method implemented with simulation a damped surface wave between two
superposed immiscible uids, as shown in Fig. 5, and
compare the computational results with the initial
value theory of Prosperetti [19]. In a [0, 2][0, 2]
domain, two uids are initially separated by an
interface dened by
62
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 059-065
63
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 059-065
Fig. 7. Temporal evolution of the interface computed by the front-tracking method (left) in comparison with the
results predicted by Herrmann [20] (right)
viscosity 1 = 2 = 0.00313. The gravity acceleration some other direct numerical simulation methods, e.g.,
is set to 9.81. The boundary conditions are periodic at level set method and volume of fluid method for the
the left and right sides, and no-slip at the top and problems investigated in this study, with the similar
bottom. A grid resolution of 128512 is used. As grid resolutions the front-tracking method yielded the
time progresses, the heavy fluid (top) falls into the results which are more accurate, especially, in the
lighter fluid (bottom) due to gravity, and rolls up into case of calculating surface tension forces. In addition,
two counter-rotating vortices as shown in Fig. 6b. the present 2D method is quite simple and very easy
to be implemented. This facilitates computations of
Fig. 7 shows the evolution of the interface shape many multiphase problems.
at different times in comparison with the results
predicted by another numerical method of Herrmann However, the results presented in this paper are
[20] in which the author used a much finer grid of limited to the 2D cases. Therefore, in future research,
5122048. In each frame of Fig. 7, the left is the we will investigate some 3D problems to evaluate the
present result while the right is Herrmann's result. performance of the 3D front-tracking method.
Excellent agreement has been archieved. This Acknowledgments
confirms that front-tracking method produces the
accurate results for this multiphase problem. This research was supported by Hanoi
University of Science and Technology (HUST) under
5. Conclusion grant number T2016-PC-028.
We have presented the results of a number of References
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numerical simulations of gas-liquid multiphase flows,
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Takakura, A front-tracking method for three-phase 2011.
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[20] M. Herrmann, A balanced force refined level set grid
method for two-phase flows on unstructured flow
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65
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 066-070
Nguyen Thi Hoang Oanh, Tran Quoc Lap, Pham Ngoc Dieu Quynh, Le Hong Thang,
Nguyen Thi Anh Nguyet, Pham Ngoc Huyen, Nguyen Hoang Viet*
Hanoi University of Science and Technology No. 1, Dai Co Viet Str., Hai Ba Trung, Ha Noi, Viet Nam
Received: June 15, 2016; accepted: June 9, 2017
Abstract
The crystallization kinetics of an Al80Fe20 amorphous powder alloy were investigated by thermal analysis.
Crystallization of amorphous Al80Fe20 during continuous heating undergoes four stages. The first-stage
crystallization leads to the formation of fcc-Al from amorphous matrix. The next stages are the
decomposition of the residual amorphous phase into several intermetallic compounds. The activation
energies of the alloy were calculated from differential scanning calorimetry data using the Kissinger, Ozawa
and AugisBennett models. The non-isothermal crystallization kinetics are analyzed by Johnson-Mehl-
Avrami equation. The value of the Avrami index indicated that the crystallization is interface - controlled
growth.
Keywords: amorphous alloys, mechanical alloying, crystallization kinetics, Avrami exponent
E
ln 2 a const (1)
T RTp
p
Ea
ln( ) const (2)
RTp
E
ln
T T a const (3)
p o RTp
67
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 066-070
x(t ) 1 e k
n
(4)
where x is the crystallization volume fraction at
time t, n is the Avrami exponent and k is the reaction
rate constant related to absolute temperature
described by Arrhenius equation:
Ea
k ko e RT
(5)
Fig. 4. Kissinger plots of the Al80Fe20 amorphous
powder. where is a constant, is the activation
energy, R is the gas constant and T is the absolute
temperature.
There are 2 methods to determine the Avrami
parameter. The first method was proposed by Ozawa.
