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SOLAR POWER
Abstract
Energy plays an important role in the material, social and cultural life of man kind.
The energy needs are increasing day by day. This is the result of population growth and
increase in the standard of living which is directly proportional to energy consumption.
As we know that man kind will be never lacking in energy. Today, it is liquid
fluid, tomorrow it may be uranium with an element of risk. Risk exists where ever there is
human activity and production of energy. Just as the supply of fossil fuel is finite thus there
will be the supply of uranium. Perhaps, uranium would be exhausted quickly if it is used on a
large scale. It is therefore, harnessing the gigantic inexhaustible solar energy source reduces
the dependence on fossil fuels.
CHAPTER-1
The main intention of this project is to develop a solar power irrigation system for
agriculture to operate the irrigation pumps automatically by moisture level sensing
using a solar energy. This system derives power from solar energy through photo-
voltaic cells. Hence, dependency on erratic commercial power is not required.
The proposed system uses a microcontroller of the 8051 family and a battery for
power supply. In this system, the sensor part is built using an op-amp acting as a
comparator connected to the microcontroller for sensing the moisture condition of the
soil. A motor is controlled by the relay which is interfaced to the microcontroller
through a transistor driver. In this project, a solar panel is connected to the circuit
through a charge controller for monitoring the sunlight level. The charge controller is
used to protect the battery by providing all protections besides charging.
In irrigation process, the solid monitoring is the most critical parameter, so we have to
monitor the soil condition by the sensors, whether the soil is dry or wet. If it is dry,
then the microcontroller sends the commands as per the program to switch the motor
using a relay with the solar power, and if it is dry, then it switches off the motor
automatically. The on/off condition of the pump is displayed on an LCD display.
This project in future can be enhanced by interfacing it with a GSM modem to gain
control over the switching operation of the motor.
For the environmental concerned, the solar energy harnessing system offers
advantages in that, it emits no pollutants in to the atmosphere as they are with the combustion
of fossil fuels. Thus, as a long term option solar energy system can be considered as an
alternate to all the finite fuel system. Therefore, there is no energy shortage today nor will
there be in the near future?
The irrigation system is defined as a system that distributes water to targeted area.
The efficiency of the irrigation is based on the system used. Since antiquity, the
human life is based on agriculture and the irrigation system is one of the tools that
boost agriculture. There are many other types of irrigation system all over the world
but these irrigations are encountering many problems. In fact, there are few modern
systems but they mostly fail in one way to another. The automation plays an important
role in the world economy; therefore, engineers struggle to come out with combined
automatic devices in order to create complex systems that help human in its activities
so that the system automatically processes itself without any human intervention. So
we would like to develop an automatic irrigation system.
Basically, the project consists of electrical part and mechanical part. The
electrical part consists of photovoltaic, which is meant to generate power and the
power is stored in the rechargeable battery. The mechanical part consists of pump, to
pump out the water from the water source. The parameters in the project are soil
humidity condition, water level condition, the position of the Sun. The solar system is
used to generate the power to the entire system and the solar system is much cheaper
than the electrical system. It is suitable to the rural area that is why the solar system is
Most of the existing systems are manual system. The manual system needs labor for
monitoring the productivity and health crop. Considering labors salary, the system
will cost much more than the automatic system, in which there is no assistance to the
system. The farmer himself has to check the moisture level of the soil and has to make
a judgment whether the field requires water or not. This way of inspecting the
moisture level is not accurate and this drawback can be eliminated by using soil
moisture sensor which is been used in our architecture. Moreover, the temperature
required for the crops to sustain, differs from crops to crops. If the temperature
increases or decreases than the expected temperature, it may affect the quality of the
crops. This problem can be overcome by using the shielding mechanism, thereby
maintaining the desired temperature.
