Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DEVENARANHA
B.E. ( Mech.)
Class I Engineer
S H R O FF P U B LIS H E R S & D IS TR IB U T O R S P V T. L TD .
Marine Diesel Engines
CONTENTS
and retriev al system , w ith o u t th e w ritte n perm issio n o f the Otto, Diesel. Dual and Actual Cycles................................06
copyright ow ners, n o r exported, w ithout the w ritten perm ission 2 -Stroke C y c le .....................................................................09
o f th e p ublishers. 4 -Stroke C y c le ................................................................... 12
2-Stroke vs. 4-Stroke Engines .................................... 16
CH A PTER 2 :
First Edition : July 2004 EN GINE COMPONENTS
Seventh Reprint: January 2013 Engine Structure............................... ................L . 19
Top B racing..... ................................................ 20
Fatigue Failure.....................................................................21
ISBN 13: 978-81-7366-927-9 Bedplate............................................................................... 22
Entabulature. A-Frame. Tie-Bolts and Pinching Screws 24
Holding Down Bolts and Chocks ...................................... 25
Resin, Resilient C hocks.... ......... 27
Piston : Water cooled. Oil cooled, Oros, Com posite.....29
2-Stroke versus 4-Stroke Pistons, Defects,
Rotating Pistons.
P u b l i s h e d b y S h r o f f P u b l is h e r s a n d D is tr ib u to r s P v t. L td . Piston Rings : Compression Rings. Oil Scraper Rings 36
C -1 0 3 , M ID C, T T C I n d u s tr ia l A re a , P a w a n e , N a v i M u m b a i Failures. Running-in. Shapes. Coatings.
400 7 0 5 , T el: (91 2 2 ) 4 1 5 8 4 1 5 8 , F a x : (9 1 2 2 ) 4 1 5 8 4 1 4 1 , CPR Rings. Antipolishing Ring, SIPWA.
e-m ail: sp dorders@ shroffp u b lish ers.co m , P rin ted a t D eco ra B o o k Stuffing Box G lan d ............................................................. 44
Prints Pvt. Ltd., M umbai. Lmer. Liner W ear.................................................................45
Lubricating Quills and Accumulator 48
H
Marine Diesel Engines Marine Diesel Engines
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
[ii] [iii]
Marine Diesel Engines Marine Diesel Engines
CONTENTS
Frequency Controlled Electric Motor Lubricator.......... 169
Multilevel Cylinder Lubrication ............ 170 CH A PTER 9 :
Crosshead Lubrication.................................. ....................171 EN GINE STRESSES,V IBRATION AND DYNAMICS
Forces Acting in a Single Cylinder E n g in e ......................205
C H A PT E R 7 :
Irregularity Factor............................................................. 207
CO O LIN G SYSTEMS
Static and Dynamic Balancing........................................... 208
Function.............................................................................. 173 Primary and Secondary Imbalance .................................209
Bore Cooled Liners............................................................ 174 Vibration D efinitions...................... ................................ 209
Load Dependent Liner Cooling....................................... 174 Torsional Crankshaft V ibration......................................... 211
Piston Oil Cooling System.................................. 175 Critical Speed ...................................... v.......................... 211
Cooling Water TYeatment................................................... 175 Barred Zone R ange............................................................. 212
Detuners and Dampers........................................................213
CH A PTER 8 :
STARTING , REVERSING AND MANOEUVRING CH A PTER 10 :
Start System ....... ........................................ ...................... 177 EN GINE OVERHAULS AND MAINTENANCE
Start Air Perio d.................................................. ............... 179 Unit Decarbomsation................................ 215
O verlap................................... ......... ............. ....................179 Cylinder Head R em oval................................................. 216
Start Air Receiver ...........................:............;................ 180 Hydraulic Nut Removal ..................................................... 217
Start Air Pilot V alve.............. 182 Exhaust Valve Rem oval...................................................... 218
Automatic Master Air Start Valve............................... .. 183 Piston Removal. Inspection and Clearances 220
Start Air Cylinder Valve..................................................... 185 Piston Mounting................................-............................... 223
Start Air Distributor.... .................................. 186 Liner Removal. Inspection and Calibration..................... 224
Start Air C a m ....................................................................... 187 Main Bearing Removal .. ................... 225
[iv] M
Marine Diesel Engines Marine Diesel Engines
Crosshead Bearing R em oval..............................................227 L iner...................... ............ d lia u .J ...... ........ .................. 296
Connecting Rod Bearing Rem oval.................................... 228 Cylinder Lubrication............. 297
Crosshead Pin Removal...................................................... 229 P isto n ................................................................................... 297
Connecting Rod Removal................................................... 230 Crosshead............................... _...~.^...._J.i..L.................298
Thrust Bearing Pad Removal............................. 231 Engine Components......................................................... 298
Bearing Clearances ...... 232
Fuel Pump Setting and A djustm ent...................................236 CH A PTER 13 :
Fuel Pump Cut-out C hecks................................................. 238 EN GINE EMISSIONS
Fuel Pump Cut-out............................................ 239 Engine Emissions.............. ................ ................................301
Fuel Pump L ead......... .....................------------------------- 239 SOx Effects and Remedy................... ..............................302
4-Stroke Medium Speed Engine Fuel Pump Timings 241 NOx Effects and Rem edy................................'.................302
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Turbocharger Out of Operation--------...-------- ------- ..... 243 S o o t..........................................................KiihillsU............305
Fuel Injector Overhaul............................. ....................... 244 Smoke and Opacity.................................:j.".......A............ 305
Tie-Rod Tensioning.............................................................246
Air Compressor Overhaul .................................................. 249 CH A PTER 1 4 :
Testing of Materials ........ 250 ENGINE PERFORM ANCE AND INDICATOR CARDS
Heat T reatm ent............................ 250 Engine Performance Definitions and Parameters...........307
Heat Balance Diagram 310
CH A PTER 1 1 : Power Ratings...................................................................... 310
EN GINE DESCRIPTIO N S AND SPECIFICATIONS Testing of Marine Engines ........................ ................. 311
Comparison of RD. RND and RTA Engines . . ...............253 Test Bed and Sea T rials......................................................312
RTA Engin es........................................................................ 254 Load Diagram and Propeller C u rv e ..................................314
RT-Flex Engines................................................................... 258 Safety Margins .................................................................... 316
SM C E ngines....................................................................... 271 Indicator Diagrams and Analysis.................................... 318
ME Engines........................ .........- ..... ............. ............... 278 Faults with Indicator Instruments...................................... 327
CH A PTER 12 : C H A PTER 15 :
EN GIN E D EVELOPM ENTS GOVERNORS AND CONTROL
Fuel Injection System ............................... - ......................291 Governor D efinitions................................ 329
Turbocharger System ........... - ........................... ................292 Mechanical G overnor............................... 331
Scavenge System ............................................. - .............. , 296 Hydraulic Governor with Compensation. 331
Exhaust System .................................... - ............................296 Electric G overnor..................................... 333
Combustion Cham ber.......................................................... 296 Governor Adjustments ............. - ............. 334
[vi] [vii]
Marine Diesel Engines Marine Diesel Engines
Load Sharing and The Necessity o f D ro o p .....................335 Engine Turns on Air, Not on Fuel.......... ............................ 362
Electronic Governor for Bridge C ontrol........................ 337 Engine Does Not Fue .......................................................... 362
Violent S tarting.....................................................................363
C H A PT E R 16 : Engine Not Reversing....................................................... 364
W ATCHKEEPING AND SAFETY Cracked Piston......................................................................364
Broken Piston Ring.............................................................. 365
Thlcing Over An Engine Room W atch............................345
Cracked L in e r.......................................................................365
Walk Through Checks of The Engine R oom ................. 345
Piston Running H ot......................................- ................... 365
Checks During The Engine Room Watch 350
Cracked Cylinder H e a d ...................................................... 366
Problems During The Engine Room W atch................... 351
Crankcase Inspection...........................................................366
Crankcase Explosion and Relief Valve............................ 351
Individual Piston Knocking at T D C .................................. 367
Scavenge F ires.................................................................... 353
Bearing Temperature Increase............................................ 367
ONTENTS
CONTENTS
Oil Spill................................................................................354
Lube Oil Sump Level R ising.............................................. 368
Collision............................................................ ..................354
Automatic Stopping o f E n g in e ......................................... 368
Flooding.............................................................. ,............. 355
Knocking in an Engine C y linder...................................... 368
G rounding....................... .v............................................... 355
Safeties in the Main Engine................................................ 369
Sudden O verspeeding........................................................ 355
Safeties in the Start Air S y stem ..........................................371
Loss of Engine Pow er.............. ......................................... 356
Leaky Start Air Valves.....----- ........---------- ....... ......372
Slack Tie-Rods................................................................... 356
Start Air Line E xplosion......................................................373
Incorrect Fuel T imings........................................,............. 356
Safeguard Against O vet speeding.................... 373
Engine Speed Fluctuation.................................................. 356
Funnel S p a rk s..................................................................... 357
Bibliography
Cylinder Relief Valve L iftin g ........ ..................................357
Reduced Compression Pressure .................................... 357
Smoky E x h au st.................................................................. 358
All Cylinders Exhaust Temperature Increase .............. 358
One Unit Exhaust Temperature R ise ................................359
Engine Speed D ro p s...........................................................359
One Unit Exhaust Temperature Drops.,...;)./...*...............359
Charge Air Pressure D ro p s................................................360
Engine Running Irregularly.............................. ............. 360
Jacket Water Pressure Fluctuation.................................... 360
Jacket Water Temperature Increase ................................ 360
Running Gear H o t.............................................................. 361
Engine Fails to Start on A ir ............................................. 361
[viii] [ix]
PREFACE
O v e r th e p a st d e c a d e , th e re h a v e b e e n s ig n ific a n t
advances in the field o f m arine diesel engines.T he new
m illen n iu m saw th e ad v en t o f a revolution in m arine
engineering technology, w ith the introduction o f the latest
C a m sh a ft-le ss E le c tro n ic a lly C o n tro lle d In te llig e n t
E ngine series.
Deven A ranha
CHAPTER 1
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
DIESEL ENGINES
Stroke (S)
Stroke is the distance covered by the piston between the top dead
centre (TDC) and the bottom dead centre (BDC).
H ighest use o f heat generated during combustion. 4) Naturally A spirated o r Supercharged: In naturally aspirated
Increased tim e period before refueling i.e. bunkering. engines, the piston itself sucks in air (e.g. 4-stroke engines) or is
Increased maneuvering abilities. fed by a scavenge pum p (2-stroke engines). In supercharged
engines, air under pressure is supplied to the cylinder which is
Increased cargo carrying capacity since less space is required for
pressurized externally by mechanical means o r an exhaustblower.
the boiler, water storage, water consumption; and a smaller size o f
engine in comparison to a steam plant and auxiliaries. 5) Compression Ignition (marine diesel engines) or Spark Ignition
Increased standby reliability. (carburetor a nd gas engines): In compression ignition, the fuel
ignites with the air due to high temperature caused by compression
Disadvantages o f D iesel E ngines of air. In spark ignition, an external electric spark is used for ignition.
High inertia loads due to reciprocating and rotating masses. 6) Trunk type engines (4-stroke engines) o r Crosshead engines
High capital cost, complicated design and construction. (2-stroke engines): In trunk type engines, the piston h as an
extended skirt which acts as a guide. In crosshead engines, there
Pressures and temperatures are alw ays varying in the system.
is a crosshead which has shoes sliding over the crosshead guides.
High lube oil costs in medium and high speed engines.
High idling speed o f crankshaft and irregular rotation. 7) Single o r M ulti cylinder: M odem m arine engines use 4 to 12
cylinders.
Classification of I. C. Engines 8) V ,W or X pattern o f arrangem ent o f the cylinders.
Classification can be done under various categories: 9) M ain Propulsion use (S hips propeller drive) o r A uxiliary
1) 2-stroke o r 4-stroke: Usually, 2-stroke is preferred for marine engine use (power generation & auxiliaries).
engine propulsion while 4-stroke is preferred for auxiliary diesel 10) Low, M edium, a n d H igh Speed
generation. Low speed (100 to 350 rpm)
2) Fuel used: Petroleum fuel ( gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, gas oil, M edium speed (350 to 750 rpm)
diesel oil), heavy fuel ( m otor oil, b urner fuel), residual fuels, High speed (750 to 2500 rpm).
gaseous fuels (natural or producer gas) and mixed fuel (liquid fuel 11) M ean Piston Speed
fo r starting combustion and gaseous fuel for running). Low speed (4.5 m /s to 7 m/s)
Medium speed (7 m /s to 10 m/s)
3) Single o r D ouble Acting: A single acting engine is one where the
High speed (10 m /s to 15 m/s).
upper part o f the cylinder is used for combustion. A double acting
12) Uni d irectional (sam e direction) or R eversible Engines
engine is o ne w hich uses b o th the upper and low er part o f the
using a reversing mechanism.
cylinder alternatively, e.g. Opposed piston engines.
13) A head direction in clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
Marine Diesel Engines Internal Combustion Diesel Engines
From 4 to 1, heat is rejected w ith changes in m ass flow, specific The heat transfer at this stage is varying, since some o f the fuel still
heat, low er pressures and temperatures. bums in the expansion stroke. Even greater heat losses are involved
owing to the unused energy lost by the compressed h ot gases,
In the actual cycle, there are unavoidable thermal, hydraulic and
mechanical losses. when the exhaust ports are uncovered o r exhaust valve opens before
the piston arrives.
The air admitted into the cylinder thermally interacts with the hot
cylinder liner and gases, and there is heat transfer. Action arising out o f reciprocating, rotating and robbing components
also contribute to losses.
A certain am ount o f work is required to be done to overcome the
Some energy is used to drive auxiliaries (lube oil pumps, jacket
resistance o f the inlet system through which the air is admitted.
water, scavenge pumps, etc).
T he amount o f filling o f air into the cylinder depends on its
Cooling o f the liner is imperative to the cylinder, but this is also a
temperature, speed and load o f the engine, engine construction
and service conditions. source o f thermal loss.
8
Internal Combustion Diesel Engines
Marine Diesel Engir,
\
F ig -6
10
Internal Combustion Diesel Engines
Marine Diesel Engir,
13
12
Marine Diesel Engines Internal Combustion Diesel Engines
14
Marine Diesel Engines Internal Combustion Diesel Engines
(4) E xhaust Stroke There is m ore turning o f the crankshaft, since two idle strokes of
W hen the piston nears BDC, the exhaust valve the 4-stroke engine are n o t present in the 2-stroke engine.
opens and the exhaust gases escape, since their High speed 2-stroke engines are less efficient due to less volumetric
pressure is more than the atmospheric pressure efficiency.
in the exhaust manifold. The exhaust gases are Fuel consumption is m ore in 2-stroke engines, since the engine
expelled and the piston now starts moving works on the Otto Cycle principle.
upw ards. T h e pressure o f the g ases now Unlike 4-stroke engines where there are two separate piston strokes
decreases fu rth e r to 1.1 to 1.2 bar, at a for each o f these purposes, 2-stroke engines have much less time
corresponding tem perature o f 430 to 530 available for exhausting and scavenging. Hence in 2-stroke engines,
deg. C. some o f the combustion gases are left behind in the cylinder, which
interfere with the normal cycle operations. Thus, 2-stroke engines
appear to be less economical than 4-stroke.
