Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Antibiotic-Resistant Malaria
Bacteria Meningitis
Anthrax Mononucleosis
Avian Flu Pelvic Inflammatory
Botulism Disease
Campylobacteriosis Plague
Cervical Cancer Polio
Cholera Prostate Cancer
Dengue Fever and Rabies
Other Hemorrhagic Rocky Mountain Spotted
Viruses Fever
Ebola
Salmonella
Encephalitis
SARS
Escherichia coli
Infections Smallpox
Gonorrhea Staphylococcus aureus
Infections
Hantavirus Pulmonary
Syndrome Streptococcus
(Group A)
Heliobacter pylori
Streptococcus
Hepatitis (Group B)
Herpes Syphilis
HIV/AIDS Tetanus
Infectious Diseases of Toxic Shock Syndrome
the Mouth
Trypanosomiasis
Infectious Fungi
Tuberculosis
Influenza
Tularemia
Legionnaires Disease
Typhoid Fever
Leprosy
West Nile Virus
Lung Cancer
Lyme Disease
Mad Cow Disease
(Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy)
TETANUS
FOREWORD BY
David Heymann
World Health Organization
This book is dedicated to my wife, Audrey, and to my parents, Thomas
and Jeannine Guilfoile, who have always been supportive of my writing.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission
in writing from the publisher. For information contact:
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links may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid.
Table of Contents
Foreword
David Heymann, World Health Organization 6
Acknowledgements 8
1. What Is Tetanus? 10
2. Tetanus in History 20
Endnotes 83
Glossary 89
Further Resources 93
Index 94
6
modern beliefs can be wrong. In this series of books, for
example, you will learn that diseases like syphilis were once
thought to be caused by eating potatoes. The invention of the
microscope set science on the right path. There are more posi-
tive lessons from history. For example, smallpox was elimi-
nated by vaccinating everyone who had come in contact with
an infected person. This ring approach to smallpox control
is still the preferred method for confronting an outbreak,
should the disease be intentionally reintroduced.
At the same time, we are constantly adding new drugs, new
vaccines, and new information to the warehouse. Recently, the
entire human genome was decoded. So too was the genome
of the parasite that causes malaria. Perhaps by looking at
the microbe and the victim through the lens of genetics
we will be able to discover new ways to fight malaria, which
remains the leading killer of children in many countries.
Because of advances in our understanding of such diseases
as AIDS, entire new classes of antiretroviral drugs have
been developed. But resistance to all these drugs has already
been detected, so we know that AIDS drug development
must continue.
Education, experimentation, and the discoveries that
grow out of them are the best tools to protect health. Opening
this book may put you on the path of discovery. I hope so,
because new vaccines, new antibiotics, new technologies, and,
most importantly, new scientists are needed now more than
ever if we are to remain on the winning side of this struggle
against microbes.
David Heymann
Executive Director
Communicable Diseases Section
World Health Organization
Geneva, Switzerland
7
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Robyn Schulke and Pat Conely, Interlibrary loan staff
at the Bemidji State Universitys A.C. Clark Library, for their out-
standing assistance in securing a large number of old and obscure
references. The state of Minnesota has an excellent interlibrary
loan service (MnPALS) and the availability of that resource was
essential for getting this book completed. I also thank Charles
Fredrickson for translating several French journal articles and
Gretchen Hemstock for translating several German journal articles.
Finally, I wish to thank my son Forrest, who reviewed a draft of this
book and offered constructive comments from the perspective of a
high school student.
8
1
What Is Tetanus?
An elderly woman in England was recently brought into the emergency room
of a hospital. Two days earlier, she had gotten a small scratch on her arm
while gardening. She initially developed lockjaw, and recalling a previous
bout with tetanus she had experienced almost 50 years earlier, she called the
ambulance to take her to the hospital. In her case, the symptoms progressed
to the appearance of a fixed smile (called risus sardonicus) and painful
muscle spasms, the classical presentation of tetanus. Her treatment required
the use of a ventilator for almost three weeks and numerous medications, but
she survived. She had been given one tetanus vaccination in middle age, but
that wasnt sufficient to protect her for this long. Following her treatment, she
was given two additional tetanus vaccinations, which would be expected to
protect her from the disease for at least another 10 years.1
10
What Is Tetanus? 11
CHARACTERISTICS OF TETANUS
C. tetani typically enters the body through a wound. The spores
will germinate and grow only if the wound is deprived of
oxygen. This is why stepping on a nail is a common way for a
person to acquire tetanus. (About 12 percent of tetanus infec-
tions in the United States from 19982000 were the result of a
person stepping on a nail.) A deep wound in the foot will often
be poorly supplied with oxygen, allowing C. tetani to grow.
During growth, the bacteria start producing the tetanus toxin,
tetanospasmin. On average it is about a week between the time
a person is infected with the bacterium and the time symptoms
appear. However, a substantial number of tetanus patients had
no known injury prior to the development of tetanus.
In some of these cases, tetanus spores may have been intro-
duced into a wound weeks to years earlier. The wound may
have healed up with the spores inside, but the site had too high
an oxygen content to allow cells to grow. At some point, that
site may eventually have become deprived of oxygen, allowing
the spores to germinate, producing actively growing C. tetani
cells that produce the tetanus toxin, tetanospasmin.