Fig. 1.1 Traditional Method Of Checking Moisture Of Soil
1.4 COMPONENTS
Op-Amp
LCD
Solar Panel
MOSFET
Relay
Motor
Voltage Regulator
Diodes
Capacitor
LED
Crystal
Transistor
Keil Compiler
1.5 WORKING
On the input side there are three sensors. Soil moisture sensor will check the moisture
of the soil as per the crop which is to be cultivated. When the moisture level of the
soil goes above or below the set value, it will direct the microcontroller whether it
should pump the water or not. Humidity sensor will check the temperature of the
surrounding. If the temperature goes above or below the set value which is needed for
a crop to grow, the microcontroller will direct the shedding to shed the entire field
thereby maintaining the temperature needed by the crop for its healthy growth. The
water level sensor will check whether the water in the reservoir or tank is empty or
not. Buzzers are connected at the output side to get rid of birds, animals, and
mosquitoes. LCD display is used to notify what actions is been taken by the
microcontroller. The entire system is been monitored with the help of GSM module,
thereby making it a close loop system, thus, providing feedback to the farmer on what
actions is been taken by the microcontroller.
Fig. 1.3 Working Model
To understand how irrigation works and its importance, we present a brief background
about small-scale irrigation and introduce some commonly known traditional
irrigation methods and their significance.
Irrigation is a way for farmers to manipulate existing water sources to either store or
distribute the resource. It has been a fundamental need for the survival for farmers
because it provides water, the lifeblood of crops, to the growing plants when there is
not enough rain. One of the first reported cases of irrigation is among the ancient
Egyptians, who built dykes to trap the water that would flood from the Nile River.
Irrigation strategies are necessary to all forms of agriculture due to the
unpredictability of the weather. It provides a guarantee that there will be water in the
case of a drought. It also has the added benefit of keeping the plants at a safe
temperature level to mitigate frost during cold spells and to stop them from
overheating during times of increased heat. Irrigation is also necessary to promote
evaporative cooling by delaying bud formation, and some microorganisms are helped
with the added moisture (Jamal & Shinwari, 2013). As one researcher noted, the
objectives of irrigation are: to supply water partially or totally for crop need, to cool
both the soil and the plant, to leach excess salts, to improve groundwater storage, to
facilitate continuous cropping, and to enhance fertilizer application (Jamal &
Shinwari, 2013, para. 3).
The traditional kuhl is constructed with a dug-out main diversion channel that has
structures that can be temporary or permanent. Due to annual floods that might
destroy the system, temporary channels, which are built using boulders, rocks,
bamboo, and tree branches, are preferred. In recent years, people have also started
using concrete. These kuhls flow through different distribution points creating a
diversion-based system (Peoples Science Institute, 2003). Moreover, this system can
range from hundreds to thousands of kilometers long to allow water (primarily
floodwater) to be diverted to farmlands. The canals are aligned to draw water from the
A group of these diversion channels often create community-based systems that are
used for sustainable, cost effective and successfully managed by local
[governments] (Bhaduri, 2013, para.1). This system, which dates back to 16th
century, is used best post-monsoon when the abundant rainwater runs off through
diversion channels. The construction requires a site that has a concrete foundation and
has a depth of at least eight inches, where factors like the slope area of land and the
available rivers are also considered (Bhaduri, 2013). In the Western Himalayan
Region, for example, farmers started irrigation processes that were invented to adapt
to these mountainous landscapes. In northern India from Jammu and Kashmir valleys
down through Himachal Pradesh and ending in Uttaranchal, farmers have designed
kuhls that are aligned with land contours to draw water from streams or springs.
These canals can range in length from one kilometer to fifteen kilometers. They
generally have a trapezoidal cross section and are one to two tenths of a square meter
in area (CE IIT Kharagpur, 2011d).
Another traditional method our group identified is tank irrigation. The nomenclature
for this system is rather misleading because tanks are utilized as small reservoirs that
are typically in a rectangular prism shape and are used as embankments. This
irrigation system is usually constructed in chains to have water flow from tanks
upstream to tanks downstream which are important ancient traditions of storing the
available water from rainfall, streams or rivers that help improve the cultivation of
crops (Chandrasekaran, Devarajulu, & Kuppannan, 2009; Palanisami, 2006;
Palanisami, Meinzen-Dick, Giordano, Van Koppen, & Ranganathan, 2011; Vemula,
2010). Tanks can take many forms, as seen in Figure 6 below (Jupiter Informed Ltd.,
2010; Kajisa, 2012).
Fig. 2.4 Tank Irrigation
Baudis and nawns are also tank-style surface water harvesting techniques. Deep pits
are built to collect and store the water and they are generally covered with a roof.