In the 2-stroke engine, tw o pow er strokes take place every two
2-Stroke versus 4-Stroke Engines revolutions, while in the 4-stroke engine, only one power stroke
takes place every two revolutions.
The whole cycle ( suction, compression, expansion, and exhaust) 4-stroke trunk-piston engines have the advantage o f requiring less
is completed in tw o strokes o f the piston in a 2-stroke engine, as
headroom than 2-stroke crosshead engines.
com pared to four strokes o f the piston in a 4-stroke engine.
Torque produced by a 2-stroke engine is less irregular than a 4-
A comparison should only be m ade between operating cycles o f a stroke engine, due to the number o f operating cycles in a 2-stroke
2-stroke engine and 4-stroke engine, having cylinders o f same engine being twice that in a 4-stroke engine.
geometrical dimensions and crankshaft speeds. Theoretically, the
The force applied to a piston o f a 2-stroke engine coincides with
horsepower output o f a 2-stroke engine is twice that o f a 4-stroke the axis o f the connecting rod at all times and never changes its
engine. In actual practice, the output o f a 2-stroke engine is 1.5 to I direction during the cycle.Therefore, dynamic loads coming on the
1.8 tim es o f a 4-stroke engine. This is due to the actual operating | piston crowns in a 2-stroke engine are avoided unlike in a 4-stroke
cycle being only a fraction o f the total piston stroke, lasting between
engine.
TDC and the instant o f uncovering the exhaust ports.
In m arine applications, 2-stroke engines are used in low speed
At the start o f the compression stroke, there are higher pressures high-powered diesel main propulsion, while 4-stroke engines are
and tem peratures in a 2-stroke engine than in a 4-stroke engine used in medium speed power generation.
(higher by 25 to 30%). This increase results in a 30 to 40%
In m odem engines for main propulsion, fuel costs require cheaper
increase in the thermal load. Therefore, there are higher thermal | quality fuel to be used. This is possible in 2-stroke low-speed large
stresses on the combustion chamber walls.
16 17
Marine Diesel Engines
ICngine Structure
l( is the foundation o f the main engine.
R equirem ents
1. Strength to resist fatigue failure.
2. Rigidity
a) to allow for crankshaft stresses which can cause excess bending
loads on the main bearings. It allows uniform loading on the main
bearings.
b) to control the structures natural frequency and keep it away
from the engines natural frequency. The engine will therefore be
designed to run above o r below the critical rpm.
c) to allow for true alignment o f the piston and the running gear, so
that no uneven loads fall over the crosshead guides, stuffing box
and cylinder blocks.
18
19
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
T he transverse girders strength w hich allows for inertia and A m echanical top bracing consists o f shims 1 between two plates
combustion forces through the main bearing. hydraulically fastened by a bolt 4. The bracing stiffening plates 2 are
T he A fram e which transmits the guide forces to the bed plate. thereby attached to a strong support 3.
The top bracing units which dampen the lateral structural vibrations. E ngine Structure D efect Areas
The cylinder block units which provide strength against transverse Below the main bearing due to bending stresses.
flexing. A t any change o f sections, w here stress levels are concentrated
The tie bolts which put the structure under compressive stress and e.g. crosshead guides and holding down sites.
reduces the tendency to separate. Bolt holes and welds due to shear stresses.
Anchor points for top bracing units.
E n g in e S tru ctu res L o n g itu d in a l Strength
The longitudinal strength is provided by:
E ngine Structural Cracks
Each A fram e u n it: This also reduces the chances o f fretting at Cracks in the engine structure are usually caused by fatigue failure.
bolted joints. Fatigue failures are discussed below.
Rigid attachment to the stiffened tank top. Closely spaced framing
Fatigue Failure
o f 750 m m is the requirement for the double bottom construction.
It is the failure o f the material which has undergone fluctuating stresses.
Ranges attached to the top and bottom o f the longitudinal girder.
Each fluctuation causes minute amounts o f plastic strain. Fatigue cracks
Each cylinder block unit.
start at the point o f maximum concentration o f tensile or shear stress.
The material fails at a point much below its elastic limit and therefore,
Top Bracing there is no distortion o f surrounding material.
This is usually of mechanical or Factors A ffectin g F atigue L ife
hydraulic type, fitted to the top Temperature: Increase in temperature lowers the endurance limit
part o f the engine to provide o f the material (usually, the endurance limit = 108 cycles, i.e. 48%
stiffening and support against o f UTS for steel).
tw is tin g f o r c e s fro m th e
M ean stress levels.
crosshead guide. Normally,
Combined tensile and shear stresses.
these braces are fitted to only
one side o f the engine e.g. the Cyclic stress frequency.
exhaust side. Fig-14
20 21
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
Bedplate
It is the base o f the engine which carries the other components o f the Fig -16
engine structure. Strength and stiffness are required for the bedplate M aterial fo r Bedplates
to withstand the inertia loads o f moving parts, dead loads o f supported Cast Iron (C .I.) absorbs and dampens vibration.
elements and forces from the firing cylinder gases. M ild Steel (M .S.) plates or castings welded together are cheaper
and lighter.
22 23
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
24 25
Engine Components
Marine Diesel Engines
Disadvantages
Maximum limit o f temperature is 80 deg. C.
In case o f overstressing o f holding down bolts, the chocks may
shatter and collapse.
If incorrectly fitted, the chock life is decreased drastically.
A pplication Procedure
Calculation is to be m ade for the chock area and the bolt tension.
Engineis to be aligned with shafting.
Allowance for chock compression is 1/1000 o f chock thickness.
M ain chocks are usually fitted beneath the longitudinal frame. Side Class.approval is to b e sanctioned.
chocks are fitted in line w ith the m ain bearings. End chocks two in
Clean the work area o f the engine frame and tank tops o f dirt and oil.
number, are fitted at the aft end o f the main engine. These are provided
with through-bolts so that they limit the forward motion o f the engine. All hull renewals and engine alignments should be complete.
27
26
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
Dam s are prepared using a m etal sheet and putty sealant to hold engine specifications. The rubber element can take compression
the chocking resin liquid. and also shear loads. They have in-built buffers to stop excessive
N o heavy w ork during the cure period. Cure period is around 18 movements in heavy sea conditions as well as stopping and starting.
to 36 hours, depending on ambient temperature. All m ounts are loaded to the sam e amount. The tolerance o f 2
A m bient temperature should be from 20 to 25 deg. C. mm is given for conical mounts. Using shims, one can further adjust
these heights.
Lim it fo r chock thickness is 25 mm, o r else u se m ore steps.
Tighten the holding down bolts after the cure period is completed. Piston
T he hardness o f the.chock is checked. Requirements
28 29
Marine Diesel Engines
Engine Components
30
31
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
32 33
Engine Components
Marine Diesel Engines
Piston Defects
Deformation o r burning o f the crow n top surface due to direct
impingement o f firing gas, poor injection or bad fuel.
1 Crown (Cast steel)
2 Skirt or trunk ( Al-Sf-Alloy Cracks on the internal or external surfaces due to built up thermal
or nodular C.I.) o r mechanical stresses. The reasons for these stresses are poor
3 Bearing (Lead bronze) injection, bad fuel quality, poor cooling due to insufficient coolant
4 Gudgeon pin (Carburised steel) or fouled cooling spaces, corroded material, poor lubrication, and
5 Keep plate
bad operations like an overloaded engine.
6 Connecting rod (Forged steel).
Scuffing due to overheating or poor lubrication.
Fig-25
Worn ring grooves due to poor lubrication, overloaded or incorrect
operation, poor combustion, worn liner o r piston rings, etc.
D ifferences B etw een 2-Stroke a n d 4-Stroke Pistons Cooling spaces deterioration due to corrosion; coking o r scale
build up caused by poor cooling water treatment; or low oil coolant
2-Stroke Pistons 4-Stroke Pistons flow o r overheating.
(7) Usually, used in low speed engines. Usually, used in medium speed engines.
35
34
Marine Diesel Engir, Engine Components
P isto n R ings compression ring is successively decreased in steps with each ring, to
There are usually three to six compression rings and one o r two oil equal the pressure which acts on the underside o f the piston. Hence,
scraper rings. radial pressure changes with the position o f each compression ring. It
is highest at the top.
C om pression R ings
Their purpose is to prevent blow-by. They should provide an effective Oil Scraper Rings
seal o f the combustion cham ber space. The initial compression o f They are rings which elim inate the possible ingress o f oil into the
the ring i.e. ring tension, puts a radial pressure onto the liner wall. combustion chamber. They are fitted lowermost o f the rings on the
Further sealing is provided by the gas pressure itself entering the back skirt in trunk type pistons. The oil is scraped by the rings w hilst the
clearance space between the piston and ring. They transfer a large piston goes downwards, and is returned to the crank case via oil drains
portion o f heat from the piston to the cylinder liner, which in turn, has in the piston on the upstroke. The rings beveled side surfaces slide
jacket cooling. H igh piston speeds require less compression rings, over the oil film without dragging them upwards.
since there is a less possibility o f blow-by.
The figure shows the pumping action o f the compression rings when
the liner bore o f trunk type pistons becomes over lubricated. W hen
the piston is going down, the piston compression rings are pressed
against the upper sides
o f the ring grooves and
oil enters the spaces
below the rings. When
the piston is traveling
u p w a rd s, th e rin g
presses upon the lower
sid e s o f th e rin g
g ro o v e s an d o il is
F ig -26
fo rc e d th ro u g h the
The figure show s the gas pressure p entering the back clearance back and upper side
spaces o f each compression ring and causing the ring sealing pressures clearances towards the
p i , p2, p3, p4, p5 to provide a sealing effect by pushing the rings combustion chamber.
tightly against the liner. It uses the labyrinth principle o f decrease in
pressure. Therefore, the gas pressure that is leaked in behind each
36 37
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
Piston Ring Failures In Fig. A, pressure P I decreases at the sam e rate as the cylinder
pressure, while ring pressure P2 falls at a slower rate than the cylinder
(1) Collapse pressure.
It is the collapse i.e. inward push o f the ring against the piston body
due to gas pressure build up against the running face o f the ring. It is In Fig. B, when P 2 suddenly
caused by the pressure build up against ring running face and liner wall b e c o m e s m o re th a n P I ,
due to reduced axial clearance; poor ring and groove sealing; rings m ovem ent occurs sin ce P2
not free to m ove in the groove; or poor lubrication on sealing surfaces. changes and this causes a flutter.
In both figures, observe the first
piston ring fluttering and moving
up and down in its ow n place.
F ig -29
(3) E xcess w ear
T his is due to p oor clearances, corrosion, abrasion, scuffing or
improper lubrication.
(5) Scuffing
In Fig. A, the reduced axial clearance reduces the gas pressure P I, It is the overall damage on the sliding contact surfaces, caused by the
building up behind the ring to form a reduced P2 ring pressure. formation o f local welds. These welds occur due to high local
In Fig. B , as P2 increases slowly, P I gets betw een the liner and the temperature (800 deg. C+), which hardens the base metal, forming
ring. hardened particles at that point.
In Fig. C, the ring collapses against the piston groove body.
Scuffing depends o n :
Oil film quantity, oil retention and countered rings to promote oil
(2) Flutter
film generation.
Flutter is the oscillation m ovem ent o f the piston ring along its own
Rotating pistons moving around any o f the dry hot spots which are
plane. It is caused by a radially w orn ring leading to a reduction in
prone to welds.
radial areas, or pounding o f piston rings in the grooves when the piston High temperatures due to poor sealing o r poor heat transfer by
changes its direction.
bore cooling.
38 39
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
40 41
Marine Diesel Engines
Engine Components
Piston R in g Coatings
Wear resistance coatings Piston R in g L ife
Ring wear rate (around 0.1 m m/1000 hrs) depends on:
Plasm a Coating (using a plasm a spraying m ethod where a gas
Fouling o f the turbocharger.
mixture is directed through an electric arc generated between a
tungsten electrode and a w ater cooled copper tube to create a Reduced scavenge air pressure due to m ore dirt in the ring pack
plasm a state at 10,000 to 15,000 deg. C). T his plasma state area.
m elts and fuses any m etal, w ith gas m olecules and atoms Overloaded engines or excessive pressure rise.
disassociating. Poor clearances.
Chrom e plating: It is a hard outer galvanic chrome layer. Double Poor fuel injection or poor fuel quality.
chrome plating is done on both sides o f the ring. This increases the
Poor lubrication.
w ear and corrosion resistance.
Poor water shedding in scavenge air which produces water drops
Tungsten carbide coating w hich gives a better wear resistance. on the cylinder liner affecting lubrication and causing scuffing.
R unning-in Coatings Poor maintenance o f grooves or incorrect fitting o f rings.
These are soft coatings such as copper, graphite or phosphate which
are meant to wear quickly and give the ring a similar profile as the liner.
Piston Cleaning R in g
It is the ring which is embedded in the top edge o f the liner just below
Controlled Pressure Relief (CPR) Rings the cylinder head level. Its purpose is to rem ove the excessive
In CPR type, the topmost ring has carboneous deposits at the top-land portion of the combustion chamber
one double-lap S seal and six wall which would otherwise contaminate and affect lubrication.
controlled pressure relief grooves
cut across the face. This ensures A n ti-P olishing R in g
It is the ring 1 which reduces the polished effect of
even pressure distribution and
the liner w all, which is form ed due to the hard
decrease o f therm al load to the
deposits from combustion in contact with the liner.
second piston ring as well as the Polishing is unwanted, since it does not allow oil
liner. O ther piston rings have an film retention on the liner wall, and the oil passes
A l-bronze coating and oblique over the ring pack portion to the combustion area
cuts. 3l/.."j when it is burnt and wasted. Polishing depends on
oil feed rate, excessive peak pressures, ring and
Fig-31 liner materials, and an increase in combustion hard Fig - 32
products at liner-ring interface.
42
43
Marine Diesel Engir. Engine Components
SIP W A (S u lze rs In tegrated Piston Wear A nalysis) It is a seal between the scavenge spaces and the crankcase in the area
It is a m ethod u sing a continuous online o f the piston rod penetration. It seals the crankcase oil entering into
feedback m easurement o f the piston ring wear the scavenge space, and scavenge deposits or cylinder oil entering the
condition.The piston ring has incorporated a crankcase. It is m ade o f two sections. Each section consists o f
wear-band (shaded section). A s wear down of.
the piston ring takes place, a corresponding wear
s i segmented metal rings held against the piston rod by garter springs.
Materials
down o f the copper wear-band takes place. A
Housing - Cast iron or cast steel.
sensor in the cylinder liner senses the wear of
Rings - Cast iron o r brass o r bronze or PTFE
the copper wear-band and transmits this signal
Lamellas - C ast iron or carbon.
to an online electronic unit, which records and
prints any wear down, which can be used as a Stuffing B o x Problems
pre-warning. Poor sealing caused by worn out rings, badly aligned ring joints,
sticky rings, closed b utt joints, w eak springs, excessive axial
Piston Rod Stuffing Gland clearance or scoring/wearing o f the piston rod.