What Is Tetanus? 13
incidents and others led the U.S. Congress to pass the Biologics
Control Act of 1902. This act required inspections and licensing
of companies that manufactured vaccines, antitoxins, and related
therapeutics. These drugs had to be appropriately labeled, and a
government agency was charged with testing these biologics for
purity and potency. In 1972, these functions became part of the
work of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.10
2
Tetanus in History
The Master of a large ship mashed the index finger of his right hand with the
anchor. Seven days later a somewhat foul discharge appeared; then trouble
with his tonguehe complained he could not speak properly. The presence
of tetanus was diagnosed, his jaws became pressed together, his teeth were
locked, then symptoms appeared in his neck; on the third day opisthotonos
appeared with sweating. Six days after the diagnosis was made he died.
Hippocrates, 425 b.c.11
Reports of tetanus date back to the earliest historical records. For example,
the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, from the seventeenth century b.c.,
has descriptions of patients with wounds who have symptoms of neck
stiffness and tight ligaments, likely the first known description of tetanus.
In that era when a patient was likely to have tetanus the physician was
supposed to state to him, I will not contend, meaning the doctors then
had no means of treating it.12
Hippocrates provided another detailed descriptions of the symptoms
of tetanus in his work Epidemics around 425 b.c.
. . . Tychon the soldier had received an arrow in his back. The wound
seemed quite minor, since the missile entered at a sharp angle [and
was] easily [removed]. . . . [That night] as dusk settled, the soldiers
posted their pickets. The camp began to hear low moans from where
Tychon had built his cooking fire; moans soon became grunts and
what sounded like someone gnashing his teeth in a fury of rage. . . .
Tychon . . . was alone, moaning in the most curious posture: he was
arched back in opisthotonos and his jaws seemed locked together
20
Tetanus in History 21
Figure 2.2 Emil von Behring (on the right), pictured here with a
lab assistant, won the 1901 Nobel Prize for his work with tetanus
and diphtheria immunizations. (Bettmann/Corbis)
28 TETANUS
were only 12 tetanus cases among the 2.7 million soldiers with
wounds treated at army hospitals during the war (a rate of
0.00044 percent). Of these tetanus cases, six were soldiers who
had never been vaccinated, and an additional two of the 12
had not received a complete series of tetanus shots. In contrast,
during World War I, before a vaccine was available, there were
70 cases and the rate of tetanus infection was about 30 times
higher (0.013 percent of wounds led to tetanus). However,
during World War I, antitoxin (tetanus immunoglobulin) was
available and this reduced the incidence of tetanus. By contrast,
the rate of tetanus among British soldiers in Spain during the
Peninsular War in 18081814, before the availability of tetanus
immunoglobulin, was 0.125 percent, about 10-fold higher than
the rate during World War I, and about 250-fold higher, com-
pared to the rate during World War II.33 34
3
How Does
Clostridium tetani
Cause Disease?
Imagine a tiny tetanus spore, lying seemingly lifeless in a patch of soil for
decades. The winds, rains, and snows each year have no effect on this forlorn
spore. Then, as if by a miracle, a woodsman trips and gashes his shin with
his axe as he falls. The wound is relatively minor, but as he gets up, the bit
of dirt that contains the spore gets ground into the cut. The wound is not
cleaned; other bacteria begin to grow, consuming the oxygen at the site and
blocking off blood flow and oxygen. Suddenly, the spore, like a seed, opens,
liberating an actively growing cell. The cell divides, and the population of
C. tetani grows. These cells start producing tetanus toxin. What will be the
fate of the woodsman?
38
How Does Clostridium tetani Cause Disease? 39
nutrients for the bacterial cell, and it may help maintain the
anaerobic environment essential for C. tetani to thrive. Other
factors that assist this microbe in causing disease probably
include proteases, enzymes that degrade proteins to amino
acids, which are then used as nutrients for the microbe. It is
likely that further research will lead to the discovery of addi-
tional proteins or other factors that assist C. tetani in setting up
housekeeping in wounds.
TETANOSPASMIN
The symptoms of tetanus appear to be caused entirely, or
almost entirely, by the tetanus toxin, tetanospasmin. This was
demonstrated as far back as the late 1800s, when it was found
that a bacteria-free solution from a C. tetani culture could
induce in animals the same symptoms as infection with the
microbe itself. The gene encoding this toxin is found only
in the genome (the entire set of genetic instructions of an
organism) of strains of C. tetani that cause tetanus. The toxic
dose of tetanospasmin is very lowabout 165 ng for a person
weighing about 150 pounds (68 kg). This is about 2.5 parts
per trillion, and would be about equal to the weight of 1/20th
of a small grain of sand.35 This dose is so low that an immune
response to tetanospasmin does not occur during a natural
infection. Tetanus toxin is the second most potent toxin known
to humans, surpassed only by botulinum toxin, which is pro-
duced by strains of Clostridium botulinum. (Botulinum toxin is
three to four times more toxic than tetanus toxin.) It has been
estimated that about 80 million tetanus toxin molecules would
be sufficient to kill a mouse; it would require about 30 billion
times more molecules of cyanide to kill a mouse.36
It is generally accepted that tetanus toxin is released only
when C. tetani cells break open. This has implications for the
treatment of tetanus. For example, it may be critical to give
tetanus immunoglobulin prior to the infusion of antibiotics
to prevent excess toxin from being released once the antibiotic
destroys the bacterial cells. However, the recently completed
How Does Clostridium tetani Cause Disease? 41
but C. tetani does possess sensor proteins that may relay envi-
ronmental signals and activate TetR, leading to the production
of the tetanus toxin.