We have:
d ln( ln(1 x))
n
d ln T
(6)
The value of x at any selected T is calculated
from the ratio of the partial area of the crystallization
peak at the selected temperature T to the total area of
the exothermic peak. Fig. 7 shows diagram of
crystallized volume fraction for Al80Fe20 amorphous
Fig. 5. Ozawa plots of the Al80Fe20 amorphous powder.
powder.
68
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 066-070
R ln( ln(1 x)) amorphous alloy were made by F. Zhou et al. [8],
n( x ) (7) and M. Krasnowski [2].
1
Ex
T
The crystallized volume fraction is also
determined by measuring the corresponding partial
area of the exothermic peak. Plotting ln[-ln(1-x)]
versus ln(1/T) with x between the range of 15% to
85% of transformed fractions, the JMA plots at
different heating rates are obtained as in Fig. 8.
69
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 066-070
milling products. Materials Chemistry and Al80Fe20 alloy powders prepared by ball milling.
Physics, 116 (2009) 631-637. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, 250252,
Part 2 (1999) 704-708.
[3]. Akihisa Inoue, Amorphous,
nanoquasicrystalline and nanocrystalline alloys [9]. J. Noetzel, D.C. Meyer, A. Tselev, A. Mcklich,
in Al-based systems. Progress in Materials P. Paufler, F. Prokert, E. Wieser, and W. Mller,
Science, 43 (1998) 365-520. Amorphization of Fe/Al: bulk and thin-film
effects. Applied Physics A, 71 (2000) 47-54.
[4]. Sergio Scudino, Kumar B. Surreddi, Hoang V.
Nguyen, Gang Liu, Thomas Gemming, Mira [10]. Wang Genmiao, Zhang Daoyuan, Chen Huiyu,
Sakaliyska, Ji S. Kim, Jens Vierke, Markus Lin Bixia, Wang Weihua, and Dong Yuanda,
Wollgarten, and Jurgen Eckert, High-strength Formation and properties of Fe20Al80 amorphous
Al87Ni8La5 bulk alloy produced by spark plasma powder. Physics Letters A, 155 (1991) 57-61.
sintering of gas atomized powders. Journal of
[11]. Nguyen Hoang Viet, Nguyen Thi Hoang Oanh,
Materials Research, 24 (2009) 2909-2916.
Pham Ngoc Dieu Quynh, Tran Quoc Lap, and
[5]. Akihisa Inoue and Hisamichi Kimura, High- Kim Ji Soon. Bulk Amorphous Al80Fe20
strength Al-based nanostructure alloys. Current Produced by Mechanical Alloying and Spark-
Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science, 2 Plasma Sintering. in The 2nd International
(1997) 305-310. Conference on Advanced Materials and
Nanotechnology 2014. Hanoi: Bach Khoa
[6]. P. P. Choi, J. S. Kim, O. T. H. Nguyen, D. H.
Publishing house.
Kwon, Y. S. Kwon, and J. C. Kim, Al-La-Ni-Fe
bulk metallic glasses produced by mechanical [12]. Miray elikbilek, Ali Erin Ersundu, and
alloying and spark-plasma sintering. Materials Sheyla Aydn, Chapter 6 - Crystallization
Science and Engineering: A, 449-451 (2007) Kinetics of Amorphous Materials, in Advances
1119-1122. in Crystallization Processes, Y. Mastai, Editor.
2012, InTech. p. 127-158.
[7]. K. B. Surreddi, S. Scudino, M. Sakaliyska, K.
G. Prashanth, D. J. Sordelet, and J. Eckert, [13]. S. W. Du and R. V. Ramanujan, Crystallization
Crystallization behavior and consolidation of and magnetic properties of Fe40Ni38B18Mo4
gas-atomized Al84Gd6Ni7Co3 glassy powder. amorphous alloy. Journal of Non-Crystalline
Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 491 (2010) Solids, 351 (2005) 3105-3113.
137-142.