Consequences o f stuffing box not performing properly is a loss of
t Casing in two parts crankcase oil, higher costs, contamination o f crankcase with
2 Spacer ring scavenge deposits and unbumt cylinder oil.
3,5 Oil scraper rings Indications o f poor stuffing box gland sealing:
Crankcase oil contamination test giving poor results.
4 Sealing ring
A case o f no oil replenishment.
6,8 Screws Increasing TBN o r viscosity.
9 Ring in two parts Reduced piston cooling effect.
10 Piston rod
Poor lubrication.
11 O-ring
Liner
12 Locating pin
M anufacture
Liners are usually sand cast (above 300 mm diameter size). They may
be o f split type to avoid distortion o f bore shape due to non-uniform
heat deformation. Split type is usually seen in 2-stroke engines, where
there is a difference in liner temperature near the scavenge ports and
exhaust valve region. Liners are press fitted into the respective bore
Fig-34 o f the cylinder block.
44 45
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
46 47
Engine Components
Marine Diesel Engir
areas)
Horizontal Section of Cylinder Li
1 Working piston 12 Joint
2 Piston rings 13 Flange
Effects 3 Cylinder liner 14 Flange
15 Lubricating quill
In extreme cases, combustion gas blow-by takes place past the piston 4 Support ring 16 Non-retum valve
5 Spring
rings, or failure o f the liner can occur. 6 Accumulator piston 17 O-ring
7 Diaphragm 18 Set screw
8 Passage for lubricating quill 19 Oil space
Lubricating Quills 9 Bush 20 Lube oil inlet
10 Filling pin 21 Jacket water space
22 Lubricatingoil groovesin the cylinder.
These are non-retum valves passing through the jacket water space, 11 Screw ______
which supply cylinder lube oil under pressure to the liner surface.
L iner F ailure A reas
Lubricating Accumulator
Area1 Excessive, incorrect or uneven
It is fitted at the outer end of the quill. It delivers oil through a non-retum tightening of cylinder head studs causes
ball valve, only when the cylinder pressure falls below the accumulator cracks.
Area2 Poor liner support shows hoop stress
pressure. The accumulator is sealed against the oil space by a flexible cracks.
diaphragm. This diaphragm is pressed downwards by the spring force. Area3 Upper ring area is prone to wear ridge
circumferential cracks.
This builds up an oil pressure, which is somewhat higher than the charge Area4 Flame impingement region in the
air pressure o f the engine in the combustion cylinder. When the charge combustion space leads to star
air pressure o f the engine o r the cylinder pressure falls below the shaped cracks.
Area5 Jacket water leaks at the lube oil quill
accumulator pressure, oil flows into the cylinder. When the accumulator
piping causes star shaped cracks.
pressure is less than the cylinder pressure, the ball valve o f the accumulator Area6 Scavenge port areas due to scavenge
closes. Iftheaccumulatorfails, oil delivery still continues, controlled by fires or overloaded engine operation.
Area7 Clover leafing wear near fuel injection
the cylinder lubrication pumps delivery stroke.
points.
49
48
Marine Diesel Engir.
Engine Components
50
51
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
52 53
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
Series springs have less buckling and bending stresses, but their designs
are complex. A n example is show n in Fig - 41. Springs are shown in
series numbered 1 and 2.
E x h a u st S e a t P rofile C hange
D u rin g L o a d
In closed position (Fig. A), the Belleville washer disc is pushed against
the body with slight force and disc spring is not deflected. W hen the
valve opens (Fig. B), the Belleville washer disc gets pushed against
Fig 2 show s the effect o f thermal the body w ith a higher force. T his load is transferred to the balls,
load on the exhaust valve seat. which causes the balls to be pushed to the deeper recesses and induce
rotation. Relieving o f pressure when valve closes, causes the balls and
the springs to return to the original position.
54 55
Marine Diesel Engines
Engine Components
Leaky E x h a u st Valve
It causes a high exhaust gas temperature and increased smoke. Pcomp
and Pmax reduce. The turbocharger may surge.
56 57
Engine Components
Marine Diesel Engines
P lsa d vantages
F ouled E x h a u st Valve
IThe webs should have considerable strength to allow two shrunk fits.
It causes a reduction in the exhaust gas flow; and fouling o f the exhaust
passages, the turbocharger and the exhaust gas economizer. The
scavenge efficiency decreases, while exhaust temperatures increase.
Exhaust gas may leak back into the cylinder and get recycled.
I
J I I nee there is a lack o f grain flow, there is no benefit o f the same.
Crankshaft
The crankshaft is a very important and heavily stressed com ponent It
is subjected to fluctuating loads due to the inertia forces o f rotating
masses, combustion gas pressure loads and high bending and torsion
loads. The crank angle fo r the angular arrangement o f each crank with
respect to the other depends on the num ber o f strokes and cylinders
o f the engine. Balanced weights are fitted to the webs to balance inertia
forces o f rotating and gyrating masses.
Types: (1) Fully Built (2) Semi-built (3) Solid single piece (4) Fully
welded type.
S em i B u ilt Up Cranshafts
[ They are shrunk fit assemblies o f complete crank throws (one crank
Fully B u ilt Up C rankshafts
[ pin and web together) and separate journal pins. They are widely
They have all parts separately manufactured by steel casting or forging,
I used on slow speed 2-stroke engines and large 4-stroke medium speed
and then fully built up i.e. assembled using a shrink fit (1/600 o f pin
diameter). Shrink fit is the friction between the pin and web sufficient engines.
enough to transmit the torque without stressing the pin and web. It is
done by cooling the pin in liquid nitrogen rather than heating the web.
Very few engines use fully built up crankshafts. It is only used on some
very large slow speed engines.
Advantages
Their construction and design is simple; easy replacement o f damaged
parts; easy handling and machining o f parts; any part o f the crankshaft
can be repaired in sections i f dam ages take place; and m ost o f the Fig-47
machinery can be completed during the manufacturing stage itselfbefore 1 One crank throw 2 Journal pin
assembly.
59
58
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
Advantages
Each crank throw is forged by continuous grain method which maintains | Half crank throw
a path for the grain flow along the crank throw axis. H ence it can use 2 Full crank throw
the benefit o f grain flow. It has a better fatigue resistance, less shrink ' Two half crank throws welded
leaving a small gap at the mating faces
fits, smaller webs and a lighter shaft weight. Larger pin diameters can
be used. I Dummy piece backing.
F ig-49
Solid Sin g le Piece C rankshafts
M aterials
They are those crankshafts where the whole crank shaft is forged or
High carbon steel (0.35 to 0.45 C ) for slow speeds.
cast as one single piece.
High carbon steel with alloys for medium high speeds.
Chromium, tungsten, nickel and m agnesium alloys are used in
percentage o f 1.5 % each.
C rankshaft Failures
Fatigue and cyclic stress failures are mostly due to high frequency low
loads or low frequency high loads.
The areas o f crankshaft failures are:
Shrink fit stress raisers at dowel pins o r keys.
Advantages Any sharp changes in section where stresses get concentrated.
It has a better fatigue resistance, lesser stresses, a sm aller and lighter Severe operating conditions and overload.
shaft, continuous grain flow throughout shaft and no need for shrink fits.
Lube oil passages, holes and drilling sections. The radii o f the lube
Balanced counter weights can be fitted as shown in the figure.
oil hole should be ample to reduce the stress concentration.
Fully Welded C rankshafts Pin to web fillet section should have ample radii.
They are full, h alf forged, o r cast crank throws joined to the journal Surface defects and sharp edges.
pins by continuous feed narrow gap, submerged arc welding. Incorrect manufacture like slag inclusion and poor heat treatment.
Torsional stresses giving a helical-shaped crack at 45 degrees to
Advantages the axis o f the pin.
Here, there are no shrink fits or restrictions on the pin diameter. Smaller
Misalignment of main bearings.
and lighter shafts can be used.
60 61
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
Slippage o f shrink fits are seen when engine timings change over Crankshaft Deflections
some part o f the engine only, with an increase in vibration at that
The crankshaft w ill deflect i.e. webs open and close as the engine
section and a shift in the m arkings em bossed at the pin/web
turns, in the vertical as well as horizontal directions.
interface. This slippage can be due to piston seizure; hydraulic
lock in cylinder during starting; starting the engine with turning gears
engaged (in case o f no interlock on smaller engines); bottom end
bolt failure; etc. If minor slippage occurs, adjust timings and monitor.
If m ajor slippage (greater than 4 degrees) occurs, then return to
original position using hydraulic jacks, strong backs and liquid
nitrogen. N o heating is to be done to avoid stresses.
Corrosion fatigue due to lube oil turning acidic caused by lube oil Fig-5 0 Fig-51
contaminated by combustion products.
Closing o f crank throw is a negative reading as shown in Fig. 50-A.
Lubrication failures.
Poor support from bedplate foundation and tie rods.
D eflection Procedure
Place a dial gauge opposite the crank pin on the port side and set the
C rankshaft Stresses
pointer to zero as shown in Fig. 51 -C. Looking in the forward
1. Variable combustion gas lo a d : The radial component causes the
direction, read the dial gauge readings as shown Fig. 50-B.
pin and webs to bend and twist. The tangential component causes
. bending stress in webs and torsion stress in the journal.
2. Torsional vibration stress in w eb pins is due to the shaft being
wound up under torsional load and unwound due to its own stiffness.
3. Axial vibration stress due to the repeated in-plane flexing o f webs
and the reaction the intermittent propeller thrust.
4. M isalignment o f the main bearings leading to cyclic opening and
closing o f the crank throw causing in-plane bending and tangential
bending stresses. Misalignment can be caused by:
(a) Wear or distortion o f the bedplate o r excessive bending o f the
engine framework. e.g. grounding or incorrect cargo distribution.
(b) Worn main bearings due to incorrect adjustments, overloading,
vibration, or poor lubrication.
62 63
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
Factors a ffecting D eflections away from the guide bar. T he lim it o f slackness is h alf to one chain
A flexible shaft and not a stiff one is desirable. A stiff crank shaft is pitchlink. Iftoo slack or too tight, adjust the chain tension. Adjustment
one where the crank shaft is stiff enough to support itself across a is done for slackness o f 1 pitch length.
span including a low bearing i.e. the journal may not be sitting on
the bearing. Check by using a feeler gauge o r jack the shaft onto
the bearing.
Ambient temperature near the engine.
Movements o f the ship as in rough weather.
Incorrect load condition i.e. hogging or sagging.
Chain D rive
Chain drive is used to transm it the Tightening Procedure
power drive from the crankshaft to
the camshaft. A n intermediate wheel
(for fuel pum p and exhaust cam
Lock washers
drives) serves as a guide, while an 8 Thrust
adjuster w heel serves to adjust the 9 Spring
chain. The intermediate wheel may be A, B, C, D Nuts
connected to a separate chain for
driving m otion to the lubricators,
governor, air distributor, etc.
64 65
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
Lightly tighten nut B against pivot shaft face, while checking that C hain D rive A dvantages
the spring is not further compressed, since compression reduces Easy timing adjustments are possible. Maximum flexibility exists for
chain tension.
positioning the gap between driven equipment. Its cost is economical
Tighten nut A and lock w ith lock nut and tab washer.
and very few spares are required. It has a very high drive efficiency
Tighten nut C until the spring thrust disc bears against the distance
(98 %) andean cope with a certain extent o f misalignment due to axial
pipe o f the bolt.
The spring is further compressed, but this tension is not transmitted movement o f shafts.
to the chain on account o f the already tightened nuts A and B.
W hen the thrust disc presses tightly against the distance pipe, the Chain Elongation
nut C is further tightened to m anufacturers dim ension setting Elongation or stretch o f the chain is due to the wear between pins and
D-2. bushings, roller and sprocket wheel, and between bushing and rollers.
Tighten lock n u t D, locking both nuts with tab washer. Elongation changes the camshaft position with respect to the crankshaft
Fuel and valve timings depend on the camshaft position and are altered
Chain Inspection
due to chain elongation. Maximum elongation allowed is 2%. A t 1.5%
Check chain teeth w ear at point 1, as
elongation renew the chain. Elongation is checked o n a taut chain by
shown in the figure. Place a short straight
edge plate, cover the points A and B, and measuring the length o f a number o f links from pin centre to pin centre.
m easure w ear a t poin t 1. Scratches on It is the difference between measured length and new chain length.
teeth sides due to the side plates are
normal. Check for cracks on the possibly S lack Chain
defective rollers and side plates. Check It results in excess strain during starting and reversing. There is a greater
for seizure. C heck the rollers run freely shock loading during normal running and retarding o f timings in both
and links m ove freely on pin and bush. directions due to backlash, especially during maneuvering and load
Check for one com plete revolution. Check bolt, screw and nut
changes. Vibration iri addition to cyclic stresses may cause possible
connections. C heck lube oil pipe fo r dam age a nd j e t nozzle for
fatigue failure.
deformations. Check rubber track o f guide-ways for cracks.
66 67
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
B earing M aterials
Turn crank throw o f No. 1 cylinder to TDC. Check camshaft angular (2) Thin Wall Shell Bearings:
These bearings are usually of tri-metal type, having 3 main layers and a steel
position using the pin gauge and marking. Remove plug screws for backing shell,
hydraulic oil connection in the coupling flange. Mount snap-on hydraulic
1 micron thickness of lead / tin for corrosion
connectors and piping to the hydraulic pump. A pply hydraulic oil 1 layer (Flash)
before installing bearing.
pressure to float the coupling ( coupling floats w hen oil seeps out 2 layer (Overlay) 20 micron thick white metal.
along shaft below coupling flange). 1\im and adjust coupling with a 5 micron thick nickel dam helps to reduce
3"1layer (Interlay)
corrosion of the white metal 2 layer.
special spanner and check position with pin gauge. Release oil pressure 1 mm thick lead / bronze.
4layer (Lining)
after finishing. W ait for 15 minutes before plugging oil holes so as to It is a steel backing shell for shape and support
Shell (Bottom)
allow the coupling flange to set again.
68 69
Engine Components
K s h J o u r n a l B earing
B earing F aults a nd D efects
an 7 rotation o f the shaft,
Abrasive wear due to fine scoring by hard particles and impurities
due to'Vede PreSSUreis f0im ed in the lube oil.
d i v e r t bein^ draW nint the
Corrosive wear due to acidic lube oil. The lube oil becomes acidic
o f th e' 1secticm b y the motion
j0lirnal. T h is oil pressure due to oxidation, contamination from combustion products,'or
separate^ the jo u rn a l and the water ingress.
^ W . p l a i n b ushtype, Fig-58 Erosive wear due to cavitation.
Adhesive wear due to galling, scoring or scuffing. In galling, the
load but s effeCtlTe remaining two-thirds canies negligible softer metal tears due to the adhesive force which is a reaction o f
loss C{iti]i causes the oil film to shear. Ib is results in heat and friction the rubbing metal surfaces.
Fatigue failure cracks at areas o f stress concentration.
Overheating due to poor lubrication supply or contaminated oil,
li'ews S * J m r n a Beari" g misalignment, incorrect clearances, uneven load distribution, poor
journal ofjoP3^ the plain bush is repiaced by a series o f
surface finish and overloading.