48
How Is Tetanus Treated? 49
HISTORICAL TREATMENTS
FOR TETANUS
425 B.C.: Hippocrates described the application of soothing
plasters.
(continues)
54 TETANUS
(continued)
55
56 TETANUS
VACCINE SAFETY
Minor side effects from the tetanus toxoid vaccine are fairly
common. A majority of patients in several studies reported
pain, redness, or swelling at the site of the injection, which
typically didnt last more than a day or two. A smaller percent-
age, ranging from 2 percent to 16 percent, depending on the
report, experienced a short-term systemic effect such as fever,
headache, or muscle ache. In some sense, these mild reac-
tions are actually a good sign. They indicate a strong immune
response to the components in the vaccine, suggesting that a
person with these reactions would be able to fend off an infec-
tion with C. tetani.
While no medical intervention is without some risks, per-
haps the best way of evaluating the risk from a tetanus vaccine
How Is Tetanus Prevented? 59
64
Continuing Concerns and Current Status of Tetanus 65
72
Future Prospects Regarding Tetanus 73
Virulence Factors
Most of the virulence factors in C. tetani are located on a cir-
cular molecule of DNA called a plasmid. This plasmid contains
the tetanus toxin gene (tetX), a gene that regulates tetX (tetR),
a gene (colT) that encodes a collagenase (an enzyme that
degrades collagen, a protein in human tissue), other regulatory
genes, and genes that encode proteins which transport other
proteins across the cell membrane.
There are also several potential virulence factor genes
located on the bacterial chromosome. These include a
Metabolism
In the analysis of the genome sequence, scientists discovered
that C. tetani can use glucose for growth. Confirming previous
work, they also found that this microbe does not have genes
76 TETANUS
chain (the other portion of the toxin) to get into the nerves.
However, in this system the light chain is randomly inserted
into the genome of the fruit fly, so it is produced directly inside
nerve cells. Therefore, the heavy chain of the tetanus toxin is
not required.
In this system, the tetanus toxin gene is engineered so it
is part of a DNA fragment that also contains an upstream
activating sequence that binds a yeast protein called GAL4.
(Upstream activating sequences are located next to a gene. In
the presence of the appropriate signals, those sequences acti-
vate transcription of the adjacent gene. The GAL4 protein is
83
Endnotes
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snakebite in northern Nigeria: clinical C., and J. Farrar. Preventing and treat-
presentation and public health impli- ing tetanus, British Medical Journal
cations, Acta Tropica 85 (2003): 8791. 326 (2003): 117118.
86. Jaganathan, K.Y. Rao, P. Singh, D. 94. Thwaites, C., I. Yen, H. Loan, T. Thuy,
Prabakaran, S. Gupta, A. Jain, and S. G. Thwaites, K. Stepniewska, N. Soni,
Vyas. Development of a single dose N. White, and N. Farrar. Magnesium
tetanus toxoid formulation based on sulphate for treatment of severe teta-
polymeric microspheres: a comparative nus: a randomised controlled trial,
student of poly(D, L-lactic-co-glycolic Lancet 368 (2006): 14361443.
acid) versus chitosan microspheres, 95. Grumelli, C., C. Verderio, D. Pozzi,
International Journal of Pharmaceutics O. Rossetto, C. Montecucco, and M.
294 (2005): 2332. Mateoli. Internalization and mecha-
87. Medaglini, D., A. Ciabattini, M. nism of action of clostridial toxins in
Spinosa, T. Maggi, H. Marcotte, M. neurons, Neurotoxicology 26 (2005):
Oggioni, and G. Pozzi. Immunization 761767.
with recombinant Streptococcus gor- 96. Martin, J.R., A. Keller, and S. Sweeney.
donii expressing tetanus toxin frag- Targeted expression of tetanus toxin:
ment C confers protection from lethal A new tool to study the neurobiology
87
Endnotes
of behavior, Advances in Genetics 47 100. Dobrens, K., A. Joseph, and M.
(2002): 147. Rattazzi. Neuronal lysosomal enzyme
97. Martin, J.R., A. Keller, and S. Sweeney. replacement using fragment C of teta-
Targeted expression of tetanus toxin: nus toxin, Proceedings of the National
A new tool to study the neurobiology Academy of Sciences 89 (1992): 2297
of behavior, Advances in Genetics 47 2301.
(2002): 147. 101. Francis, J., B. Hosler, R. Brown, and P.
