Language Institute

Thammasat University

Comparative Research

SUBMITTED TO

Associate Professor Dr. Suphat Sukamolson

SUBMITTED BY

Mr. Surachai T.Vee Rodngam

5221032310

Paper submitted as a partial fulfillment of the course TE660 Research Methodology

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Semester 1 Academic Year 2010
Comparative Research
“Thinking without comparison is unthinkable”
And, in the absence of comparison,
so is all scientific thought and scientific research”
(Swanson,1971:145)

1. What is Comparative Research?

Comparative Research is the act of comparing two or more things with a view to
discovering something about one or all of the things being compared. This method provides
an explanation about the extent of relationship between two or more variables. It examines
the relationships including similarities or differences among several variables.
Heidenheimer, Arnold J.; Hugh Heclo, Carolyn Teich Adams (1983). Comparative Public Policy. St. Martin's Press.

2. What are its main purposes?

Comparison is used to determine, conclude and quantify relationships between two or
more variables by observing different groups that either by choice or circumstance are
exposed to different treatments.

3. What are its main characteristics?

Comparison includes both retrospective studies that look at events that have already
occurred, and prospective studies, that examine variables from the present forward.

Comparative research is similar to experimentation in that it involves comparing a

treatment group to a control, but it differs in that the treatment is observed rather than being
consciously imposed due to ethical concerns, or because it is not possible, such as in a
retrospective study.

4. What are its limitations?

1. One of the primary limitations of comparative methods is the control of other
variables that might influence a study For example, the association between smoking and
cancer deaths could have meant that: a) smoking caused lung cancer, b) lung cancer caused
individuals to take up smoking, or c) a third unknown variable caused lung cancer AND
caused individuals to smoke (Doll & Hill, 1950).
2. Difficult to control for all factors
3. Requires quantifiable data if statistical comparison is desired
4. Needs baseline data or control group

5. What are general guidelines for designing it?

1. The basic design of a comparative research study is to identify and define the
problem,
2. Survey the literature relating to the problem
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3. Select a group that has the independent variable (the experimental group) and then
select another group of subjects that does not have the independent variable (the control or
comparison group). The two groups are then compared on the dependent variable.
4. Formulate a hypothesis and define basic terms and variables.
5. Construct an experiment plan

6. What are its typical research designs?

According to Kerlinger : “Research design is the plan ,
structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to
obtain answers to research questions and to control
variance.”

According to Kinner and Taylor: “ A research design is the

basic plan which guides the data collection and analysis
phase of the research project. It is the framework which
specifies the type of information to be collected, the source of
data and the data collection procedure.”

1. Formulating the Research problem

2. Extensive Literature survey
3. Development of working hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research design
5. Determining the Sample design
6. Collection of data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis-testing
10. Generalizations and interpretation
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

7. What are its typical research tools?

The typical research tools might include:

Observations /Surveys / Questionnaires (The closed or restricted form, the open or

unrestricted form)

Interviews (structured interviewed, semi-structured interview, non-structured interview)

Opened-ended questions/ Closed-ended questions

Opinion Polls / Attitude scales

Tests, Quizzes, etc.

Other types of recordings – VDO recordings, Audio recordings, etc.

8. How to collect research data?

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In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are
several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of
money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the
data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the
case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

(1) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of

investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information
obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past
behavior or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an
expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such
this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.

(2) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks
answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of
collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the
ability of the interviewer to a large extent.

(3) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has
to be accomplished in a very limited time.

(4) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact
with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the
respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively
used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method,
usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses,
if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that
it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.

(5) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to
respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by
enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability
of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the
work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration
the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the
desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon the
ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A.L. Bowley very aptly remarks that in collection
of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisite and experience the chief teacher.

9. How to analyze its research data?

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Descriptive Statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They
provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple
graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data. With
descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is, what the data shows.

Inferential Statistics investigate questions, models and hypotheses.

Analysis of data involves a variety of descriptive and inferential statistics.

-The most commonly used descriptive statistics are

(a) the mean, which indicates the average performance of a group on some measure of a
variable, and
(b) the standard deviation, which indicates how spread out a set of scores is around the
mean, that is, whether the scores are relatively homogeneous or heterogeneous around the
mean.

-The most commonly used inferential statistics are

(a) the t-test, used to determine whether the means of two groups are statistically different
from one another;
(b) analysis of variance, used to determine if there is significant difference among the means
of three or more groups; and
(c) chi square, used to compare group frequencies, or to see if an event occurs more
frequently in one group than another.

10. What are the suggestions to make it more valid and reliable?
According to F.N. Kerlinger: “The commonest definition
of validity is epitomized by the question: Are we measuring
what we think we are measuring.”

According to J.W. Best and J.V. Kahn: “Validity is that of

gathering instrument or procedure that enables to measure
what it is supposed to measure”

* Validity is defined as the degree to which the instrument successfully measure

what it intends to measure.

* To assess validity, useful ways which should be considered include:

- Ensuring the questions include variables known to be direct measures of the
concept or areas being examined,
- Observing whether the questions effectively draw out responses or are
confusing to respondents,
- Examining if answers are spread over an expected broad response pattern or
constitute only on category.

Validity, just as reliability, is maximized by employing existing questions what have already
been validated in some fashion.
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According to Best and Kahn: “A test is reliable to the extent
that it measures whatever is measuring consistently”.

According to Boyd and Others: “Reliability is the

characteristics of research methodology which allow it to be
repeated again and again by the same and by different
researchers”.

* Reliability essentially refers to a matter of consistency.

* A data collection instrument is inferred as reliable when employing

it will produce the same result when applied to the same object, regardless of
when it is applied (instrument reliability) or who applies it (rater reliability).

* In achieving high instrument reliability, it is vital to avoid depending on

respondents’ inherent understanding of terms which may vary widely in meaning.

For this reason,

- Explicit definitions of terms, with concrete referents, should be employed
- Using already tested and proven question modules from existing instruments
is another mean to ensure reliability.

Think of the center of the target as the concept that you are trying to measure.
Imagine that for each person you are measuring, you are taking a shot at the target. If you
measure the concept perfectly for a person, you are hitting the center of the target. If you
don't, you are missing the center. The more you are off for that person, the further you are
from the center.

References
Best, J. W., & Kahn, J. V. (1989). Research in Education. (Eighth Ed.) Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Clasen, Jochen (2004). "Defining comparative social policy". A Handbook of Comparative

Social Policy. Edward Elgar Publishing.
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Deacon, Bob (1983). Social Policy and Socialism. Pluto Press.

Deutsch, Karl (1987). "Prologue: Achievements and Challenges in 2000 Years of

Comparative Research," in Comparative Policy Research". Comparitive Policy Research.

Dierkes, Meinolf; Hans Weiler and Ariane Antal (1987). Comparative Policy Research.
Gower.

Esping-Anderson, Gosta (1990). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Princeton

University Press.

Heidenheimer, Arnold J.; Hugh Heclo, Carolyn Teich Adams (1983). Comparative Public
Policy. St. Martin's Press.

Jones, Catherine (1985). Patterns of Social Policy. Taylor & Francis.

Kerlinger, F.N. (1969). Research in Education. In R. Ebel, V. Noll, & R. Bauer (Eds.),
Encyclopedia of Education (4th ed., pp. 1127-1134). New York: Macmillan.

Przeworski, Adam; Henry Teune (1970). The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry. Wiley-
Interscience.
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