0Wn0 ^ 1 t a 8 P,V0 d t a t 0 t' S erato8itS M isalignment o f the bearing due to distorted bedplate, adjacent
bearing failure, or imbalanced cylinder pressures.
Advanta^
Incorrect clearances or incorrect tensioning o f bolts.
It is d e s i ^ ^ to geminate oil whirl.
Poor design, manufacture o r low strength.
. 6 cap^citv and efficiency is
Housing dimensions n ot perfectly suitable fo r bearing shells,
S V,^- Theradial loadia especially during replacement.
and n o tp ^ tbroughthaby oil films
, , JUSt one oil film. It has a
Bearings In the Engine
th S i! ort>'lo ,h t* ad,5' The tof
y ,djusE The following bearings in the engine are discussed below.
1 ? load, the feed and the
0Slty the oil- It allows for M ain Bearing
to t e f a ? * 1' Of inisalignment due Main Bearings are the bearings w hich support the crankshaft o f the
adiustinsttc>th
leivolingjumalp ad s, engine. The lower shell part o f the bearings are cut into the transverse
adjusting eoflheshaft
strength members o f the bedplate. The upper shell cap is held in place
by special jack bolts o r secured by wasted studs. Thin shell babbitt
70
71
Engine Components
Marine Diesel Engir.
F ig -62
(white metal) with a steel back is used for the main bearing. Babbitt has
a low fatigue strength and hence, pressures and temperatures are limited. 1 Top cover of top end
2,3 Bearing shells of top end
4,5 Hydraulic stud nut
7 Bottom end cover
1 Hydraulic nut
6 ,8 Bearing shells of bottom end
2 Top cover cap 0 Crosshead pin at top end
3 Wasted stud
10 Crank pin at bottom end
4 Upper bearing shell
5 Crank shaft
6 Lower bearing shell
7 Bedplate transverse cylinder
4-Stroke C onnecting Rods
(M edium Speed)
In these engines, only the b ig end
Connecting Rod and Bearings bearings are split, usually in an oblique
direction to reduce the big-end width,
Connecting rod is the rod connecting the top-end bearing (crosshead
lessen lo ad o n bolts and increase
bearing in 2-stroke slow speed engines or the piston gudgeon bearing
crankpin diameter. The top-end may
in 4 stroke m edium speed) and the bottom end bearing (crank pin
be a bush type bearing. Rectangular
bearing). Its purpose is to convert reciprocating motion o f the piston
o r I-sections, although more expensive
into rotary motion o f the crankshaft It is the most
to manufacture, are necessary to resist
highly stressed component o f a diesel engine. It is
th e high transverse in ertia w hip
subjected to ahigh purely compressive force. It links
loading, the gas loads, and to fulfil the
the piston rod and crosshead to the crankpin.
weight to strength requirements. It is
2-Stroke C onnecting R ods ( Slow S p e e d ) subjected to high compressive-low
They are o f split type i.e. tw o halves for each small tensile stresses o f bending as well as
and big end bearings. This helps in easy fitting and axial type. It connects the crank pin
repair. T he round m id section changes to a directly to the piston gudgeon pin.
rectangular palm section at the bearing ends by
means o f the elliptical fillet shape. A round section Bush bearing
1 Top end Lubricating oil passages
is cheaper to manufacture. Examples are shown in 3 Gudgeon pin Serrated edge
5 Obliquely split bottom-end
Fig - 61 and Fig - 62.
F ig -61
73
72
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
C onnecting R o d Failures Large fillet radii are given, since fillets are stress concentration areas
In slow speed 2-stroke engines, failures occur in veiy few cases, except as there is a change in the cross-section.
due to slight buckling, when starting the engine if oil or water has Resilience o f bolts is increased by designing the housing part as
leaked into the cylinder space. In m edium and high speed 4-stroke long as possible.
engines, fatigue cracks or fractures can occur in high stress
concentration areas. Thin walled steel back shell bearings have more Large E n d B olt D efects
possibilities to fail rather than white metal bearings. Transverse buckling If the large end bolts are defective, then they should be discarded in
is usually caused by crank pin bearing seizures. case o f overspeed failure, piston seizure, exceeded tolerance,
B ottom E n d Failures completed designated life, acidic lube oil corrosion and mechanical
damage like cracks and fractures to the surfaces o f land faces.
In 4-stroke engines, the bottom end o f the connecting rod is more
susceptible to failure. The forces acting on bearings and bolts a re :
1. C onstantly fluctuating inertia loads from reciprocating parts Crosshead Bearing
swinging in a whip motion. Unlike the main bearings,
2 . Tensile load caused b y the centrifugal forces o f th e m ass o f b ig e n d b e a rin g s an d
connecting rod and crankpin. camshaft bearings, where
3. Shear force tending to separate the tw o halves o f the bearing motion is only rotational,
housing. crosshead bearings have to
ta k e in to account
B ottom E n d B olt Design oscillatory motion at high
A pretension is given to the bolt while fitting. Incorrect pretension sliding speeds.
is the m ost im portant cause o f fatigue failure o f the bolt which is
initiated at a mechanical defect.
T he resilient material used fo r the bolt should be less stiff than the I 1 Rail 2 Shoe
bearing housing. | 3 Pin________________________ 4 Plate____________________ ______ |
The diam eter o f the shank sections should b e sm aller than the
threaded root portion so that this ensures greater stresses act at In 2-stroke engines, a cyclic unidirectional combined gas and inertia
the shanks rather than the threaded portion. load acts continuously on the bearing in a downward direction. Hence,
The yield o f threads is prevented by a portion o f the shank having the bottom half o f the crosshead bearings are more prone to wear. In
a tight clearance in the hole bore. Here, the nut is tightened square 4-stroke engines, the bottom half has some load relief during the suction
into the spot faced bearing housing. and exhaust stroke where the inertia force is greater than the gas force.
Lubrication at this time is ideal.
74 75
Marine Diesel Engir Engine Components
76 77
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Components
E n g in e M a te ria ls
Fig-65
78 79
CHAPTER 3
AIR SYSTEM
Scavenging
It is the process in a diesel engine, in which low pressure air is
utilized to blow out the waste gases o f combustion i.e. scavenging,
and refill th e cylinder with fresh pressurized air for the next
compression stroke. The various types o f scavenging are described
below.
Uniflow Scavenging
Uniflow, as the name suggests, is an
air flow in the sam e direction. Low
pressure air is allowed in at the bottom
o f the cylinder w ith slight rotation and
the exhaust gas is pushed out from the
to p o f th e c y lin d e r. U n iflo w
scav en g in g is req u ired in m odern
engines to use the advantages o f slow
speed and a long stroke (which in tu rn ,_
requires better scavenge efficiency to
burn present day cheap heavy fuel Fig-66
oils).
Marine Diesel Engines
Air System
Advantages
Reverse F low Scavenging
T he scavenge efficiency is the highest. There is n o exhaust and
It consists o f L oop o r Cross scavenging systems.
scavenge intermixing. W orking temperatures are reduced. Costly
cylinder lube o il consum ption is reduced (0.3 gm /bhp/hr to 0 .6 Advantages
gm/bhp/hr fo r crosshead type engines). Less residual exhaust The design is simpler. There is no valve gear maintenance nor
gas remains in the cylinder after scavenging. T h e air loss during power consumption required for the same.
exhaust and scavenging is nil. Its liner design is much simpler
D isadvantages
than other types and a shorter piston skirt can b e used. Thermal Consumption o f expensive cylinder lube oil increases. Undesirable
stresses are also m uch less as com pared to oth er scavenging mixing o f scavenge and exhaust gases is increased. Scavenge
methods.
efficiency is less. Exhaust back pressure m ay increase due to
narrow ing dow n o f exhaust passages w ith carbon deposits.
M eth o d s:
Chances o f cracks are possible due to therm al stresses a t the
scavenge and exhaust ports area. T he tem perature variation
1. U sing a single poppet type exhaust valve at
between scavenge and exhaust ports is confined to a limited area
top o f the engine cylinder. T he large area at in th e region o f the ports. Uneven w ear o f piston rings can cause
the exhaust valve allows speedy exhaust gas leaks. Liner costs are more as the liner design is more complicated.
escape and improves scavenge efficiency. It cannot use the advantage o f a modem engines increase in stroke
M ost m odem 2-stroke engines em ploy this bore ratio, which is why it is rarely used nowadays.
method.
Loop Scavenging
In loop scavenging, the flow o f air and gas is
2. Opposed piston method. in a loop path. The air inlet and exhaust ports
In opposed piston engines, one piston controls are arranged on the sam e side o f the cylinder.
the air inlet ports (bottom piston), while the Loop scavenging is best for stroke-bore ratios
other controls the exhaust ports (top piston).
o f less than 2:3, or else it is thermodynamically
Only outdated older engines like D oxford disadvantageous. Hence, m odem engines with
engines employed this method.
high stroke-bore ratios do not use the loop
type m ethod.
F ig- 6 9
Fig-68
82
Marine Diesel Engir. A ir System
Cross Scavenging closing precisely when fresh air has fully filled the cylinder
In cross scavenging, the a ir and gas flow is in and residual gases have been fully pushed out. Inter mixing o f
the across path. i.e. air inlet and exhaust ports fresh air w ith exhaust gases is n ot desirable at this stage, as it
are situated on opposite sides o f the cylinder. would contaminate the fresh air with exhaust and increase the
fresh air temperature. However, the sweeping action o f the
fresh air produces a cooling effect low ering the cylinder
temperature.
84 85
Marine Diesel Engines A ir System
fresh cool air is supplied. T h ere is better utilization o f waste turbine. However, the exhaust manifold should not be too big, as
exhaust gas energy w hich can b e used to drive the turbochargers. then there would be a longer tim e required for the desired exhaust
pressure rise in it. T he exhaust gas flow into the manifold creates
S u p e r c h a r g in g M ethods eddies which, in turn, dam p out any pressure waves or pulses.
1) M echanical Supercharging using : Work is n ot done when exhaust gas is throttled through the exhaust
A rotary air blow er driven by the diesel engine crankshaft. v a lv e in to th e la rg e
Here, som e indicated engine power is w asted in the drive. m an ifo ld . W ork is done
H ence there is less m echanical efficiency and m ore fuel when exhaust gases expand
consumption. It is inefficient at higher pressures. through the turbine nozzle
Scavenge Pumps which are o f engine driven reciprocating and blades w hich is seen as
type. a thermodynamic drop i.e.
Under Piston Space Scavenging using under piston spaces an utilizatio n o f exhaust
to pum p the air. gas heat.
A uxiliary B low ers w hich are o f independently driven 1 Exhaust manifold
type. T hese are used m ostly in the first o r second stage 2 Turbine
o f a com bined supercharging system only as scavenge 3 Compressor
assistance. 4 Aircooler
5 Air receiver
2) Turbine Supercharging
6 Engine piston
Turbochargers use w aste heat o f the exhaust gas to drive 7 Engine cylinder
a turbine w hich in turn, drives a com pressor (blower) on
the sam e shaft to supply pressurized air. Advantages o f constant pressure type
It is m ore efficient. T he tu rbine operation is b etter w hen a
Turbocharging Types c o n sta n t p re ssu re is a v a ila b le a t th e tu rb in e in let. B e tte r
D ifferent types o f turbocharging m ethods are discussed below. scavenging is p ossible at h igher loads. Exhaust-grouping is n ot
required. It can use th e advantage o f m o d em long stro k e
C onstant P ressure Turbocharging
en gines, sin ce m ore tim e is av ailab le fo r ex p ansion in the
In this type, exhaust gas from each cylinder is lead to a common
com bustion cylinder itself. Hence, g reater use o f heat energy in
ex h a u st m a n ifo ld w h ich th e n supp lies e x h a u s t g a s to the
the cylinder and low er exhaust tem peratures is possible. Since
turbocharger at a constant pressure. The exhaust m anifold space
exhaust pressure p ulses are not used, m ore energy is available
is large enough for the volum e o f combined exhaust gases without
fo r re c o v e ry a t th e tu rb in e an d co m p re sso r. H e n ce, th e
any pressure rise. Hence, a constant pressure is available to the
86 87
Marine Diesel Engines A ir System
com pressor o u tp u t is increased. T h ere is a greater utilization o f The requirements o f efficient p u lse turbocharging are :
w aste exhaust energy used in m arine engines because the main A rapid opening o f the exhaust valve.
engine runs a t a hig h er lo ad m o st o f th e tim e allow ing a constant Exhaust piping o f a large diameter, but m uch sm aller than the
load w ith less load changes. exhaust valve opening to allow for creation o f pulses.
Disadvantages Exhaust piping to b e as near as possible to the turbine inlet to
It cannot cope up at low or part loads. Here, the auxiliary electric use the pulse effectively as well as prevent any pulse reflection.
blow ers supply air w hen the pressure falls below a preset value.
E xh a u st Grouping
D ue to the large exhaust m anifold, there is a very slow response Exhaust grouping is necessary to prevent blow back o f one cylinder
to load changes.
into another in pulse type turbocharging. Each exhaust pipe has a
separate inlet to the turbine. Example: Three cylinders are coupled
P ulse Turbocharging
to one turbine, with a firing interval o f 120 deg. crank difference.
Pulse Turbocharging uses the pressure pulse w ave to expand the
gas further a t the turbine nozzles and blades. E xhaust gas from Advantages
each cylinder is directly lead to the turbine inlet. Here, pulses i.e. It utilizes the high kinetic energy o f the exhaust gas i.e. unutilized
pressure waves are created, when the exhaust valve suddenly opens energy from the combustion cylinder. It can w ort: effectively even
and exhaust is blown down into the exhaust piping o f smaller at low loads. It has a good response to load changes. It is widely
diameter, thereby pressurizing used in auxiliary pow er generators, w here load changes are
it. For m axim um usage o f the frequent and longer periods o f low load operation is common.
pulse, th e pulse should be as
close to the turbine inlet. Work Series 2-Stage Supercharging
is d o n e b y th e ex h au st gas
e x p a n d in g f u r th e r a t the
turbine nozzle and blades.
- VC 1
2
Turbine
Compressor
'6 3 Air cooler
1 Turbine 4 Air receiver
2 Compressor 5 Scavenge pump
3 Air cooler
' 4 Air receiver
ar 6
7
Scavenge ports
Exhaust valve
8 Exhaust manifold
5 Rotor
9 Air cooler & receiver.
6 Cylinder A Single air inlet for series
7 Exhaust Piping F ig- 7 3
88
Marine Diesel Engin Air System
Here, there is only one air inlet. Supercharging is done in two Here, there are two separate air inlets. Supercharging is done in
stages in series. p arallel. S im u ltan eo u s d eliv ery o f a ir tak es p la c e from a
1 staSe : Air is compressed (e.g. by the turbocharger) and then turbocharger and the under piston space pum ping effect.
cooled in an inter cooler and supplied to the inlet of the
2ndstage in series. Two-Stage Supercharging
2nd sta g e : A ir is further compressed (e.g. by a scavenge pum p or Supercharging in two stages gives the advantage o f more efficiency
under piston spaces) and sent to an after cooler and then, and boost air pressure ratio, since w ork done in compressing the
to the scavenge air ports. air is reduced. Inter cooling between stages helps the compression
to approach isothermal conditions which reduce the work to be
Parallel Supercharging done in compressing the air.