Both use same techniques, but the difference appears in the final usage of them.
Baudi generally has a tank-like structure to store the water, in contrast to nawn, which
is larger and used for numerous purposes such as drinking, washing, and taking
showers (Sharma & Kanwar, 2009). One of the examples of a baudi and nawn can be
seen in Figures 2.7 and 2.8 below.
2.1.3 Wells
The implementation of the well design requires digging a hole in the ground to
provide a perennial soft water supply. This soft water is more appropriate for
irrigation because it sometimes has a lower salt level. Saline water is capable of
destroying the quality of crops and has an adverse effect on soil (Abrol, Yadav &
Massoud, 1988). To reduce the salinity, wells, which are generally at shallow depths,
are dug near the ponds where water is collected on rainy days. Well irrigation is
mainly used in alluvial plains due to the softness of the soil. It is also more popular in
regions where ground water is plenty and diversion channels are available. This
irrigation method is preferable because of the ease of operation, and reduction of
danger from water clogging compared to the canal (channel) irrigation during the
water flow. Especially when the water level is high, farmers sometimes still utilize
water-harvesting systems such as rahat (known as the Persian wheel), which was
commonly used in India in 9th and 10th century (Vishwanath, 2009). The rahat is
typically operated either by domestic animals such as cows and ox or by people. This
expense of energy to push the rod that connects through the wheel to lift the water is
also one disadvantage of this system (Verman, 1993; Jupiter Infomedia Ltd., 2010;
Sengupta, 1985). An example of well irrigation using the rahat is seen on Figure 2.9
(Acharya & Vishwanath, 2008; Jupiter Infomedia Ltd., 2010).
Department of Electrical Engineering 11
Fig. 2.9 Well Irrigation
Fig. 2.10 Well Irrigation: Rahat Operation
Most traditional systems, such as diversion channels and well irrigation, do not
require extensive and complicated maintenance and operation. These systems rely on
available natural resources, particularly the water source. Moreover, in India,
engagement of the people in the community especially for a community-based system
is significant. Traditional systems provide an opportunity for the people to be
These traditional systems are typically in small-scale (meant for a village) where
maximum efficiency and sustainability is considered. Customary irrigation methods
proved to be resourceful in the use of boulders and tree branches for diversion
channels, the storage of rainwater in tanks and the use of wells to collect groundwater.
(Jupiter Informed Ltd., 2010). Moreover, they have been in existence for years and
able to provide the community good quality of crops (Sengupta, 1985). The
implementation of traditional irrigation systems depends on factors such as the
environment, economy, and technology.
2.2.1 Environment
2.2.2 Climate
There are two main seasons in Himachal Pradesh, the summer and the winter. The
transition between the two seasons every year is important for the region. The main
growing season for Himachal Pradesh is from June to October. This generally falls in
line with the rainy/monsoon season. Traditionally, the growing season coincides with
the south-western monsoon (CE IIT Kharagpur, 2011d). Because it commences at the
same time as the monsoon rains, there is usually plenty of water. However, apart from
these two months of monsoon, the farmers have a hard time cultivating due to lack of
water.
The majority of usable water at lower elevations comes directly from local rivers.
These rivers are fed by glacial melt. Due to climate change, the monsoon season has
been unusually dry in recent years. If the trend of global warming continues then the
loss of glacial reservoirs is a potential threat. This could prove catastrophic in the
event of them disappearing. If the farmers are unprepared for a prolonged drought
they could lose the entire crop. A water storage system such as tank irrigation is useful
in preserving water for future purposes.
Another environmental factor that affects irrigation methods is the source of water.
This includes understanding attributes of the existing seasons and yearly climate of a
particular region. Developing traditional agricultural methods were primarily based
on a consideration of how much water is available in a particular area (Sengupta,
1985). Most traditional irrigation systems used water supply from rainfall, river water,
To learn about the government policies and irrigation schemes for our project, we
interviewed local government officials representing branches of agricultural planning
such as the Agriculture Department and Irrigation and Public Health (IPH)
Department. Most were in agreement that the need for irrigation was high, but noted
that cost and terrain as key reasons for inaccessibility. The most surprising finding
was that agency officials use a cost-benefit analysis to determine action. They focus
on assisting villages that could provide better income as well as helping more people.