[14]. J.W. Christian, The Theory of Transformations
[8]. F. Zhou, R. Lck, M. Scheffer, D. Lang, and K. in Metals and Alloys. 1975, Netherlands:
Lu, The crystallization process of amorphous Pergamon, Oxford.
70
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 071-075
Abstract
An in-situ Cu-(Nb,Ti)C composite was prepared through mechanical alloying of Cu-Nb-Ti-C mixture, followed
by pressing and sintering. The obtained results showed that compaction pressure has a great influence on the
properties of the bulk composite. Density, microhardness and electrical conductivity of the bulk composite
increased with increasing compaction pressure as increasing pressure provides better packing and lower
porosity. The microhardness increased from 369 to 443 HV and the electrical conductivity of the Cu-(Nb,Ti)C
composite increased, going from 7.46 to 8.93 (m-1x108) as the compaction pressure was increased into the
range of 500 - 1000 MPa. A good combination of microhardness of 425 HV and electrical conductivity of
8.62 x 10-8 (m)-1 of the Cu-15%vol. (Nb,Ti)C composite was obtained at compaction pressure of 800MPa.
Keywords: Cu, (Nb,Ti)C, mechanical alloying, sintering, compaction pressure.
*
Corresponding author: Tel.: (+84) 912.098.484
Email: hai.leminh@hust.edu.vn
71
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 071-075
to-powder ratio was 10:1 with 10mm-diameter Increasing pressure provided better packing and led to
stainless steel balls. a decrease in porosity with the formation of new
particle contacts [9]. High pressure caused localized
After 20 hours of milling, the as-milled powders
deformation at the contacts allowing new contacts to
were extracted for further characterization by X-ray
form as the gaps between particles collapsed [10-11].
diffraction (XRD) analysis, scanning electron
Consequently, further gains in green density require
microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray
greater expenditures of energy from the external
(EDX) analysis. The as-milled powders were
pressure source.
compacted in a cylindrical steel mould and then the
compacted composites were sintered by vacuum As can be observed in the green density curve in
sintering. In order to investigate the influences of Figure 2, the response of the as-milled composite
compaction pressure, the sintering temperature was powders during uni-axial pressing can be divided into
fixed at 900oC and the compaction pressure was varied two stages. During the first stage (below 800MPa)
in a range of 500-1000MPa. The density of the sintered densification increased abruptly until the start of the
in-situ Cu-(Nb,Ti)C composite was determined based second stage (above 800 MPa), where the densification
on Archimedes principle using a Satorious electronic rate lowered and remained constant, reflecting the
analytical balance and reported as relative density. particle work hardening. The sintered densities of the
Micro-hardness and electrical conductivity of the composites followed an increasing trend similar to that
composite were measured using a Shimadzu Vickers of green density. Figure 2 also shows clearly that the
micro-hardness tester at a load of 100 g and a four- sintered densities are higher than the green densities.
point probe Changmin Tech CMT-SR2000N, This phenomenon can be explained by a reduction in
respectively. surface tension, dimension shrinkage of the composite
and a reduction of internal voids during sintering [12].
3. Results and discussion
Because the compaction pressure plays a
In order to study the effects of compaction
significant role in the densification of the specimen, it
pressure on the properties of the composite, the Cu-15
is expected that varying the pressure of compaction
vol.% (Nb,Ti)C as-milled powder after 20 hours of
should drastically alter the microhardness. The
milling was compacted at different pressures in the
average values of five runs of Vickers microhardness
range of 500-1000 MPa. SEM images of the polished
for the sintered composites with different compaction
cross-sections of the sintered composites produced
pressures are given in Figure 3. The microhardness
with different compaction pressures are shown in
values increased from 369 to 443 HV as the
Figure 1 (a-f). Increasing the compaction pressure
compaction pressure increased from 500 to 1000 MPa.