91
Marine Diesel Engines A ir Sysler.
Pow er Take-In ( P T I ) Here, power is taken o ff from the main engine shaft
It is a system w here pow er is taken-in b y the m ain engine. The and supplied to an electric generator via a special
main engine has excess exhaust gas energy at full load i.e. in excess constant speed step-up g e a r. This gear converts
o f that required fo r scavenging and for the economizer. This excess variable engine speed into a constant speed supply
energy can b e channeled b ack to the engine shaft to take-in and to the generator. PTO pow er can b e tapped from 42%
utilize this w aste exhaust gas energy. P art o f the exhaust gas can pow er to overload. It reduces th e costs o f running,
be led to a turbine w hich can supply energy to the propeller shaft maintaining, spares requirements, and lube oil
th ro u g h g e a rin g . I t c a n b e u s e d o n ly in h ig h ly e ffic ie n t consumption o f additional diesel generators.
turbochargers, w here efficiency is greater than 64%.
M ethod (3): Excess scavenge air from the m ain engine air receiver
Pow er T a k e -O ff (PTO) can b e le d to su p p le m e n t th e a u x ilia ry d iesel
It is a system w here pow er is taken-off from the m ain engine. generators, when the auxiliary diesel generators are
running on heavy fuel oil at low loads. The main
M ethod (1): H ere, exhaust gas is taken-off from the exhaust
en g in e scav en g e air is led eith e r to th e d iesel
m an ifo ld and is le d to driv e a tu rbine electrical
alternators scavenge receiver or to its turbocharger
generator.
compressor using nozzles.
M ethod (2):
T u rb o ch arg er Types
Basically, they a re o f two types based o n the flow :
Axial Flow
Here, a single stage im pulse reaction turbine drives a
centrifugal compressor. Exhaust gas flow in and out o f
the turbine blades is along the axis o f the shaft. This type
is the m ost commonly used in m arine applications.
Radial F low
Here, the exhaust flow into the turbine blade is along the
radial direction. The exhaust gas flows off the trailing
edge o f the blade and the outlet is along the axis o f the
rotor. It is used in small high speed engines.
92 93
Air System
Marine Diesel Engines
Construction
A x ia l F low Turbocharger
On the sam e shaft is m ounted a single stage im pulse reaction
T he figure shows an axial flow type o f turbocharger w ith details.
turbine and a centrifugal compressor.
The Turbine consists o f a gas inlet casing w ith a nozzle ring; a
gas outlet casing; a turbine w heel forged integral w ith the shaft;
blades that are fitted through side entry slots; and a provision for
water cooling. In earlier designs, the casing was water-cooled,
but m odem engines employ uncooled type turbochargers.
95
94
Marine Diesel Engir, A ir System
Seals : Labyrinth seals are used to prevent exhaust gas leaking Compressor Impeller, Volute Casing, D iffuser & Inducer :
into the air side and into the bearing housing. Sealing air from the A lum inum alloy for light w eight strength and sm ooth surface
air side is leaked o ff to cool and seal th e shaft. finish.
Binding w ir e : A binding w ire in sm all segments is loosely passed
through holes o f four to six blades. In order to fasten this binding Uncooled Dirbochargers
wire, it is w elded to the first blade o f that segment. It w orks on M odern m arine engines use uncooled turbochargers, since the
the principle o f centrifugal action, resulting in the loosely fitted exhaust gas temperatures are relatively low er than earlier types.
wire touching the outside o f the blade holes at high speeds. This Instead o f wasting the heat energy by cooling through water cooled
alters the frequency o f vibration and dam pens it. In auxiliary casings, this heat energy can b e recovered in the exhaust gas
diesel generator engines, binding w ires are not necessary because economizer. Thermal efficiency o f the overall plant increases.
they run at a constant rpm. M ore heat is available at the exhaust gas econom izer inlet.
Fir-Tree Blade R o o t: It provides better and more even distribution Corrosion defects are avoided which w ere due to the sulphur
o f stress at the root portion w hich is prone to failures. There is products at low loads on the gas side o f w ater cooled casings.
less stress concentration at the joint o f the blade and the root. Further details are listed in the chapter on Engine Developments.
Side entry fitting provides improved balance and easy replacement.
Damping wires are required w hich pass through the blades. These
dam pen the low frequency blade vibrations. Locking o f the blade
is needed in the axial direction and a tab washer m ay be used to
secure the blade in place.
M a teria ls
96 97
Marine Diesel Engir.
A ir System
Turbocharger Faults/Problems
Fouling : T he intake filter gets fouled due to oil carryover or Surging
po o r com bustion at low loads w hich further leads to fouling It is the phenomenon o f irregular pulsations due to a change in
o f turbine nozzle and blades. Fouled exhaust gas passages the m ass flow rate o f air w ith respect to its pressure ratio. First,
cause a hig h er back pressure. M etal erosion is caused by we have to understand mass flow rate o f air and pressure ratio.
particles in the exhaust gas. D efective blow er bearing oil seals
cause carryover o f oil to air side, thereby dirtying it. T he air The figure shows the mass flow rate o f air and pressure ratio from
cooler sea water and air side also get fouled and require constant a compressor (blower) through a damper.
cleaning. D am ping wires and blade roots get fouled during Incase A , the damper is fully
running. T he sealing air pipe to the com pressor labyrinth may
b e blocked. Hence, oil o r vapour is sucked in through the
o p en , m ass flo w ra te is
maximum, and pressure ratio
CP *
labyrinth. is minimum. The mass o f air
will flow easily w ithout any
O 3 z b
Bearing fa u lts : These are d ue to overheating; vibration; poor
lubrication feed o r quality; m isalignm ent; fouling imbalance;
and poor sealing and erosion o f bearing m aterial, balls, or
resistance from the damper.
In case B , the dam per is cow*
CP .. '...^ c
rollers due to contam inated particles in the lube oil. throttled slightly. Resistance Fig-78
d u e to th e d a m p e r w ill
Resilient mounting failures : These are d ue to poor support or increase. M ass flow rate decreases, pressure ratio increases.
improperfitting.
In case 'C', the dam per is throttled significantly and suddenly.
Vibration: It is caused due to loose foundation bolts; excitation Resistance due to the dam per increases, mass flow rate is so low
from external sources; w ater ingress d ue to casing leaks; and and pressure ratio is so high that the m ass flow breaks down. A t
poor com bustion operations. this breakdow n, the pressure pulsation is relieved backwards to
the compressor. This phenomenon is called surging , w here loud
C orrosion : T h e a ir side gets corroded due to corrosive
gulps, howling and banging sounds a re heard.
pollutants in the air intake area. T he gas side gets corroded
due to sodium and vanadium sulphate from the exhaust gas
Compressor M ap Characteristics
turning acidic at low tem peratures and also d u e to poor
T he C o m p resso r M ap show s th e co m p resso r p erform ance
combustion. The cooling w ater side gets corroded due to poor
characteristics. Here, the effect o f changes in speed (i.e. constant
jacket w ater treatm ent Or poor sealing or cracks, w hich lead
speed lines at different percentages o f blow er rpm N) are shown
to exhaust gas leaking into w ater spaces.
w ith respect to the m ass flow rate an d pressure ratio o f air.
Isentropic efficiency curves are shown for 80% , 75% , 70% and
98
99
Marine Diesel Engines Air System
Surging Symptoms
These are noises at the turbocharger, gulping air sounds at the
compressor intake, repeated violent pressure fluctuations, sudden
quick surges in scavenge pressure, and howling or banging noises.
Fig - 80
1 Impeller and Inducer of compressor wheel
2 Stationary diffuser.
100 101
Marine Diesel Engines
Surgin g Causes
A ny factor which causes a change in air m ass flow rate.
Excess fouling in the system like intake air filter, compressor
o r turbine w heel, turbine blades, nozzle ring, exhaust gas CHAPTER 4
economizer, or even a blockage o f air filters as in the case o f
a cloth covering it.
Sudden load changes during maneuvering, rough seas, overloading, AIR COMPRESSORS
or crash astern conditions.
The changes in engine rpm which cause vibration in the air flow
rates. Isotherm al Compression
Fuel starvation; dirty fuel filter; and fuel system component defects It is the compression o f a gas under constant temperature conditions.
lik e fa u lty fu e l p u m p , fu e l h ig h p r e s s u re p ip e
dam age, or severely wrong timings. Adiabatic Compression
Surgin g rem edy a n d action It is the compression o f a gas under constant enthalpy conditions.
There is no heat transfer to or from the gas through the cylinder
R educe engine speed w hich, in turn, reduces scavenge air
pressure and there is less tendency o f rev erse flow from walls.
scavenge air m anifold to the turbocharger diffuser. As seen in the figure, it is more advantageous to compress the gas
isothermally (curve A), rather than adiabetically (curve B) as less
D irty o r fouled com ponents to b e checked and cleaned.
work is done (shaded area) in isothermal compression.
Proper m atching o f turbocharger to the engine w ith respect to
the co m pressor m ap characteristics, co m pressor im peller,
1 Suction and discharge valve shut
diffuser and n ozzle area design.
1-2 Compression
Regular gas and air side w ashing o f turbocharger.
2 Discharge valve is open
2- 3 Discharge of pressurized air
3 Discharge valve shut
3- 4 Re-expansion of residual air
4 Suction valve is open
4- 1 Intake of air.
102 103
Marine Diesel Engines A ir Compressors
104 105
A ir Compressors
Marine Diesel Engines
107
106
Marine Diesel Engines
F uel Types
Crude Oil is the source o f fuel from the earth. It is a viscous oily
liquid, yellowish-green to dark black in appearance. It consists o f a
complex mixture o f liquid hydrocarbons with organic compounds
containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Petroleum products are
obtained after straight-run vacuum distillation in a refinery. Distillation
produces low boiling fractions, free o f unwanted by-products.
Separation during distillation provides the following fuels at different
temperatures:
109
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
M arine F uels
Kinem atic Viscosity
These are pure distillate fuels o r their blends. They are low viscous It is the ratio o f the dynamic viscosity and the density of the fluid at the
diesel fuels and heavy residual fuels. ISO 8217 is the only standard same temperature.
for fuel specifications. To reduce costs in m odem engines, cheaper
The units are Stokes, Centi Stokes, Saybolt Seconds, o r Redwood
residual fuels are used.
Seconds.
110
ill
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
F la sh P o in t F ire Point
It is the minim um temperature that an oil has to be heated, to produce It is the temperature that an oil has to be heated to produce sufficient
sufficient volatile vapours capable o f ignition when in contact with an volatile vapours, capable o f ignition by a flammable application and
open flame. It is the main fire hazard classification o f oil. A ll diesel continuing to bum thereafter. It is approximately 40 deg.C higher than
fuels on the ship should have a flash point greater than 66 deg.C. The the closed flash point.
two types o f flash points are open flash point and closed flash point.
S elf-Ignition P oint
Closed F lash P oint It is the minimum temperature at which a fuel is capable o f ignition on
It is the minim um temperature for enough flammable mixture to give a its ow n accord, without an external application o f heat or flame. It is
flash w hen a test lam p source o f ignition is introduced in a closed used when the choosing the compression ratio to match the fuel grade.
container. Closed flash point is measured in a Pensky-Martin closed
tester where the outside atmosphere does not influence the oil vapours. Pour Point
It is the lowest temperature at which an oil ceases to flow, o r can be
O pen F la sh P oint poured. It is important when considering storing, heating, pumping,
Here, there is no lid on the container. Therefore no vapour is lost, but wax crystallization, or solidification o f an oil.
the temperature is sufficient to give a flash, when a test lamp source of
ignition is introduced in an open container. O pen flash point is Calorific Value
approxim ately 15 deg.C higher than closed flash point. It is the amount of heat produced by complete combustion o f one unit
mass o f fuel. For one kg burnt, diesel fuels have a high calorific value
F lash P o in t exam ples i.e 10,100 to 10,300 Kcal, while heavy residual fuels produce 9500
For temperatures above 15 d eg .C , the test used is the Pensky-Martin to 10,000 Kcal. It is used while measuring the thermal efficiency o f an
clo se d flash p o in t test, o r else th e A b el te s t is used. F lash engine.
point examples are:
Cetane N um ber
Less than 22 deg.C Gasolene, Benzene (dangerous liquids) It is an index o f the ignition quality (ignition delay characteristics) o f
22 to 66 deg.C Kerosene, Vapourising Oils. the diesel fuel which defines the way combustion proceeds in the engine.
Above 66 deg.C Oils safe for m arine use. It is determined by comparing the ignition quality o f a standard solution
Diesel Oil 95 deg.C (which is a m ixture o f two hydrocarbons called cetane and alpha-
Heavy Fuel Oil 100 deg.C methyl naphthalene) with the ignition quality o f the fuel tested.
Lube oil 230 deg.C It is the percentage of cetane contained in the standard solution which
Petrol 17 deg.C has an ignition delay equaling the ignition delay of the fuel tested. Cetane
112 113
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel Sigg
which has very good ignition quality is assigned the number o f 100. compound eats into the metal surface, leaving the surface e x p o ^ to
Alpha-Methyl Naphthalene is assigned the number o f O, due to its corrosion.
poor ignition quality. The higher the cetane number, better is the fuel,
shorter is the ignition delay, and easier is the starting o f combustion. Catalytic F ines
The cetane num ber o f diesel fuels vary from 35 to 55. If the density A fter vacuum distillation, catalytic cracking is often carried ou .
increases, the cetane number also increases. Catalytic cracking is done to crack the oil vapours by reheating W1
silica and alumina as catalysts. These catalysts are used in poW r
Octane N u m b er form in an oil vapour. Some o f these catalysts break up to form a us
It is a measure o f the knock rating o f the fuel combustion in the engine. known as catalytic fines. They cause abrasion wear in the engibes-
Iso-Octane is assigned a num ber o f 100, because o f its excellent
anti-knock characteristics. H eptane is assigned a num ber o f O, A ir/F u el Ratio
because o f its poor antiknock characteristics. B etter the fuel, higher The stoichiometric ratio for proper combustion is 14.5 kg air t 8
is the octane number. fuel.The actual air ratio is 30 to 44 kg per 1 kg fuel. Excess air I3*101S
36.5 kg p er l k g fuel.
Specific Gravity
It is used for denoting the weight o f the oil while handling o r storage. O ther F u e l Im purities .
Other impurities in the fuel include water, iron, phosphorus, e
A sh lead, calcium, etc.
It is the quantity o f inorganic incombustible impurities in the fuel. It
mainly consists o f sand and metal oxides like vanadium or sodium. It Total S edim ent Test
causes abrasive wear. It m easures the stability o f the asphaltene phase o f the fuel- e
sedim ent accumulates at the bottom o f the storage tank and l138 a
Vanadium very high asphaltness content. This affects filters and componei118-
It is an undesirable impurity in the fuel. During combustion o f fuel,
vanadium products like vanadium pentoxide are formed, which are Wax
deposited on the surrounding surfaces. These deposits are highly It is a residue formed due to high paraffinic content. It is soluble*11a
corrosive above 700 deg.C. petroleum oil base. It crystallizes at its cloud point which may ^ 38
high as 35 deg.C.