Farmers living on hilly mountains received minimal help as they are remote areas and
have lesser population.
Government plans were created to improve agriculture and accelerate the process of
implementing irrigation facilities. Through archival research we found that in
Himachal Pradesh, government projects such as The National Watershed
Development Program has created strategies to increase the productivity of
agriculture. These strategies included soil and water conservation, production of high
quality fruit and vegetable seeds, and better marketing facilities. The 12th draft of the
five-year (2012-2017) plan of the government in Himachal Pradesh aims to improve
agriculture by providing farmers access to irrigation facilities and productivity of their
crops. As of March 2012, 413 schemes were completed across the state. The
Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Program (AIBP), which was created in 1996-1997
aimed to complete the ongoing irrigation projects faster. Because of the program,
17374.86 hectares of land has been produced for irrigation since December 2006.
We interviewed Mr. Prakash Thakur, AEO (Agriculture Extension Officer) and Mr.
Pooran, ADO (Agriculture Development Office) from the Agriculture Department that
is situated in Jawahar Nagar, Khaliar. According to them, there are several
government schemes and projects implemented throughout the district to improve
irrigation on fields. The MGNREGA scheme that is being implemented in Kataula has
helped farmers by constructing kuhls using concrete for more permanent structures.
Similar schemes such as the Sigali Sadog, Kandla, Bathari, and the Arang Kuhl were
constructed more than 15 years ago. Presently, these schemes fund the maintenance of
the channels, which includes clearing of sands in the kuhls when they become
blocked.
Through interview, we also found that modern techniques such as the micro-irrigation
system and poly-houses were introduced to produce better quality crops. One of the
major schemes the government is implementing is the Pandit Deen Dayal Kisan
Bagwan Samridhi
Yojna that was stated about 5 years ago to promote modern and more efficient
irrigation facilities. This scheme had an average total budget of INR 553 Crores for
the entire state. Under this scheme, a technique that the government is successfully
implementing is the Micro Irrigation System (MIS), which consists of sprinkler and
drip irrigation systems. This technique also implements protected cultivation by
utilizing poly-houses that are used for off-season crops. This scheme was open to all
people and places. One area such as Sundernagar benefitted greatly from this scheme
while places such as Kathindi and Kataula are still lagging behind.
We spoke with Mr. Hans Raj Kaudid, Junior Engineer, who stated that there are no
irrigation schemes currently being implemented in the Kamand region. Instead, we
were able to gather about other schemes in other locations such as Nandal and
Sundernagar. In Nandal, the government constructed the Lift Irrigation System (LIS),
which gathers water from the nearby rivers then pumps the water uphill to villages.
However, the government is unable to provide any help at the heights of 200m or
more from the river, as it is difficult and not cost-efficient. The cost efficiency is
measured in terms of Benefit Cost Ratio, which is evaluated using the ratio of the
monetary gain and the construction cost. Moreover, Kathindi, located between Mandi
and Kamand, is at a high altitude of over 1500m. No irrigation system is possible in
this village. Due to the lack of water sources such as rivers that are naturally present
in lower altitude villages, there is no water to irrigate with. Similar to Kataula,
villagers in Kathindi cannot implement khatris and Persian wheels because the ground
water level is too low. The government is unwilling to invest in these villages because
the project would be costly for such a small percentage of the population.
According to the government officials we interviewed, there are mainly two demands
from the people. First, they demanded the government to establish sources of water by
tapping the monsoon rains, which accounts for 70% of the annual rainfall between the
months of July and August, using rainwater harvesting. Although there are modern
advancements, the peoples need for irrigation is not fully met. Farmers also
We evaluated and assessed the fields of seven villages in and around Kamand
including Kataula, Kamand, Kathindi, Hadbon, Neri, Khani and Sundernagar. In each,
we identified irrigation methods farmers used, ongoing government projects (if
applicable), local crops produced, and water and irrigation issues farmers were facing.
When we visited the local villages, we discovered that there were many
commonalities between them. In the villages located near plentiful water sources there
was, in every case that we encountered, an occurrence of kuhls. The farmers would
divert water from the river through their farms and back to the river. These kuhls are
used, in addition to irrigation purposes, in the operation of mills. In only one scenario
did we find that the kuhls were government subsidized, everywhere else they were
hand dug by the farmers who operated the farms. At the higher elevations we found
that the farmers were much more self-reliant; they use smaller fields to grow crops for
self-consumption. As the crops being grown are not being used for profit, they are not
putting active efforts towards improving the irrigational methods and rainwater is
sufficient for the time being.