98. Gil, C., A. Najib, and J. Aguilera. Fishman. CuZn Superoxide dismutase
Serotonin transport is modulated dif- (SOD-1): Tetanus Toxin Fragment C
ferently by tetanus toxin and growth Hybrid Protein for Targeted Delivery
factors, Neurochemistry International of SOD-1 for Neuronal Cells, The
42 (2003): 535542; and Inserte, J., Journal of Biological Chemistry 270
A. Najib, P. Pelliccioni, C. Gil, and J. (1995): 15, 43415, 424.
Aguilera. Inhibition by Tetanus Toxin 102. Fishman, P.S., C. Matthews, D.
of Sodium-Dependent, High-Affinity Parks, M. Box, and N. Fairweather.
[3H]5-Hydroxytryptamine Uptake Immunization does not interfere
in Rat Synaptosomes, Biochemical with uptake and transport by motor
Pharmacology 57 (1999): 111120. neurons of the binding fragment of
99. Chaib-Oukadour, I., C. Gil, and J. tetanus toxin, Journal of Neuroscience
Aguilera. The C-terminal domain Research 83, 8 (June 2006): 15401543.
of the heavy chain of tetanus toxin 103. Rossetto, O., M. Seveso, P. Caccin, G.
rescues cerebellar granule neurones Schiavo, and C. Montecucco. Tetanus
from apoptotic death: involvement and botulinum neurotoxins: turn-
of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and ing bad guys into good by research,
mitogen-activated protein kinase Toxicon 39 (2001) 27 41.
pathways, Journal of Neurochemistry
90, 5 (September 2004): 122736.
88
Glossary
adjuvantA chemical included in a vaccine that enhances the ability of the
vaccine to immunize against a disease.
anaerobicWithout oxygen. C. tetani requires anaerobic conditions for
growth.
antibodiesProteins, produced by immune system cells, that have the ability
to inactivate toxins or attack bacterial pathogens.
antitoxinSerum containing antibodies that can neutralize the tetanus
toxin.
ATPAdenosine Tri-Phosphate. The primary energy storage molecule in
cells. C. tetani uses an unusual process of pumping sodium atoms across
the cell membrane to produce ATP.
autonomic nervous systemThe part of the nervous system that is not
under conscious control. In late-stage tetanus, some patients die when the
autonomic nervous system is affected by tetanus toxin and the heart no
longer functions properly.
centrifugeA machine that spins tubes at a high speed. The force of the
spinning causes cells or small particles to form a pellet at the bottom of
a tube.
cephalic tetanusTetanus that is initially confined to the head, normally the
result of a C. tetani-infected wound in that part of the body.
Clostridium tetaniThe bacterium that causes tetanus.
daltonA measure of the size of a molecule. One dalton corresponds to the
weight of one hydrogen atom.
electroporationA technique for introducing foreign DNA into a cell.
Electroporation involves mixing the bacteria with DNA, followed by expo-
sure to a high voltage pulse. This transiently puts holes into the bacterial
cell membrane and allows DNA to enter the cell.
enzymeA protein that catalyzes a specific chemical reaction. As a catalyst,
an enzyme assists in allowing a chemical reaction to occur without being
used up during the reaction.
formaldehydeA chemical disinfectant, which is used to make tetanus tox-
oid for vaccinations.
formalinA solution of 37 percent formaldehyde in water.
gangliosidesComponents of cell membranes that contain carbohydrates
and lipids.
89
Glossary
generalized tetanusTetanus that affects the entire body, the result of teta-
nus toxin affecting the central nervous system.
genomeThe entire set of genetic instructions encoded in the DNA of an
organism.
immunizedMade immune. For example, a person given a series of tetanus
vaccinations will be immunized against tetanus.
immunoglobulinsSee antibodies.
inhibitory neuronA nerve cell located in the spinal column, which signals
muscles to stop contraction. This type of nerve is specifically targeted by
the tetanus toxin.
localized tetanusMuscle contraction caused by tetanus that is confined to a
small region of the body. Can sometimes develop into generalized tetanus.
messenger RNA (mRNA)A form of ribonucleic acid that acts as an
intermediary between the DNA and the protein encoded by the DNA.
Messenger RNA is made by RNA polymerase and is translated into protein
by the ribosome.
metalloproteasesEnzymes that cut other proteins; they require metals,
such as zinc, for activity.
microspheresMicroscopic beads. When used for vaccination the antigen,
like tetanus toxoid, is embedded in the tiny beads. The beads then break
down slowly in the body, potentially prolonging the immune response,
and leading to a stronger effect from vaccination.
motor neuronA nerve involved in activating muscle movement.
neonatal tetanusTetanus that develops in infants following birth, normally
from a C. tetani infection of the umbilical cord.
neurotransmittersMolecules released from nerves that activate or inhibit
adjacent nerve cells.
obligate anaerobeAn organism (like C. tetani) that can grow only in the
absence of oxygen.
opisthotonosSevere muscle contractions in tetanus that lead to a character-
istic arching of the back.
pathogenA disease-causing microbe.
plasmidA small circular DNA. Plasmids often carry virulence factors or
toxin genes. In C. tetani, the tetanus toxin gene is found on a plasmid.
90
Glossary
proteaseAn enzyme that breaks down proteins.
retrograde transportA system that moves materials from neurons at the
periphery of the body to the spinal cord.
risus sardonicusA symptom of tetanus that literally means a sardonic
smile; as a result of muscle contractions of the facial muscles, a person
with the disease often appears to have a sarcastic smile.
sensor proteinsProteins usually located on the cell surface that recognize,
and trigger a response to, an environmental signal.
sigma factorA component of RNA polymerase that recognizes sites on the
DNA in order to start transcription.