Vanadium a n d S odium
When both these impurities are presentinaNa:Varatio o f 1:3, vanadium Calculated Carbon A rom acity Index (CCAI)
pentoxide w hich is formed com bines w ith sodium to a form a very It is a rating o f the fuel which indicates ignition quality, because is?utl0n
hard compound whose m elting point is around 630 deg.C. This directly depends on the aromatic content in the fuel. AromaticS 31:6
114 115
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
compact benzene ring structures present in the fuel w hich affect the Fuel system line diagram
ease o f w hich a hydrocarbon fuel m olecule can bum . A low CCAI
rating means better ignition, better fuel quality and less ignition delay.
Low ratings are upto a CCAI ratio o f 850. High ratings are from 850
to 950, and 870 is the lim it for its use. It does not affect ignition in
modem 2-stroke low speed marine engines, but it mostly affects ignition
in medium speed engines.
Fuel Specifications
Given below are the m aximum limits for Heavy Fuel Oil and Marine
Diesel Oil:
116 117
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
1. Injection delay o r la g : It is the tim e delay between the closing of between the piston and the liner (worn rings or a worn liner). Diesel
the spill ports/ valve and the opening o f the fuel injector. It depends knocking depends o n engine speed, load, com pression ratio,
on the pressure rise in the fuel pump and the pressure ,in the injector turbulence, mixture strength, fuel characteristics, ignition delay, injection
line. timings, cetane number and octane number.
2. Ignition delay o r lag : It is the tim e delay betw een the start o f Factors Affecting Combustion
injection and the start o f combustion. Factors affecting ignition delay
A to m isa tio n
are a rise in scavenge air o r cooling w ater temperatures, retarded
It is the breakup o f the liquid fuel into a m inute vapour mist, so that
fuel injection tim ing, ignition quality o f fuel, low load and low
these fuel vapour particles possess a very high surface area to self
speeds.
ignite with hot compressed air. Atomisation depends on the small orifices
o f the injector; the pressure difference betw een the fuel line and
3. Combustion o f the already injected fuel and fuel still beinginjected: '
cylinder; and the temperature, mass flow rate and viscosity of the fuel.
Ignition delay directly affects the combustion in this phase. In case
If too much atomization takes place, then very small particles will not
o f a large ignition delay, a large pressure rise can cause a diesel
have enough kinetic energy to go through the whole combustion space.
knock,
They w ill gather near the injector due to resistance from the dense
compressed air. Hence, they will be starved during combustion and
4. A fter b urning: I t is the burning o f fuel after injection is finished.
afterburning will take place. If too little atomization takes place, larger
Afterburning is considerable in case o f a large ignition delay, since
particles will possess m ore kinetic energy and g et deposited on the
heat is now given out in the expansion stroke and cannot be utilized
liner wall. This causes after burning and poor combustion. Carbon
efficiently.
deposits w ill be seen on the liner walls, the side o f the piston crown
and the piston rings.
K nock
It is the phenom enon o f a high sudden pressure and temperature rise
P enetration
due to the detonation o f fuel. It sends heavy shock waves, an increased
It is the distance traveled by the fuel particles into the combustion
flam e front speed, an increase in noise and vibration and a shock
space before ignition takes place. A fuel je t should penetrate well into
loading to engine components like bearings, piston rings, cylinder, etc. the combustion space without im pingement onto the liner or piston
crown. Normally, penetration is up to 60% o f the liner bore for liquid
In case o f a knocking sound, check whether it is a mechanical or a
fuel, w ith only fuel vapour being allowed to im pinge on liner wall.
fuel knock by cutting out the fuel. M echanical knock is due to worn
Penetration depends o n nozzle diameter size, length o f nozzle hole,
out bearings; broken or loose com ponents; o r an excessive play
fuel particle size and atomisation.
118 119
M arine Diesel Engines Fuel System
S w ir l
It is the motion given to the incoming air charge entering the combustion
space. T his is done by the shape o f the com bustion space and the
direction o f entry o f the air charge.
T urb u le n c e
It is a factor that has already been designed during manufacture and
can only be influenced by fouling o f inlet ports or exhaust ports; and
scavenge or exhaust pressures. It is given to improve the air fuel mixing.
It is done by giving a swirl to the intake air by means o f the inlet valve
passag e shape o r angle; changing the size o f scavenge ports; the
positioning and alignment o f the fuel injectors; the burning o f fuel; and
the squish from the piston shape.
A ir F u e l M ixing
T h e fuel is injected into the cylinder at a velocity o f 150 to 500 m/s Com pression Ratio
form ing a cone-shaped spray with a greater density at the center. Its It is the ratio o f the volum e o f air at the start and the finish o f the
penetration length depends o n th e injection pressure i.e. 120 to compression stroke. For compression ignition engines, it is 12.5 to
500 kg/sq.cm for slow speed engines. To ensure proper combustion 13.5. Loss o f compression is due to poor sealing or excess clearance
especially during overloaded conditions or poor air-fuel intermixtures, volume. The causes are w orn piston rings; w orn liner; or excess
excess air is provided. bearing clearances.
120 121
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
F u e l com bustion is also in flu en ced by 2. Separation o f water and sludge in settling and service tanks. The
Scavenge air pressure, tem perature, and charge air quality settling tanks and service tanks have heating coils and bottom
depending on the scavenging method. collection space to rem ove sludge and water. M axim um
Exhaust gas back pressure due to fouling o f exhaust passages which temperature o f the settling o r service tank must be 15 deg.Cbelow
also affect combustion and proper scavenging. the flash point o f the fuel, b ut not m ore than 9 0 deg.C or else,
Fuel parameters i.e. its tem perature at the inlet to the engine, its volatile vapours may form creating an explosive hazard.
viscosity, its ignition quality, its fuel ratings and its injection timings. 3. Filtration is done w ith filters to rem ove sediments and particle
Fuel pum ping faults due to fuel pum p internal wear; injector impurities; These are commonly fitted (a) at the outlet o f die storage
conditions affecting the m axim um pressure delivered; injection bunker tank i.e. at the inlet to the transfer pum p known as cold
delay; fuel particle size and penetration. filters; and (b) at the inlet to the supply pum ps after the heaters
known as hot filters.
4. A mixing tank or column to gradually mix heavy fuel oil and diesel
Residual Heavy Fuel Oils
oil during change over operations. It also serves the purpose o f
M arine engines use cheaper heavy residual fuels fo r constant MCR venting and degasification o f trapped air and gases.
operations and low viscous diesel fuels fo r starting, maneuvering, 5. Purification in centrifugal separators to rem ove w ater and som e
running-up and stopping. Heavy fuel oil is the residual fraction o f a amount o f sediment.
crude oil source after all other distillation products are extracted in a 6. Heating to reduce viscosity.
refinery. It is also a mixture with lighter distillate fraction oils. In modem 7. Usage o f a cylinder lube oil TBN having a high alkalinity to neutralize
engines, due to escalated fuel oil prices, residual heavy fuel oils are acids formed due to sulphur content; and maintaining a low cooling
used to cut on costs. Undesirable properties o f the heavy fuel oil are: water temperature.
high viscosity, increased sulphur, ash, sodium, vanadium, salts, water,
solid particles and sediments. The harm ful effects o f these contents Bunkering
have been discussed earlier.
Bunkering is done to replenish fuel and lube oil supplies required for
R esidual F u e l Treatm ent mnning the main propulsion plant and auxiliaries. A bunker plan is first
In order to use residual heavy fuel oil fo r the engine, the oil has to be drawn up. T his is a written procedure detailing all pipelines and
treated to reduce the problem s faced w ith these im purities. The sequence o f events. It describes in detail the quantities to be filled in
following treatment is carried out: each tank as well as the rate. The Chief Engineer is directly in-charge
1. Lim iting the im purities w hen purchasing o r bunkering the oil. and is required to personally supervise all operations. To assist him,
Lim its fo r each property and param eters are laid dow n by another engineer and an assistant are designated. Before starting, fire
ISO 8217 (1996). fighting equipm ent and spillage gear are to b e positioned and kept
122
123
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
ready. Com m unications betw een ship and bunker barge is to be Fuel Injectors
checked. D rainage scuppers leading to slop tanks on deck, which The fuel injector valve consists o f the valve body, valve head, union
can be filled in case o f a large oil spill are to be checked that they are nut and atomizer nozzle. In the valve body, there is the thrust spindle,
open. An air operated pum p to transfer oil in em ergency is set up. thrust spring, thrust foot and valve unit.
Hoses and seals are to bfe checked at the connections. Smoking is not
allowed. N o oil transfers during bunkering is permitted. Explosion- 1 O-Ring
proof tools and lam ps to be used. A breathing apparatus is to be 2 Fuel Valve Head
provided in case o f poisonous gas hazard. A fuel sample is to be taken 3 O-Ring
by a standard approved method. This is then sent for testing (FOB AS). 4 Locking Pin
Initially, oil is supplied at a very low rate. All lines and valves are 5 Thrust Foot
6 O-Ring
checked for leaks and whether the correct quantities are being received
7 Thrust Spindle
in th e d e sig n ated tan k s. O th er tan k s are also so unded as a
8 Fuel Valve Unit
precautionary measure in case of leaking valves. The bunker line valves 9 Union Nut
should be open and set under the Chief Engineers supervision. After 10 Spring
bunkering, once the fuel quality and quantity are acceptable, then only 11 Atomiser' Nozzle
will the Chief Engineer sign the receipt forms. 12 Valve Body
13 Locating Pin
Optimum Injection 14 O-Ring
Injection o f the fuel is best o r optim um if injection is done
immediately after maximum combustion pressure is achieved and
injection supply is very rapid at this point.
Injector F unctions a n d R equirem ents
Injection tim e is only 20 degrees o f crank angle a t full load, but It should inject and disperse the fuel evenly into the engine cylinder
maximum firing load is reached only in the latter half o f this period in a finely atomised spray.
i.e. latter h a lf o f the injection period. Therefore, w e m ust inject The size, position and orientation o f the injector nozzle has the
m ore fuel towards the end o f injection after the m aximum firing function o f creating a fine atomized spray with good penetration.
pressure is reached and supply this remaining fuel as fast as possible. The injector also serves as a non-retum valve not allowing any
combustion space gas back into the fuel system.
It is best achieved in the Intelligent Electronically controlled engine
It should not open till a preset pressure is built up.
series ( RT-flex or M E engines) for different load conditions. A t the start o f injection, the droplet size should not be too large as
this will encourage slow burning.
124 125
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
T he valve opening should b e prom pt to prevent pressure loss W hen the fuel oil pressure force overcomes the spring force, the
through throttling, during the opening process. needle lifts. Oil pressure acts on the annular area at the end o f the
valve spindle where it is machined to a smaller diameter than the
It should provide cooling o f the valve whilst in use which prevents
spindle diameter. A fter opening, the lift exposes the full cross
softening o f the valve and seat, as well as reduces expansion o f the
sectional area o f the spindle for quick opening.
trapped fuel in the sac area.
Prompt and rapid opening is achieved during opening, because an
extra effective area o f the needle seat is exposed for fuel oil and
Injector Types
pressure to act upon after initial lifting o f the needle.
Cam-operated o r Hydraulic-operated types. In m arine use, mostly
Coolant is circulated through the space around the bottom o f the
hydraulic operated type is used.
nozzle cooling oil flow. Passages are drilled in the valve body to
Open or Closed valve type: Open injectors dispense with a valve
the top.
between the fuel line and the combustion chamber, while as closed
Leakages o f the valve component faces will be seen in the spring
type do not do so. Open type are n o t used in m odem m arine
space vent hole.
engines because they suffer from after-dripping o f fuel after the
Atomiser holes vary from a diameter o f 0.075 m m to 1 mm.
injection stroke.
The valve lift is around 1 m m to 1.5 mm.
126 127
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
128 129
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
Correct timing and quantity o f injection corresponding to different 2. Gas Compression Injection System
stages in the com bustion cycle is important. T his is required to In this type, combustion gas pressure from the main engine
efficiently utilize the heat and energy o f combustion and have the combustion chamber is led to drive the fuel pump piston in the fuel
correct cylinder pressure rise to control combustion. pump chamber. Hence, a camshaft is not required to drive the fuel
Prom pt and rapid opening and closing o f the injector is very
pump. T iming o f injection is done by m eans o f a timing valve
important
operated by an oscillating lever and eccentric fulcrum. M odem
marine engines do not use this type o f injection.
Types of Injection Methods
The main types are Blast Injection o r Solid Injection methods. 3. Individual Unit Injection System
In blast injection, fuel is blow n into the cylinder by an air blast. In In this type, an individual fuel pump and injector, meter and supply
solid or airless or mechanical injection, fuel is forced into the cylinder
fuel for combustion in the engine cylinder. Timing is carried out by
through a fuel valve by a high fuel pum p pressure i.e. by the solid
fuel. means o f a camshaft drive to the fuel pump plunger. The governor
linkage also influences the fuel pump rack control. Governor input
So lid Injection System s is common to all units, but the rack on each pump can be adjusted
There are 3 commonly used ty p es: to compensate for internal pump leakage. M ost m arine engines
1. Common rail injection system.
use this injection system.
2. Gas compression injection system.
3. Individual unit injection system.
Fuel Pumps
1. Common R ail Injection System The function o f the fuel pump is to control the quantity and timing of
It consists o f fuel pumps, distribution blocks, accumulators, a the fuel injected into the combustion space and to provide the high
com m on piping o r rail, and cam shaft operated spring loaded fuel pressure required to hydraulically operate the fuel injector. M ost
injectors. T he fuel pumps supply oil pressure to a common piping- commonly used fuel pumps in marine engines are discussed below.
or rail which is connected to an accumulator to damp out pressure
fluctuations. The common rail then supplies the fuel injectors through Suction Valve Controlled P um p
a fuel timing valve whose opening and closing is camshaft operated.
This variable beginning constant end type pum p uses a push rod
I t is an outdated system, used earlier in D oxford P and J-type
to operate the pump suction valve, w hich in turn, controls quantity
engines.
and tim ing o f fuel injected. It was used on older Sulzer RD engines
However, the latest camshaft-less RT-Flex and M E engines employ
upto the mid 1960s.
a type o f com m on rail system. D etails are discussed under the
engine description chapter.
130 131
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
132 133
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
plunger is still moving up, along with the spill valve push rod and after
the clearance is passed, the spill valve is lifted to open. This shows
th atth e end o finjectionis variable, depending on the opening o f
the spill valve. The spill valve opening depends on the governor input
and corresponds to the engine load. The suction valve opening depends
on the length o f the push rod and the eccentric shaft position. It is
initially set and is not variable with the load.
Advantages as com pared to Variable BeginningPumps
B etter peak pressures and better therm al efficiencies are possible.
Fuel is injected at a constant beginning i.e. at the same crank angle.
Hence, at low revolutions, fuel would be injected earlier than required the top edge o f the plunger covers the suction ports and the pressure
and this would balance the longer ignition delay period required by is greater than the delivery valve setting. End o f injection is variable
cheaper fuels. and is controlled by the helical edge uncovering the spill port. (This
D isadvantages can be varied by moving a rack and pinion mechanism which rotates
the plunger and helix). The spill port spills fuel back to the suction
T he w hole quantity o f fuel is delivered before T D C even at low
revolutions. This m ay result in knocking effects. side. ;
Advantages
Port-C ontrolled H elix J e rk P um p The port and helix control does not require the use o f suction or spill
It is commonly used in M AN B&W engines as well as 4-stroke engines. valves. It is more reliable and most commonly used.