We visited the village of Kataula, which is near the north campus of IIT Kamand. It is
a village that lies between village of Bagi near Parshar and Kamand. There are mainly
three types of traditional sources of irrigation: mud kuhls (temporary ditches that have
to be re-made with every harvest), rainfall, and mud tanks. Other forms of irrigation
such as khatris and Persian wheels cannot be implemented in Kataula because the
ground water level is too low.
Fig. 2.11 Kataula Village
Neri is a small village about 10 km away from the IIT Kamand Campus. The main
crops of this village are corn, while other crops such as cauliflower and radish are also
grown in small quantities. Average villagers have received no governmental help for
irrigation. The farmers utilize mostly rainwater for irrigation. Only a few farmers
made kuhls. These kuhls were hand-dug for temporary usage and had to be re-dug
every time a new harvest was being planted. There were more permanent kuhls but,
based from our interview, they were primarily used for running the mills, having no
irrigation purposes at all.
Fig. 2.13 Neri Village Fields with Nearby Spring
Moreover, we interviewed one farmer who utilized the Micro Irrigation System (MIS)
using sprinkler and drip irrigation system in his poly-house as seen in Figures 22 and
23. The facility was 23 square meters with a cost of around INR 4 Lakhs for construction.
Under the Pandit Deen Dayal Kisan Bagwan Samridhi Yojna the state government
of Himachal Pradesh government subsidized 80% of the cost. Although the crops
grown from the poly-house generated higher profits, the farmer complained that the
materials used to make the poly-house were not of good quality, the tarp/plastic
covering it started to tear. In addition, the sprinklers have started to malfunction only
after 2 years of operation.
Solar power is absolutely perfect for use with irrigation systems for gardens,
allotments, greenhouses, and polytonal. When the sun is shining you need more water
and so the solar power is there for the pump. By adding a suitable deep-cycle
leisure/marine battery, power can be made available 24 hours per day enabling
watering in the evening the best time to water plants in the summer so that the water
has a chance to soak into the ground.
An automated agriculture pump system can be put together using a suitable 12V
programmable timer which will turn on the pump at the same time every evening.
Alternatively a bespoke electronic relay control board* can be put together to supply
power to the pump (or many different pumps) with your choice of turn on/off times
each day. To protect the pump from being damaged if it runs out of water to pump,
and to prevent any secondary tanks from overflowing, float switches can be used to
detect water levels and their readings fed into the electronic controller
Fig. 3.1 Electronic Controller
Op-Amp
LCD
Solar Panel
MOSFET
Relay
Motor
Voltage Regulator
Diodes
Capacitor
LED
Crystal
Transistor
The microcontroller incorporates all the features that are found in microprocessor. The
microcontroller has built in ROM, RAM, Input Output ports, Serial Port, timers,
interrupts and clock circuit. A microcontroller is an entire computer manufactured on
a single chip. Microcontrollers are usually dedicated devices embedded within an
application. For example, microcontrollers are used as engine controllers in
automobiles and as exposure and focus controllers in cameras. In order to serve these
applications, they have a high concentration of on-chip facilities such as serial ports,
parallel input output ports, timers, counters, interrupt control, analog-to-digital
converters, random access memory, read only memory, etc. The I/O, memory, and on-
chip peripherals of a microcontroller are selected depending on the specifics of the
target application. Since microcontrollers are powerful digital processors, the degree
of control and programmability they provide significantly enhances the effectiveness
of the application. The 8051 is the first microcontroller of the MCS-51 family
introduced by Intel Corporation at the end of the 1970s. The 8051 family with its
many enhanced members enjoys the largest market share, estimated to be about 40%,
among the various microcontroller architectures.
V CC 5V supply
VSS GND
It is 8-bit microcontroller, means MC 8051 can Read, Write and Process 8 bit data.