SNARE proteinsThese are Soluble NSF Accessory protein Receptors; they
play a role in transporting other proteins out of a cell. Tetanus toxin spe-
cifically inactivates one of these proteins, called synaptobrevin or VAMP,
in nerve cells. As a consequence, the nerve cell cannot send out inhibitory
signals to other neurons.
sporesAn inert stage of an organism. Some bacteria, like C. tetani, produce
spores that can survive for decades in the environment.
strychnineA poison that produces some symptoms similar to tetanus.
synaptic vesiclesCompartments in nerve cells, surrounded by a lipid
membrane, which contain neurotransmitters. Tetanus toxin enters nerve
cells by moving into synaptic vesicles. The toxin also prevents synaptic
vesicles from fusing with the nerve cell membrane and releasing neu-
rotransmitters.
synaptobrevinAlso called VAMP, for vesicle-associated membrane protein.
A SNARE protein in nerve cells that is required for transmission of signals
from one nerve to an adjacent nerve. This protein is specifically cleaved by
tetanus toxin.
tetanospasminA toxin, produced by the bacterium C. tetani, which causes
the strong muscle contractions that are the primary symptoms of the
disease.
tetanusA disease, caused by C. tetani, resulting from the tetanus toxin
tetanospasmin. The key symptom of tetanus is uncontrolled muscle con-
traction; often the first symptom is lockjaw, caused by contractions of the
masseter muscles.
tetanus immunoglobulinAntibodies that bind to tetanus toxin (tetanospas-
min) and inactivate it.
91
Glossary
toxinA natural chemical that is lethal in very small doses. Tetanospasmin is
one of the most potent toxins known.
toxoidAn inactivated form of a toxin. For example, tetanus toxin in the
current vaccine is inactivated by treatment with formaldehyde and lysine
to create tetanus toxoid.
transcriptionIn the cell, the process of converting DNA to RNA using the
enzyme RNA polymerase.
transposonA section of DNA that is capable of moving from one part of a
DNA molecule to another, or into a new DNA molecule. Transposons are
used by geneticists to mutate genes; when the transposon inserts into a
new DNA molecule it often inactivates the gene where it inserts.
trismusContraction of muscles required for chewingalso called lockjaw.
This is frequently one of the first symptoms of tetanus.
upstream activating sequence (UAS)Upstream activating sequences are
DNA sequences that, in the presence of the appropriate signals, activate
transcription of an adjacent gene. In one system designed to study the
function of specific cells or tissues, a UAS has been genetically engineered
to selectively activate tetanus toxin in certain cells in animals.
virulence factorsAttributes of pathogens that allow them to circumvent the
immune system and cause disease.
92
Further Resources
Web Sites
MedlinePlus: Tetanus
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000615.htm
93
Index
adjuvant, 33, 61, 89 black widow spider bites, 17 chromosome, and viru-
allergies, to vaccine, 29, bleeding, as early treat- lence factors, 7475
50, 60 ment, 52 Civil War, 22
alum, 61 blood, 27 Clostridium acetobutylium,
amino-acid degrading booster shots, 57, 67 75
enzymes, 76 Bordetella pertussis, 57 Clostridium botulinum,
Amish, 68 botR gene, 75 40, 75
anaerobic (defined), 89 botulinum, tetanus vs., Clostridium perfringens,
anaerobic tissue, 50 4243, 72 75
anaphylaxis, 60 botulinum toxin, 40 Clostridium tetani
animals, as tetanus hosts, botulism, 42 as anaerobic bacterium,
1819 brachial neuritis, 60 12, 25
animal testing, of vaccine, brain, injection of tetanus as cause of tetanus, 10,
2629 immunoglobulin into, 3847
antibiotics, 40, 50 28 defined, 89
antibodies Brazil, 63 and disease presenta-
defined, 89 breathing, tetanus treat- tion, 16
in dialysis patients, 67 ment and, 50 entry into body, 12
ineffective, 65 butter (on umbilical cord), in environment, 1011
and prevention of neona- 70 first isolation of bacte-
tal tetanus, 14 rium, 2425
for testing of vaccine carbolic acid, 52 growth in human body,
potency, 32 cardiac arrest, 77 3840
in unvaccinated individu- Carle, Antonio, 22 in heroin users, 65
als, 6263 cautery, 52 identification of, 2226
in vaccinated individuals, celebrities, tetanus deaths insights from genome
6566 of, 2122 sequencing, 7376
and vaccine production, 29 cell membrane, 76 metabolism of, 7576
and vaccine testing on cellular biology, 7880 nutrients for, 26, 3940,
humans, 3334 Centers for Disease Control 76
antitoxin, 89. See also teta- and Prevention, 68 potency of toxin, 15
nus immunoglobulin central nervous system virulence factors, 7475
anxiety, as effect of teta- infections of, 17 cocaine addiction, 80
nus, 51 tetanus toxin as protein collagenase, 3940, 74
Aretaeus, the Cappadocian, delivery system to, colonization, of wound
21, 52 8183 sites, 39
ATP (adenosine triphos- centrifuge, 31, 89 colT gene, 74
phate), 76, 89 cephalic tetanus, 16, 89 complex, of proteins,
autonomic nervous system, characteristics, of tetanus, 4243
77, 89 1216 Congress, U.S., 19
children. See also neonatal contamination, of vaccine,
back. See opisthotonos tetanus 1819, 32
Bauer, J., 11 immunization schedule, controlled studies, 77
Bazy, L., 3031 58 cross-linking, of proteins,
Behring, Emil, 2627 tainted diphtherium 5657
Biologics Control Act serum case, 18 curare, 52
(1902), 19 vaccination of, 68 cytoplasm, 47, 76
94
dalton, 43, 44, 89 electroporation, 77, 89 gene
death rate. See mortality encapsulation, of tetanus for encoding tetanus
rate toxoid, 7273 toxin, 40, 73, 7880
Dennis, F., 5253 Enterococcus faecalis, 76 for encoding virulence
depression treatment, environment, C. tetani in, factor, 41
8081 1011 generalized tetanus, 16, 90
Descombey, P., 33, 54 enzyme genetic engineering, 73,
detoxification, of tetanus and C. tetani nutrition, 7677, 79
toxin, 2930 3940 genetic studies, 7677
developing countries defined, 89 genome, 40, 41, 90
neonatal tetanus in, 16 lipid-degrading, 76 genome sequencing, of C.