Working
Pilot Injection System
During the downward stroke, the pump barrel fills
up w ith oil through the suction port w hich is Pilot injection can be done by three w ay s:
uncovered as in fig. 91-A. During the upward A Jerk pump is used which has a cam with two lobes, instead o f a
stroke, the plunger covers the suction and spill delivery valve. The first cam lobe opens the valve at a Iowa: pressure
ports as in fig. 91 -B . The beginning o f injection is e.g. 75 bar, and injects a small pilot charge which has a long delay
constant and is achieved by the fuel pressure rising period. This pilot ignition heats up the combustion space so that
above the spring loaded delivery valve preset the main charge bums well. The second cam lobe opens the valve
pressure. The delivery ends when the helical edge at a higher pressure e.g. 415 bar, and injects the main charge.
uncovers the spill port as in fig. 91-C. Beginning of This reduces ignition delay for the main charge and gives a slower
injection is initially set and constant. It starts when rate o f pressure rise. The chance o f knocking is reduced. It was
used on outdated Polar 2-stroke medium speed engines.
134 135
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
Pilot ignition by means of a double injection profile jeik pump which Reasons fo r VIT
will give two injection pulses.
M o d ern e n g in e s (slo w
Pilot ignition by means o f an electronic control o f the injector.
Hpeed, h ig h p re s s u re
ch arged types) lo se too
Tw in Injection System much combustion pressures
In this type, two injectors are used i.e. the pilot and the main injector. and tem peratures a t low
It is used on Wartsila Vasa-46 engines. It minimizes ignition delay and lo a d s a n d s p e e d s. T h e
knock. The engine can run on low loads for unlimited periods. It allows Mater delayed ignition, as in
high viscous fuels (380 cS t at 50 deg.C) and highly aromatic fuels the case o f constant end
(low cetane no., but CCAI not high) to be burnt more efficiently. The types, led to low er peak
pilot injector injects a constant volume for different loads. Atomisation p re ssu re s a n d lo w e r f*-INJECTION
in the pilot injector is better due to finer nozzle holes. efficiency at low loads. With Fig-90
costs o f fu el increasing,
Tw in F u e l P u m p B arrel System cheaper highly viscous residual fuels are now used which have longer
In this type, tw o fuel pumps in parallel supply fuel to the same injector. ignition delays, lower peak pressures, delayed combustion, higher
exhaust temperatures and higher fuel consumption. Latest engines
One pump plunger controls the beginning o f injection, whilst the other
have a high stroke-bore ratio i.e. super long stroke for m ore power
controls the termination o f in je c tio n . T hey achieve m uch higher
output and run at a lower rpm. In 1978, Sulzer introduced the V IT on
pressures than that which can be achieved by a single fuel pump. This
the RLA engines mainly to allow better combustion and maximum
system is used on Wartsilas largest m edium speed engine.
pressure at low er loads (75% load) while using residual fuel.
136 137
Fuel System
Marine Diesel Engines
H eat added
In normal engines, Pmax is achieved only at full load power, whilst in
VIT, Pm ax is achieved at low er loads. A t low er loads, there will be
less fuel consum ption b ut an increase in Pmax. This leads to an
improved expansion ratio; improved utilization with higher Pmax at
lower loads; and im proved therm al efficiency. Therefore, SFOC is
reduced.
VIT M ethod
In suction and spill valve controlled pumps, injection timings can be
varied by raising or lowering the position of the suction and spill valves.
Raising or lowering o f the suction and spill valve positions are done by
changing the position o f the eccentric. Raising the valve implies earlier
timings, while lowering the valve im plies later timings. The suction
end o f injection i.e. decreasing the amount o f fuel delivered. Hence,
valve controls the beginning o f ignition i.e. the timing of injection, while
quantity o f the fuel delivered does not increase.
the spill valve controls the end o f injection i.e. the quantity o f fuel.
Advancing = Suction valve lowered + Spill valve raised.
Advancing
Here, the suction valve is low ered. Hence, injection commences Retarding
earlier. This results in more fuel quantity being delivered, since earlier This procedure is just the opposite of advancing.
injection gives m ore injection tim e and m ore fuel is delivered. To Retarding = S uction v alv e ra ise d + Spill valve lowered.
maintain the same fuel quantity, the spill valve is raised to give earlier
138 139
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel System
Super V IT M ethod
In this m eth o d , the jerk type fuel pump
does n ot have a profile i.e. n o extra
oblique-cut on the plunger. The vertical
position o f the pum p barrel is raised or
lowered to change the commencement of
injection by a rack and pinion mechanism
and a double thread.
Fig-94
140 141
Marine Diesel Engines Fuel Syster.
Increasing Load
As the load increases, the V IT is still zro (delayed injection) till point I.
Control air pressure at point I is now 0.5 B ar and the beam A has
made contact with the sensor pickup.
142 143
Fuel System
Marine Diesel Engines
145
144
Marine Diesel Engir,
Fuel System
146
147
Marine Diesel Engines
CHAPTER 6
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
F unction o f Lubrication
It reduces friction, prevents excessive wear o f rubbing on surfaces,
provides corrosion protection, removes some frictional heat, helps in
cooling, and prevents accumulation o f unwanted deposits.
This high pressure fuel line has a protective double skin sheathing. It
also has a leak o fflin e from the space between the pipe and the outer
sheath. This line is led to a leak off tank which monitors leakage and
gives o ff an alarm if the leakage is in excess. In case o f minor leakages,
there is a small leak o ff hole connection which directly drains to the
main overflow tank.
149
148
Marine Diesel Engines Lubrication System
2. H ydrostatic L ubrication
It is similar to hydrodynamic lubrication except that the oil pressure
is supplied by an external source. It is seen in slow-moving heavily
loaded components, w here sufficient oil pressure cannot be
150 151
Marine Diesel Engines Lubrication System
generated due to its relative motion and hence, external oil pressure Sedim ents
from a pum p is required. These are grit particles formed due to wear and carbon. Their maximum
3. B oundary L ubrication allow able content is 1.5%. They cause clogged oil filters and
It is a thin film lubrication which exists between the robbing surfaces purification problems.
so that full fluid film is not achieved and some degree o f dry patches
Corrosiveness
occur with metal to metal contact. It is usually seen in cases o f very
It is the tendency o f the oil to oxidize due to the presence o f oxygen in
high relative movement between the rubbing surfaces. high temperature gaseous surroundings. The organic acidic products
4. Elasto-hydrodynam ic L ubrication are very hazardous on lead bearing metals.
It is also called squeeze film lubrication. It is the effect o f elastic
deform ation o f the m etals and the effect o f high pressure on the Base N um ber
lubricant Examples: Rolling contact bearings or meshing gear teeth. It is the most important property o f lube oil for cylinder lubrication in
Here, contact is a nominal point or line contact. an engine. It is the capacity o f the oil to neutralize the sulphuric
compounds which are formed, especially in modem engines burning
sulphur rich residual fuel.
Lubrication depends on :
Oil quantity, quality, viscosity, oiliness, dynamic coefficient o f friction, N eutralisation Value
speed o f motion, load, surface finish and uninterrupted oil supply. It is the measurement o f the acidity or alkalinity o f the oil.
152 153
Marine Diesel Engines Lubrication System
The difference is because trunk engines use the same oil for cylinder improve this property o f dispersing these harmful deposits. Additives
liner and crank case lubrication. are metallic based sulphonates o r phenates.
154 155
Marine Diesel Engines Lubrication System
Lube Oil Testing 10 m l oil sample and 10 m l R eagent N are m ixed and placed in a
O n board testing as w ell as shore testing is carried out regularly to testing unit cup. 10 ml reactive reagent T is added and the testing unit
m onitor lube oil condition, deterioration and w hether oil is to be cup sealed and properly mixed. The resultant pressure rise in compared
with a chart according to the type o f oil used.
rejected. Crank case oil is changed after 10,000 running hours in low
speed engines, and 5,000 to 10,000 running hours in medium speed Water C ontent Test
engines. Oil samples are taken every 500 running hours in low speed The water content is ascertained by measuring the resultant pressure
engines and every 150 running hours in m edium speed engines. rise o f a test mixture.
A detailed sample-taking and testing procedure is outlined. Sample 5 ml oil sample and 15 ml petroleum reagent A (a paraffin o r toluene)
points are usually before or after the filter or the pump. These points are mixed in the test unit cup. A standard amount in a sealed satchet
are marked and are to be the same for all samples in order to maintain o f reagent B (calcium carbide) is added and the mixture sealed and
a standard. A testing file or record book is maintained to monitor and shaken thoroughly. The chemical reaction takes place between water
compare results. Excessive lube oil consumption is also monitored in the oil and the reagent calcium carbide to form acetylene gas which
gives a resultant pressure rise.
and the cause is to b e ascertained in every case. Company specified
standard testing kits are available on board fo r testing purposes. Water Crackle Test
The aim o f testing is to m onitor deterioration o f oil, am ount of It is done by heating 10 drops o f oil in an aluminium foil container over
contamination, oil consumption, replenishment, condition/wear of a flame. A crackling sound confirms the presence o f water in lube oil.
lubricated machinery, further use o f oil o r oil rejection. I f the tests
Viscosity Test
show satisfactory results, the oil can be used further and it need not be
Viscosity is usually measured using a flowstick comparator method.
replaced as per running hours. Hence, a saving in costs is achieved.
The relative flow rate is measured between a new oil and the used oil.
Good lube oil monitoring helps m aintain the m achinery in good 3 ml new oil and 3 m l used oil at the same temperature are placed in
condition, gives a warning in case o f deterioration, and lengthens time the flowstick reservoir respectively. The flowstick is tilted allowing
between overhauls and surveys. both the oils to flow through separate channels. When the new oil has
reached the reference mark, the position o f the used oil is checked.
Onboard Lube Oil Tests Markings on the flowstick give the conditions o f the oil.
T B N Test
The TB N valve is ascertained by measuring the resultant pressure A lka lin ity Test
rise o f a test mixture. The chemical reaction is that o f the alkaline lube A pH paper indicator can be used to check the reserve alkalinity in
oil additive (calcium) with the reagent T. the oil sample.
156 157
Marine Diesel Engines
Lubrication System
158
159
Lubrication System
Marine Diesel Engines
161
160
Marine Diesel Engines Lubrication System
least 75 deg.C as the bacteria perish above 70 deg.C. Purification Cylinder Oil Types
and re-circulation o f crankcase oil is to be continued even when the Crosshead Engines
engine is stopped at port. Regular testing at various sample points is Cylinder oil has aTBN value o f 70 mg KOH/g and a SAE 50 viscosity.
to be done. Inspection o f sludge from purifiers o r choked filters also Crankcase oil has a TBN value o f between 5 and 30, and a SAE 30
indicates any degradation o f lube oil. viscosity.
Treatment Trunk-Type Engines
U se o f biocides or fungicides is carried out. Heating and continuous Cylinder oil has a TBN value o f 30 mg KOH/g and a SA E 30,40,or
purification above 75 deg.C is done and the entire sump to be purified 50 viscosity.
within a period o f 12 hours. H eating is done to a temperature of
80 deg.C, but not exceeding the suppliers lim it. This kills the bacteria. The difference in the oil is because trunk-type engines use the same oil
M anual cleaning o f the sump, filters and pipelines is carried out. for the crankcase as well as cylinder lubrication, while crosshead type
Replenishm ent o f the sum p oil is done in case the lube oil is badly engines use separate oils. C rosshead engines use higher TB N oil
-infected. because only a limited small consumable quantity is injected into the
cylinder. In Trunk engines, a great amount o f oil is present. Hence,
Cylinder Lubrication TBN level required is lower.
R equirem ents T B N versus S u lp h u r Selection
to provide a lube oil film at the liner and the piston ring surface
Selection o f T BN is done with respect to sulphur content to ensure
to separate the surfaces and reduce friction between them low wear rates o f cylinder liner.
to neutralize the combustion and acidic products especially due to
sulphur content in the fuel providing corrosion protection. Sulphur Content in Fuel TBN Value
to disperse the carbon particles w hich tend to accum ulate at the Less than 0.25 % 10 m g KOH/g
piston rings. 0.25 to 1.0% 10 to 20 m g KOH/g
to help in the sealing o f the piston ring to the liner surface. 1.0 to 3 .0 % 70 m g KOH/g
Above 3.5 % M ore than 70 m g KOH/g
to bum without leaving hard deposits.
to cater to the problem s associated w ith cheap residual fuel and
O ptim um C ylinder L ube O il Injection
running-in requirements
to provide the correct feed rate i.e. quantity per feed The best timing for lube oil injection into the cylinder liner is between
the top two piston rings, when the piston is on its upward stroke. The
to lubricate and neutralize the combustion products under different
correct feed rate would be judged during overhauls o f the engine, if
load conditions
to inject the lube oil at the correct timing for optimum use o f cylinder the piston rings are slightly damp and rings move freely in the grooves
lube oil. without much accumulation o f deposits. Another indication is the liner
162 163
Marine Diesel Engirt* Lubrication System
w ear rates w hich should be less than 0.1 mm /1000 running hours. 1 1 Accumulator cylinder 12 Passage for lubricating quill
T he oil feed quantity depends on the type and specifications o f the 1 2 Spring , 13 Filling pin
3 Accumulator piston 14 Steel ball
lube oil, the quality and sulphur content o f the fuel, and the engine 1 4 Cap nut 15 Non-return valve housing
loading conditions. O il feed rates range from 0.3 to 0.8 gm/bhp/hr. 5 Diaphragm 16 Flange ring
6 Accumulator casing 17 Screw
7 Cap nut IS Support ring
Cylinder Lubrication Systems H Backing screw 19 Flange
9 Copper sealing rings 20 Joint
T he tw o im portant systems used in m odem engines a re : 10 Cylinder liner 21 Protecting bush
1. Accumulation and Quill S y stem -S ulzer engines II Lubricating quill 22 O-ring
2. Cylinder lubricator units pumping to orifices in the liner
-M A N B & W engines. In this system , the accumulator gets charged by the lubricator pump
for every 10 to 15 revolutions. This oil under pressure is stored in the
A c c u m u la to r a n d Q u ill System accum ulator and enters the cylinder whenever the cylinder pressure
falls below the accumulator oil pressure. The cylinder pressure is less
This system is used on Sulzer Engines. It consists o f a lubricator pump '
than the accumulator twice for every revolution, (a) when the piston is
supplying oil pressure to a quill fitted with an accumulator.
moving down in its expansion stroke, and (b) when the piston is moving
up, as th e piston rings pass the feed grooves.
- ^ - K _____ EXPN.
;.^ .| X -p r r ^ --------------
If B0C
CRANK ANGLE
F ig -106
In the figure, the shaded portion shows lubrication while the cylinder
pressure falls below the accumulator oil pressure ( A - A ), with
respect to the crank angle.