This is mostly used microcontroller in the robotics, home appliances like mp3 player,
washing machines, electronic iron and industries. Mostly used blocks in the
architecture of 8051 are as follows
Fig. 3.3 8051 architecture
Light passing through makes the desired image appear. This is the basic concept
behind LCD displays. The LCD are most commonly use because of their advantages
over other display technology. They are thin and flat and consume very small amount
of power compare to LED display and cathode ray tubes (CRTs).
1. Segment LCD: - display number letters and fixed symbols and where used in old
style industrial panel display and such standard where we need to display fixed
number of character.
3 Colour LCD display: - are of type passive matrix and thin film transistor/ active
matrix.
Liquid crystal are very sensitive to constant electric field only AC voltage can be
applied as DC voltage can cause an electrochemical reaction, which destroy the liquid
crystal.
Temperature dependent and in a very cold or hot environment LCD may not work
correctly. This is a relative effect. Sometime display needs a temperature
compensation circuit to automatically adjust the applied LC voltage.
LED & Switch Card has 8 nos. of Point LEDs, are the most commonly used
components, usually for displaying Logical output of Device pins states also to
visually indicate the state of each microcontroller/processor I/O pin. Slide Switches,
to give a digital input to the devices to evaluate the pin states. All point LEDs, switch
lines and power lines are terminated by the 20pin connector
Digital Inputs
Digital Outputs
SPDT Circuit
ON-OFF Function
Vertical Orientation
Fig.3.4 shows how to interface the switch to microcontroller. A simple switch has an
open state and closed state. However, a microcontroller needs to see a definite high or
low voltage level at a digital input. A switch requires a pull-up or pull-down resistor
to produce a definite high or low voltage when it is open or closed. A resistor placed
between a digital input and the supply voltage is called a "pull-up" resistor because it
normally pulls the pin's voltage up to the supply.
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) is the most commonly used components, usually for
displaying pins digital states. Typical uses of LEDs include alarm devices, timers and
confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.
A relay driver IC is an electromagnetic switch that will be use when ever we want to
use a low voltage circuit to switch a light bulb ON and OFF which is connected to
220v main supply. The required current to run the relay coil is more than can be
supplied by various integrated circuit like Op-Amp etc. relay have unique property
and are replaced by solid state switch that are stronger than solid state device. High
current capacity, capability to stand ESd and drive circuit isolation are unique
property of relays. There are various way to drive the relay some of the relay driver IC
are as follows
Relays are component that permit a low power circuit to control signals or to control
Signals
1. Zener Diode
2. 6-9v relay
3. 9V battery
Transformer is a static device that transfer electrical energy from one circuit to other
circuit with change in voltage or current without change in frequency. In this step
down transformer is used. Usually Dc voltage are required to operate various
electrical equipment and their voltage are 5V, 9V, 12V. but these voltage can be obtain
directly thus the ac input available at the main supply i.e 230V is to be brought down
to the required voltage level. This is done by transformer. Working principal of
transformer is based on fradays law of electromagnetic induction principal.
A solar panel is a collection of solar cells. Although each solar cell provides a
relatively small amount of power, many solar cells spread over a large area can
provide enough power to be useful. To get the most power, solar panels have to be
pointed directly at the Sun. Solar panels need surface area, more exposure means
more electricity can be converted from light energy
Solar energy absorbed by solar panel or in other word Photovoltaic Cell (PV). Photo,
meaning light, and voltaic, meaning electricity. Photovoltaic systems use silicon
cells to convert solar radiation into electricity [2].The PV system captures the suns
energy using solar photovoltaic cells. The cells convert the sunlight into electricity,
which can be used to run household appliances and lighting. Each cell is made from
one or two layers of semi-conducting material, usually silicon.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells are the special made semiconductor such as silicon, widely
use. Basically when the light strikes the cell, a certain portion of it absorbed by
semiconductor energy transferred to semiconductor. Energy knocks the electron,
allowing them to move freely. PV also has electric field that only allow electron move
in certain direction. This flow of electron we called current. We can use basically
three types of solar panel.
Crystal and ceramic resonator-based oscillators typically provide very high initial
accuracy and a moderately low temperature coefficient. RC oscillators provide fast
start up and low cost but generally suffer from poor accuracy over temperature and
supply voltage, with variations of 5% to 50% of nominal output frequency.