new approaches to treat- metalloproteases, 75 tetani, 7376
ment in, 7778 and tetanus toxin activa- Germany, 6667
status of tetanus in, tion, 44 ghee, 70
7071 epidemics, 60 Global Immunization
dialysis patients, 6667 Epidemics (Hippocrates), Vision and Strategy, 71
digestive enzymes, 4243 2021 glucose, for C. tetani
diphtheria Ethiopia, 6263 growth, 75
and DPT shot, 34, 57 ethyl alcohol, 12 goats, susceptibility to teta-
immunoglobulin treat- nus, 18
ments for, 29 Faber, Knud, 26 Gold, Herman, 3435
vaccination to prevent facial paralysis, cephalic guinea pigs
epidemics, 60 tetanus and, 16 susceptibility to tetanus,
diphtheria antitoxin, 18 food, botulism and, 4243 18
disease management, 7778 Food and Drug tetanus bacterium experi-
DNA sequencing, of C. tet- Administration, U.S., ments, 23
ani genome, 7376 19 tetanus immunoglobulin
dogs, 18, 23 formaldehyde experiments, 28
Drosophila melanogaster, defined, 89 vaccine testing experi-
7880 for prevention of vaccine ments, 30, 33
drugs, contamination by contamination, 32
tetanus toxin, 1819 for toxin inactivation, 29, head wound, cephalic teta-
drug users, tetanus risk for, 30, 33, 56 nus and, 16
6465 formalin, 32, 89 heart, 16, 5051
DTaP vaccine, 57 frogs, 18, 47 heat
DTP vaccine, 34, 7071 fructose, 76 for C. tetani spore isola-
dung, as source of spores, fruit flies, 79 tion, 24, 25
70 fulmar, 23 for vaccine preparation, 33
future issues, 7282 heat resistance, of C. tetani
ear canal, cephalic tetanus spores, 24
and, 16 Galapagos Islands, 63 heavy chain
Edwin Smith Surgical GAL4 protein, 7980 toxin activation, 44
Papyrus, 20 gangliosides, 81, 89 heavy chain, of botulism
Ehrlich, Paul, 2829 gastrointestinal tract, toxin, 42
Eisler, Michael, 30, 32, 54 4243, 63 heavy chain, of tetanus
elderly tetanus victims, geese, susceptibility to teta- toxin
66, 67 nus, 18 binding to synapse, 44
95
Index
formaldehydes effect immunity, natural, 6263 light chain, of tetanus toxin
on, 57 immunization. See vac- in Drosophila melanogas-
neuron protection by, 81 cination ter, 7880
and spine injury treat- immunized (defined), in inhibitory neuron, 47
ment, 82 90 and toxin activation, 44
and Tay-Sachs treatment, immunocompromised and toxin inactivation, 57
81 individuals, 6668 and toxin transport, 47
and tetanus toxin trans- immunoglobulins, 2829, lipid-degrading enzymes,
port, 4447 90. See also tetanus 76
hemolysin, 75 immunoglobulin lipids, for C. tetani nutri-
heroin users, 64, 65 inactivated toxin, 2930 tion, 76
Hippocrates, 2021, 52 incubation period, 1214 localized tetanus, 16, 90
historical figures, tetanus Indian Ocean tsunami lockjaw, 14
deaths of, 2122 (2004), 6869 Lowenstein, Ernst, 2930,
historical treatments for infants. See neonatal teta- 54
tetanus, 5254 nus lysine, 56, 57
history, of tetanus, 2037 inhibitory neuron
HIV (human immunodefi- defined, 90 magnesium sulfate, 78
ciency virus), 67 effect of tetanus toxin on, mammals, susceptibility to
horses 13, 46 tetanus by, 18
susceptibility to tetanus, and light chain, 47 management, of disease,
18 and retrograde transport, 7778
tetanus immunoglobu- 4647 mechanism of tetanus dis-
lin production by, 29, inhibitory signals, 47 ease, 3847
3132, 50 injection drug users, teta- messenger RNA (mRNA),
vaccine testing on, 30, 33 nus risk for, 6465 41, 90
hosts, animal, 1819 injuries. See wounds metabolism, of C. tetani,
human immunoglobulin, 29 intensive care, 49, 51, 53 7576
human vaccine tests, 30, intravenous feeding, 50 metalloproteases, 75, 90
3334 invertebrates, susceptibility metronidazole, 50
hydrochloric acid, 52 to tetanus by, 18 mice
hyperbaric chamber, 54 iodine, 30 immune response after
ion channel, 47 vaccination, 73
illicit drug use. See injec- iron, for C. tetani nutri- susceptibility to tetanus,
tion drug users, tetanus tion, 39 18
risk for isolation, of tetanus bacte- tetanus from pure bacte-
immune response rium, 2425 ria cultures, 26
and adjuvants, 61 tetanus from soil particle