causes considerable change in the compact
This increase in microhardness is the result of work
microstructure as the size and fraction of pores
hardening due to severe plastic deformation during
decrease remarkably. Furthermore, the pore shape
uni-axial compaction. On the other hand, it is well
varies as well. According to Gessinger et al. [8], the
known that the mechanical properties of powder
shape of pores shows more acute angles when
metallurgical materials are degraded by the presence
consolidating at higher pressure. Therefore, the driving
of pores which reduce the effective cross-sectional
force for shrinkage increases with the compacting
area and negatively affect strength. When the pressure
pressure since the curvature of the core increases.
of compaction is kept low, the interparticle contacts
As applied pressure increases, the density of the are randomly distributed with the presence of voids
powder compact increases while porosity decreases. between particles. When the pressure of compaction is
Determination of the densification behaviour of a increased, particle contacts get rearranged to fill these
powder is usually based on the measurement of the voids and pores, resulting in greater densification of
density of the powder compact as a function of the the specimen and increased microhardness.
compaction. Figure 2 shows the density of the sintered Furthermore, higher compaction pressure also
composite as a function of compaction pressure. An increased the dislocation population, resulting in an
application of higher loads increases both green and initially faster sintering rate [11]. Higher compaction
sintered densities of the composites. The green density pressure, therefore, contributes to the increase of
increases from 5.55 g/cm3 [corresponding to 73.3% hardness of the sintered composite.
theoretical density (TD)] to 5.91 g/cm3 (78.9% TD),
while the sintered density increases from 6.09 g/cm3
(82.1% TD) to 6.79 g/cm3 (91.8% TD) as compaction
pressure increases from 500 MPa to 1000 MPa.
72
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 071-075
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Fig. 1. SEM images showing morphology of Cu-15% vol. (Nb,Ti)C sintered pellets with different compactions
pressure (a) 500 MPa (b) 600 MPa (b) 700 MPa (c) 800 MPa (d) 900 MPa (e) 1000 MPa
the composite to obtain good conductivity. High
porosity compaction led to a high resistance to the
The dependence of electrical conductivity on
conduction of electron because the pores reduced the
compaction pressure is plotted in Figure 4. Like
effective cross-sectional area for electron movement
microhardnes, conductivity of the Cu-(Nb,Ti)C
[13].
composite also increased, going from 7.46 to 8.93
(m-1x108) as the compaction pressure was increased Figure 5 indicates that a good combination of
into the range of 500 - 1000 MPa. Electrical microhardness and electrical conductivity of the
conductivity of the sintered composite was found to be composite was obtained at 800 MPa of compaction
a strong function of compaction pressure. Higher pressure, where the microhardness and conductivity
applied compaction pressure increased considerably were 430.5 HV and 8.77 x 108 (m)-1, respectively,
the electrical conductivity of the sintered composite. suggesting that to produce Cu-(Nb,Ti)C composite
The different electrical conductivity might be with high microhardness and high electrical
attributed mainly to the existence of residual pores. conductivity, the optimum compaction pressure is
Presence of closed porosities in the compact restricts 800MPa.
73
Journal of Science & Technology 119 (2017) 071-075
1.0
6.6
0.8
6.2
0.7
5.8
5.4 0.6
5.0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 0.5
Compaction pressure P (MPa) 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Compaction pressure P (MPa)
Fig. 2. Effect of compaction pressure on the green and
sintered density at 900oC of Cu-15%vol. (Nb,Ti)C Fig. 4. Effect of compaction pressure on the electrical
composites conductivity of Cu-(Nb,Ti)C composite
450 10.0
9.0
800 MPa
410
600 MPa 1000
8.0
390 700 MPa MPa
350
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 6.0
Compaction pressure P (MPa) 350 380 410 440
Microhardness (HV)
Fig. 3. Effect of compaction pressure on the
microhardness of of Cu-15%vol. (Nb,Ti)C composites Fig. 5. Variations in microhardness and electrical
sintered at 900oC conductivity of Cu-15%vol. (Nb,Ti)C composites with
compaction pressure
4. Conclusion
Compaction pressure played a significant role in
the density, consequently on the microhardness and References
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