While the circuits illustrated in Figure 1 are capable of producing clean reliable clock
signals, the performance of these can be heavily influenced by environmental
conditions and circuit component choice. Care should be taken with the component
selection and layout of all oscillator circuits. Ceramic resonators and their associated
load capacitance values have to be optimized for operation with particular logic
families. Crystals, with their higher Q, are not so sensitive to amplifier selection but
are susceptible to frequency shifts (and even damage) when overdriven.
Environmental factors that influence oscillator operation include electromagnetic
interference (EMI), mechanical vibration and shock, humidity and temperature. These
factors give rise to output frequency changes and increased jitter and can, in severe
cases, cause the oscillator to stop functioning.
Many of the problems described above can be avoided through the use of oscillator
modules. These are self-contained oscillators with a low impedance square wave
output and guaranteed operation over a range of conditions. The two most common
types are crystal oscillator modules and integrated RC oscillators (silicon oscillators).
Crystal oscillator modules provide similar accuracy to discrete crystals. Silicon
oscillators are more precise than discrete RC oscillators and many provide
comparable accuracy to ceramic resonator based oscillators.
Fig. 3.11 Crystal Circuit
Electric motors are sized (rated) to operate under a standard set of conditions. Motors
must be selected for different applications based on nameplate ratings. The nameplate
describes the operating parameters for an electric motor and communicates this
information to the user. If a 40 horsepower (HP) motor is overloaded (accidentally
used to drive a load larger than 40 HP or operated at less than rated voltage), the
motor will draw excessive amperage in an attempt to provide the necessary power to
drive the load. When an overload exceeds the nameplate rating, the motor will run
hotter than its design operating temperature. This increase in temperature deteriorates
motor winding insulation and shortens motor life. Motor conductors and insulation
are not designed to power loads larger than the nameplate ratings.
A battery, which is actually an electric cell, is a device that produces electricity from a
chemical reaction. Strictly speaking, a battery consists of two or more cells connected
in series or parallel, but the term is generally used for a single cell. A cell consists of a
negative electrode; an electrolyte, which conducts ions; a separator, also anion
conductor; and a positive electrode.
A primary battery is one that can convert its chemicals into electricity only once and
then must be discarded. A secondary battery has electrodes that can be reconstituted
by passing electricity back through it; also called a storage or rechargeable battery, it
can be reused many times.
Some of the major types of battery use in this arrangement are as follows.
Lead Acid
Fig.3.13 Battery
3.10 TIMER
A timer is a specialized type of clock. A timer can be used to control the sequence of
an event or process[4]. Whereas a stopwatch counts upwards from zero for measuring
elapsed time, a timer counts down from a specified time interval, like an hourglass.
Timers can bemechanical, electromechanical, electronic (quartz), or even software as
all modern computers include digital timers of one kind or another. When the set
period expires some timers simply indicate so (e.g., by an audible signal), while
others operate electrical switches, such as atime switch, which cuts electrical power.
Providing adequate and quality power to domestic and other consumers remains one
of the major challenges before the country. There is also an increasing concern to
reduce reliance on fossil fuels in meeting power needs and opting for cleaner and
greener fuels instead. With about 300 clear sunny days in a year, Indias potential for
producing solar power is far more than its current total energy consumption.
However, presently the amount of solar energy produced in India is insignificant
compared to other energy resources. Therefore, solar power is being increasingly
utilized worldwide as a renewable source of energy. India has huge untapped solar
off-grid opportunities, given its ability to provide energy to vast untapped remote
rural areas, the scope of providing backup power to cell towers and its inherent
potential to replace precious fossil fuels. The solar PV off-grid opportunities in India
are huge, given the fact that over 400 million people do not have access to grid
connected electricity. The off-grid opportunities are significant, given the cost
involved in off-grid applications when compared to huge financial investments to be
made to set up grids. Moreover, specific government incentives to promote off-grid
applications, rapid expansion of wireless telecom and telecom companies desire to
reduce operating cost for base stations are also expected to prompt. Growth in off-grid
opportunities. The potential of replacing huge usage of kerosene used for lighting
rural homes makes off-grid applications desirable. Off-grid PV application examples
include remote village electrification, power irrigation pump sets, telecom towers,
back-up power generation, captive power generation and city, street, billboard and
highway lighting. The governments solar mission envisages off-grid applications
reaching 2,000 Mw by 2022 and deploying 20 million solar lighting systems for rural
areas.