and inactive toxin, 2930 kidney dialysis patients, injection, 23
and side effects, 58 6667 and tetanus immuno-
and tetanus toxin pro- Kitasato, Shibasburo, 2427 globulin, 27
duction, 40 Koch, Robert, 24 microspheres, 72, 90
immune system middle ear infection,
circumventing by C. tet- light, for toxin inactivation, cephalic tetanus and, 16
ani, 15 2930 monkeys, 18
of elderly individuals, 66 light chain, of botulism Montagu, George, 21
need for oxygen by, 39 toxin, 42 Monvoisin, A., 32
96
mortality rate neurodegenerative disor- as C. tetani nutrient, 26,
in developing countries, ders, 81 3839
7071 neurons, protection of, 81 and immune response, 61
U.S. (1900-2000), 69 neurotransmitters, 13, 90 nerve cell. See synapto-
U.S. (1940s), 10, 49, 69 neutralization, of tetanus brevin
U.S. (current), 50, 70 toxin, 50 SNARE, 78, 91
from vaccination, 59 Nicolaier, Arthur, 2324, 26 tetanus toxin as delivery
motor neuron, 13, 90 Nigeria, 71 system of, 8183
multiple vaccinations, 34 Nocard, Edmond, 28 in tetanus toxoid vac-
muscle contractions nutrients, for C. tetani, 26, cine, 62
botulinum vs. tetanus 3840, 76 and transfer of toxin
toxin, 72 from C. tetani cells, 41
as characteristic of teta- obligate anaerobe, 15, 38, 90 treatment to interfere
nus, 10 opisthotonos, 20, 90 with toxin action, 73
and inhibitory neurons, oxygen virulence factor genet-
13 as C. tetani growth inhib- ics, 75
and retrograde transport, itor, 12, 25, 38 protein trafficking, 78
47 and immune system, 39 proton pump, 76
from toxins action on oxygen radicals, 82 psychological problems
nerve cells, 47 as effect of tetanus, 51
muscle spasms, 14, 16 pacemaker, 51 tetanus toxin as treat-
mutation, and genetic Pakistan, 70 ment for, 8081
manipulation, 7677 Pasteur, Louis, 2223 puncture wounds
Pasteur Institute, 31 and C. tetani growth, 38
National Vaccine Injury pathogen, 11, 90 and oxygen deprivation, 12
Compensation penicillin, 50
Program, 60 Peninsular War, 36, 37 rabbits
natural disasters, tetanus peripheral nerves, 81 immunization tests,
following, 6869 pertussis, DPT shot for, 34 2627
natural immunity, 6263 pH, 47 tetanus from soil particle
neonatal tetanus photoreceptors, 80 injection, 23
defined, 16, 90 pigeons, 18 tetanus injection experi-
in developing countries, plasmid, 41, 74, 90 ments, 22
70 potassium iodide, 30 vaccine tests, 31
Montana case, 55 potency, of C. tetani toxin, rabies, 17
St. Kilda, Scotland 15 Rajasinghe (king of
depopulation, 23 Powell, Joe, 22 Sithawatke, Sri Lanka),
nerve cells pregnancy, vaccination 21
and toxin, 18, 44, 45 during, 59 Ramon, Gaston, 3135, 54
and treatment, 48 presentations, of tetanus Rattone, Giorgio, 22
nerve-muscle junction. See disease, 16 recovery, from tetanus, 48
synapse pressure chamber, 53 recovery period, from teta-
nerves prevention, 5563 nus, 47, 51
action of tetanus toxin protease, 40, 91 red blood cells, for C. tetani
on, 47, 7880 protein nutrition, 39
treatment to interfere and cell communica- regulation, of toxin pro-
with toxin action, 73 tion, 78 duction, 4143
97
Index
religious/philosophical and spread of tetanus in isolation, 26
objections to vaccina- St. Kilda, Scotland, 23 neutralization as part of
tion, 68 and survival of C. tetani, treatment, 50
respiration, 16 15 potency, 15
retrograde transport, 46, 91 transmission electron production by bacteria,
reuptake, of serotonin, micrograph of, 39 12
8081 stool samples, 11 as protein delivery sys-
risks, of not taking vaccine, Streptococcus gordonii, 73 tem, 8183
59, 62 stroke, 17 for psychological disorder
risus sardonicus, 10, 14, Strong, George Crockett, treatment, 8081
21, 91 22 regulation of production,
Roebling, John A., 22 strychnine, 24, 91 4143
strychnine poisoning, 17 and repeat cases of teta-
St. Kilda, Scotland, 23 sucrose, 76 nus, 62
Scotland, 23 sulfur-sulfur bond, 44 transport to spinal cord,
sensor proteins, 4243, 91 survival rate, 4950 4447
sequencing, of C. tetani symptoms treatment for action on
genome, 7376 confusion with other dis- nerves, 73
serotonin reuptake, 8081 eases, 1718 virulence factor, 41
sheep, 18 first appearance after tetanus (defined), 91
sheep blood serum, 2324 infection. See incuba- tetanus immunoglobulin
sickness of eight days, 23 tion period for animal surgery, 28
side effects, of vaccination, treatment of, 5051 defined, 27, 91
5860 synapse, 4445, 47 discovery of, 2629
sigma factor, 41, 42, 91 synaptic vesicles, 4546, 91 and early forms of treat-
single-dose vaccination, synaptobrevin, 47, 78, 91 ment, 52
7273 horses for production of,
snakebite, tetanus and, 71 tapioca, 33 29, 3132, 50
SNARE proteins, 78, 91 Tay-Sachs disease, 81 for treatment, 50, 51
sodium pump, 76 Tenbroeck, C., 11 during World War I, 37
soil, as source of bacteria, testing tetanus toxin. See tetano-
24, 57 of isolated C. tetani bac- spasmin
soldiers, tetanus incidence terium, 26 tetanus toxoid, 49, 7273
among, 36 for tetanus, 17 tetR gene, 4143, 74, 75, 77
spasms. See muscle spasms of vaccines, 19, 32 TetR protein, 4142
spider bites, 17 tetanolysin, 39, 75 tetX gene, 41, 42, 74
spinal cord, transport of tetanospasmin (tetanus therapeutic usefulness, of
tetanus toxin to, 4447 toxin) toxins, 72
spine injury, 8182 action inside nerves, 47 Thomson, Fred, 22
splinters, 14 activation, 4344 Thoreau, John, I, 22
spores as cause of tetanus symp- tooth abscess, 17
and continued need for toms, 4041 toxin (defined), 92
vaccinations, 57 cross-linking, 56 toxin, tetanus. See tetano-
defined, 91 defined, 91 spasmin
longevity of, 1112, 38 genetic manipulation for toxoid, 32, 57, 92
and neonatal tetanus in production, 77 tracheotomy, 50
Pakistan, 70 inactivation, 73 traditional medicine, 70
98
transcription, 4142, 75, vaccination Vallee, H., 3031
92 deaths from, 1819 VAMP (vesicle-associated
transport, of tetanus toxin in developing countries, membrane protein), 78
to spinal cord, 4447 7071 Vella, Luigi, 52
transposon, 76, 92 effect on U.S. mortality vesicles. See synaptic
treatment, 4854 rate, 6970 vesicles
trismus, 14, 92 fallacies about dangers of, veterinary medicine, 28
Tserclaes, Johann, 21 6162 virulence factors, 41,
tsunami (2004), 6869 multiple, 34 7475, 92
Tychon, 2021 and neonatal tetanus,
16, 55 Warbasse, J., 47
umbilical cord, neonatal possible deaths from, 59 whooping cough, DPT shot
tetanus and, 16, 23, religious/philosophical for, 57
55, 70 objections to, 68 World Health Organization
United Kingdom, 65 schedule for, 58 (WHO), 70, 72
United States single-dose, 7273 World War I, 3031, 36, 37
mortality rate (1900- tetanus in vaccinated World War II, 3537
2000), 69 individuals, 6566 wounds
mortality rate (1940s), and tetanus treatment, 51 and C. tetani growth, 38
10, 49, 69 vaccine, 49. See also tetanus and C. tetanis entry into
mortality rate (current), immunoglobulin body, 12
50, 70 adjuvants for, 61 and tetanus treatment, 51
recent status of tetanus development of, 2935, types, leading to tetanus,
in, 6970 37, 54 13
tetanus incidence (1947- and genetic engineer-
2004), 36 ing, 77 Zoller, C., 33, 54
unvaccinated individuals, manufacture of, 5557
natural immunity in, safety of, 5860
6263 side effects, 58
upstream activating Vaccine Adverse Event
sequence (UAS), 79, 92 Reporting System
urban environment, 1011 (VAERS), 59
99
About the Author
Patrick Guilfoile earned his Ph.D. in Bacteriology at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison. He subsequently did postdoctoral research at the
Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. He is now a professor of biology at Bemidji State University in
northern Minnesota, where he teaches microbiology and medical microbiol-
ogy. His most recent research has focused on the molecular genetics of ticks
and other parasites. He has authored or coauthored over 20 papers in scien-
tific and biology education journals. He has also written a book in this series
on antibiotic-resistant bacteria, a molecular biology laboratory manual, and
a book on controlling ticks that transmit Lyme disease.
100