Water is the primary source of life for mankind and one of the most basic necessities
for rural development. The rural demand for water for crop irrigation and domestic
water supplies is increasing. At the same time, rainfall is decreasing in many arid
countries, so surface water is becoming scarce. As these trends continue, mechanized
water pumping will become the only reliable alternative for lifting water from the
ground. Diesel, gasoline, and kerosene pumps have traditionally been used to pump
water. However, reliable solar (photovoltaic [PV])are now emerging on the market
and are rapidly becoming more attractive than the traditional power sources. These
technologies powered by renewable energy sources (solar), are especially useful in
remote locations where a steady fuel supply is problematic and skilled maintenance
personnel are scarce.
The main objective of this project is to watering to the fields and simultaneously
generating the power for pumping water from storage tank there is lots of technology
tried to reduce the power consumption but not succeed our technique is power
generation and efficient utilization of generated power Main components are required
in this automations are solar panel, arm processor, sensors, dc motors, relay, battery. If
the user (farmer) sends the text message via mobile phone as [@.ONX] it checks the
level of tank and condition of moisture in field depending on the level of tank the
operations takes place. We can know the level of water with the help of level sensors.
If the task is completed then the GSM module sends the simple message as
WATERING IS COMPLETE to the user. If the task is not completed it sends
message as WATERING IS NOT COMPLETED LAGGING RESOURCES. The
state of charge of the battery is sensed by charge sensor and sends it to ARM
PROCESSOR and the level sensor sense the level of water in tank and sends it to the
PROCESSOR.
The panel is kept under the sun for radiation. The photon energy from the sun lights
that incident on the top metallic grid causes the electrons in the P-layer and holes in the N-
layer to diffuse towards the junction. In this process the electrons collected on the N-side and
holes collected on the P-side charge these two sides oppositely. This develops an open circuit
voltage across the two terminals. The energy conversion process continues as long as light is
incident on the active top surface of the cell.
The power developed by these cells are collected and stored in a battery. The power
from the battery is sent to the DC motor. It runs the pump coupled to it. The suction head is
connected to the well and discharge head is directed towards the field. The water from the
well is pumped out and it is used for the domestic or agricultural purpose.
ADVANTAGES
Economical aspect:
Safety aspect:
Pollution free
Less chance of accidents
LIMITATIONS
CONCLUSION
The entire system will act as a crop insurance system, as it will protect the crops by
shielding it from untimely rain, hail stones, and temperature, thereby helping the
farmers to get optimum cultivation. Also, it will help to make proper use of water, as
the soil moisture level differs from crops to crops and this will be taken care of by the
soil moisture sensor. As the entire system will be powered by solar energy which will
be stored in the rechargeable batteries, one need not think of the electricity
consumption, as life of solar panel which is available these days is 25 years.
In this study, automatic irrigation of dwarf cherry trees planted to 8 decares of area is
realized with solar energy powered two different BLDCs and RF units. Motor with
deep well pump has been utilized for water storage from Dam Lake to pool and motor
with centrifugal pump is utilized for the purpose of transferring of water kept in pool
to drip irrigation system. An installed capacity of 3.84 kW with 48 pieces of solar
panels was designed to satisfy water requirement by growing of trees. Battery and
water tank are utilized for the purpose of storing energy obtained from solar panels
and in the meanwhile the stability of the system is also increased. Sun tracking circuit
was utilized for the purpose of providing energy more efficiency than the installed
power. Water demands of trees were defined with soil moisture sensors and were
satisfied with output pressure and flow rate is achieved by pump. Site-specific
irrigation provides effective management of scarce water resources and inhibits tree
dead cause of too much irrigation. Also this sensor-based drip irrigation prevents
moisture stress of trees, erosion and salification, provided less growth of weeds and
decreased the amount of water utilized by these weeds. In addition to this system
removes workmanship that is needed for flooding irrigation. Environmental pollution
is prevented with renewable energy and energy production from local resources is
encouraged. An advantage of system is that system needs no maintenance. The use of
this photoirrigation system will be able to contribute to the socio-economic
development in the Tokat region.