164 165
Marine Diesel Engines Lubrication System
Q uills engine speed, load index and LCD signals. It sends an on signal for
Quills are non-retura valves fitted at the liner oil grooves by screwing lubrication to the solenoid valve to control the oil injection. The
into the liner. They help to dam pen the pressure pulsations in the computer sends an off signal to the solenoid valve to allow the oil
supply line; prevent cylinder combustion gases or products entering back to the return line. The feed rate is adjustable by adjusting the
back into the oil line; and provide storage o f pressurized oil in the interval between injection i.e. every 5* and 6threvolution. More details
accumulator section. Direct contact with the quill and cooling water is on this system is given in the chapter on Engine Descriptions.
prevented by a sealing pipe which allows easy removal o f the quill. Advantages
Lower lube oil consumption, lower wear rates o f the liner, increased
Lubricator P u m p Unit time between overhauls; and better timing and utilization o f the
This lubrication pumping unit gets a rotary drive from the driving shaft expensive cylinder lube oil is possible. In case o f failure o f the solenoid
by means o f a gear and ratchet mechanism. This rotational drive is valve o r transducer, the other lubricator automatically changes to
converted into reciprocating motion o f the lubricator plunger. Checking maximum setting. If the air pressure fails, the standby pum p will
the pumping action can be done through the sight glass which shows a automatically start. The computer unit too has a backup computer to
steel ball lifted and pushed up when the oil is pumped. Acylindrical oil ensure lubrication is continued.
non-flow alarm is also fitted. T he oil feed ratio can be adjusted for
different load conditions. In modem engines, the lubricator pump drive Load Dependent Cylinder Lubrication
is by a frequency controlled electric m otor which varies with the load
Modem engines employ load dependent cylinder lubrication where
changes i.e. i t is load-dependent. S om e m odem units have a pre
the am ount o f cylinder lube oil to each lubricating point can b e
lubrication, post-lubrication and emergency lubrication option by a
individually adjusted and controlled as per the load changes, via the
switch in the control room , which starts an electric m otor for the
remote control system.
lubricator drive. This is during slow turning o f the engine for one
complete revolution. Manual cranking o f the lubricator is also possible. The specific oil feed rate increases with the decreasing engine load.
For example, at 20% engine load, the specific cylinder oil amount will
Lubricator Units also be 25% more than at 100% engine load. The desired increase in
One o f the latest types o f lubrication systems is the Alpha lubrication the specific liibe oil quantity can be programmed in the control unit.
system used in M AN B&W engines. Here, a high pressure lubricator Whenever there is a sudden load increase or a load fluctuation o f the
pump supplies oil to an injector to inject a fixed volume into the engine engine, correspondingly the cylinderlube oil flow rate will be increased
cylinder once in 4 revolutions. Acomputer control unit gets input from automatically. The input signal for the oil increase is initiated from the
166 167
Marine Diesel Engines Lubrication System
load indicator transmitter. This input signal from the load indicator
transmitter is sent to the rem ote control unit, w hich sends an output
signal to change the speed o f the frequency-controlled electric motor
drive to the lubricator. Below 20 % load, the oil feed rate is not reduced
anym ore i.e. the speed o f the electric m otor rem ains constant. In
emergency lubrication mode i.e. when the normal cylinder lubrication
control fails, the cylinder lubrication can be adjusted m anually by
adjusting the knob on the lubricator. In this m ode, the regulation of
lube oil quantity is no more load-dependent, b u t independent o f the
engine load. The remote control signals the electric m otor to run with
its nominal frequency.
168 169
Marine Diesel Engir, Lubrication System
|
5 Lube oil articulated arm
following: 6 Lube oil inlet
1. A t 10% stroke from TD C : In this case,
although the cylinder lube oil feed rate
is m ore, there is poor circum ferential E C ro ssh e a d L u b r ic a tio n
spreading due to oil flow breaking down \ Difficulties
at high temperatures. The requirements for effective
lubrication are pumping action,
2. A t 20% stroke from TD C : In this
tunple o f oil feed supply and an
case, lu b rication is m ost effective oil film creation strong enough
especially for a single level o f quills.
to separate m etal surfaces.
3. Combination o f a no groove row o f Pumping action o f acomponent
quills at 20 % stroke from TDC, and a to p ro d u ce o il p ressu re is
continuous groove row o f quills at 30 difficult in the crosshead, since
% stroke from TDC. th e c ro s s h e a d m o tio n is
oscillatory with a high sliding
4. A bove the exhaust ports, in case o f
velocity. The speed o f rubbing
loop scavenging engines.
F ig - 109 is not sufficient to supply ample
o il fe e d , n o r to p ro m o te
Usually, quills are 250 m m apart from each other around the liner p u m p in g a c tio n . U n lik e F ig - 110
bore. Grooves are angled downwards. T he combustion gas pressure 4-stroke engines, there is no
differential across the rings assist in pushing the oil downwards in the load relief in 2-stroke engines
groove. T he disadvantage o f grooves is that they increase the area which would allow oil feed to be supplied and the bearing lubricated.
into w hich oil flows. H ence the velocity and pressure o f the oil Rupture o f the thin oil film w hich separates the rubbing surfaces is
decreases, thereby reducing its spreadability. caused by cyclic unidirectional loads during firing, in large super
charged 2-stroke engines.
170 171
Marine Diesel Engines
172 173
Cooling System
Marine Diesel Engines
STARTING, REVERSING
AND MANOEUVRING
Starting System
M arine diesel engines are started and reversed w ith the aid of
compressed air at a pressure o f around 30 kg/sq.cm. Pressurised
starting air is supplied from air compressors and stored in two air
bottle cylinders.
Starting Torque
The starting torque is achieved by the compressed air acting on the
top o f the piston to push it down. This reciprocating motion o f the
piston is converted into a torque at the crank shaft. T he am ount o f
starting torque required is the amount o f torque needed to rotate the
crankshaft at a speed that will produce the desired self ignition
temperature to ignite the fuel in the cylinders.
177
Marine Diesel Engines
Starting, Reversing and Manoeuvring
178
179
Marine Diesel Engines Starting, Reversing and Manoeuvring
180 181
Marine Diesel Engines Starting, Reversing and Manoeuvring
Visual inspection is to be carried out for the interior coating and paint. In the figure, the pilot start air valve is shown shut since the spring
A horoscope can be used where access is not possible. Inspection is lifts the roller off the cam.
carried o u t a t stress concentration areas like w elding seams, On starting the engine, the automatic valve sends air to the pilot
penetrations, drain holes, support points, sludge collection area, valve which pushes the roller onto the cam. As the cam turns, the
condensation areas, v alve connection openings, etc. The internal negative peak comes into play allowing air to pass through, to the
corrosion prevention coating layer is to b e inspected. In case o f automatic starting valve piston causing it to open. The shutting of
deterioration, a coat o f Copal Varnish can be applied after properly the valve happens when the roller comes onto the idle surface o f
preparing the internal surface to be coated. The fitting connections for the cam.
draining valves are to b e cleaned. T he relief valve is to b e tested
hydraulically to the stamped working pressure and checked for lifting Automatic Master Air Start Valve
in actual service after fitting back. In case o f serious deterioration e.g. Function
severe corrosion o r pitting, the receiver can b e de-rated along with To act as a stop valve which supplies o r shuts off main starting air
the compressor settings and relief valves to provide fo r a low er safer into the main start air line at the engine cylinders only during the
capacity. starting period.
To act as a non-return valve preventing any blow back o f
Start A ir Pilot Valve combustion gases in case an air start valve leaks back, and also
preventing a flam e by u se o f a flam e trap incorporated in the
assem bly.
To shut off starting air supply automatically to the start air line ahead
1 To and from cylinder air start valve
o f the stop valve, once the engine is on fuel or when the engine is
2 Venting to atmosphere shut down, thereby saving on air consumption and providing
3 From automatic valve to pilot valve additional safety.
4 Spring to lift roller off the cam Types
5 Cam They are classified into two types on the basis o f the operating
6 Clearance between roller and cam. principle:
1. Unbalanced type, w here the valve is opened due to relieving the
It is operated by the start air lever or button in the control room. Its pilot piston o f air pressure.
2. Balanced type, w here the valve is opened due to an air pressure
function is to operate the opening and closing o f the automatic start
valve and to operate the air distributor by loading up the distributor applied to the pilot piston.
slide valve.
182 183
Marine Diesel Engines Starting, Reversing and Manoeuvring
184 185
Starting, Reversing and Manoeuvring
Marine Diesel Engines
Start A ir C am
The start air cam is usually o f inverse type as it has the following
advantages:
Wear is reduced on the cam working edge because the roller is off
the cam during normal running, as there is a definite clearance
between them, when the engine is running. This ensures that the
air distributor functions correctly inspite o f the spring failure.
It allows more flexibility to position the control valve of the distributor
so that it does not touch the cam when the engine is running.
Starting Interlocks
Thesearemechanicallinkagesordevices which willnotallowfurther
operation until they receive an input signal that the predetermined
conditions are fulfilled.
The following interlocks are placed in the starting system :
. (1) Turning gear is disengaged
(2) Complete reversing is achieved
(3) Correct running direction is done
(4) Lube oil pressure is sufficient
The distributor is driven by a cam connected to the fuel camshaft,
which provides the correct sequence o f starting. Starting control (5) Spring air pressure is sufficient
valves are radially fitted around the distributor cam. (6) Auxiliary blower is o n auto.
187
186
Marine Diesel Engines Starling, Reversing and Manoeuvring
Slow T urning For 2-stroke the firing interval is 360 / Z, and for 4-stroke it is
Its function is to avoid fluid lock in case o f fluid accumulation in the 720 /Z , where Z is the number o f cylinders.
combustion chamber, during engine stand stills for long periods
(sim ilarto blow through).
This is a m ode o f the engine control system w here the engine is
turned slowly fo r one complete revolution at a slow speed o f 5 to
8 rp m .
During m anouevring, while the engine is on B ridge Control, the
slow turning m ode automatically starts, if there is no telegraph
movement for 30 minutes.
In order to achieve slow turning, the flow o f start air to the engine
is limited.
Scavenge A ir L im iter
It is a means o f governor control o f the fuel released depending on
the availability o f scavenge air in the desired ratio required for good
combustion.
It is im portant w hile increasing the engine speed so that a
proportional amount o f fuel is released as the scavenge air pressure
increases.
The scavenge air limiter can be over-ridden, in case o f failed start
attempts so as to provide a better chance for starting with more
fuel available. This is done by sending a false scavenge air
pressure signal to the governor from the control air line.
188 189
Marine Diesel Engines Starling, Reversing and Manoeuvring
190 191
2. Start A ir Distributor Cams are
tu rn e d b y 98 d e g re e s in the
opposite direction b y a separate
servomotor, while the camshaft is
stationary.
98*
Fig-118
3. Exhaust cams are symmetrical about BDC (since exhaust valves
are used and not exhaust rotary valves). Hence, no repositioning
is required. Exhaust cams are on the same shaft as the fuel cams.
2 3 Fig-117
MC Engine Reversing
1 Fuel Cam 2 Oil drained out for astern direction
3 Oil in for ahead direction. 1. Air Distributor
The engine drives a rotary disc (distributor) which can be turned
RTA Reversing S ervom otor f o r F uel Cam by the reversing angle by means o f areversing pneumatic cylinder.
It is a mechanism to turn and reposition cams for the reversal sequence 2. Fuel Cam
o f firing. As shown in the figure, each reversing servomotor has three The fuel pump roller (not the cam) is shifted by a pneumatic cylinder.
pipe connections: Fuel cam is o f inverse type. Each fuel pump roller has an individual
a) for sending oil pressure in for ahead direction. pneumatic cylinder. During reversing, the cylinder gets pressurized
b) for draining oil out for astern direction. pneumatically and moves the pump roller position. After completion,
the cylinder is depressurized and vented. T he rollers are o f self
c) for control pressure, which gets pressurized only when the
locking type in their end position. The shift o f all fuel pump rollers
flap is in the end position.
take place during the first revolution o f the engine while still on air.
The control air pressure is nil during reversal as it is connected to the After shifting o f rollers is done, this end position o f the rollers is
side o f the flap w here pressure to relieve is acting. This control air sensed by limit switches w hich gives an indication in the control
pressure can be used as a signal to cut off fu e l. room that reversal has taken place.
192 193
Marine Diesel Engines Starting, Reversing and Manoeuvring
Gain M otion
It is the gain in motion caused due to the camshaft turning in the same
direction as the required direction when the engine is being reversed.
It is used in B & W engines.
Governor Booster
It serves the purpose to boost the hydraulic pressure required for the
governor to push the fuel racks when starting.
1 Fork lever
2 Angle of rotation.
194 195
Marine Diesel Engines Starling, Reversing and Manoeuvring
\
Turning gear interlock check is done.
Pilot valve opens automatic valve and distributor control valves.
Automatic valve sends start air to cylinder start air valves.
1
Engine turns on air to the minimum firing speed.
Minimum fuel is injected and cylinders fire.
Start air is shut off.
I
Engine speed is gradually increased.
Critical speed is overridden.
Engine speed is brought upto MCR revolutions and parameters checked.
Marine Diesel Engines Starting, Reversing and Manoeuvring
F ig - 121
I Running direction interlock Reversing servomotor
3 Fuel ptimp Cylinder start air valve
5 Automatic valve 6 Governor
7 Start- air distributor cam 8 Start air distributor
9 Fuel pump cam being turned by 10 Air cam being turned by the
reversing servomotor
1i Turning gear interlock 12 Air start bottle
13 Control slide valve 14 Starting lever interlock block valve
15 Engine room telegraph lever 16 Starting lever
17 Fuel cut out servomotor 18 Pilot air valve
19 Oil pressure supply at 6 bar 20 Automatic oil and water low
pressure cut out
21 Fuel speed setting lever 22 Load indicator
Manoeuvring
M edium s a r e :
Start air at 30 bar pressure is supplied from the start air bottle
when the main bottle isolating valve is opened. Start air reaches
the automatic valve (in closed position) and the pilot valve through
the turning gear interlock block valve.
Lube oil a t 6 bar pressure.
198 199
Marine Diesel Engines Starting, Reversing and Manoeuvring
Starting
Starting operation
Telegraph lever action to fr e e sta rt lever Start lever 16 is put to start position.
The Bridge gives a telegraph order w hich is acknowledged with the This leverage raises the pilot air valve 18 opening it.
telegraph lever 15 in the engine control room. T he telegraph lever Pilot air now passes to open the automatic valve 5 through line E
sets th e required running direction b y turning the reversing control by venting its underside and also to the start air distributor 8 control
valve 23 to either ahead V, stop U o r astern R positions via linkage J. valves along line F to force them onto the cam 7.
Lube oil at 6 bar pressure 19 now passes through the reversing valve
The start air distributor cam 7has already been positioned for the
to th e cam shaft reversing servom otor o il passages 2 and turns the
firing sequence by the reversing servomotor turning the camshaft in
camshaft. Only w hen the cam shaft has reached its end position, the
either ahead or astern end positions 10.
running direction interlock 1 w ill allow oil pressure to the starting
Pilot air passes through the air distributor and goes to open the
lever blocking device 14 vialineA . T h isfreesu p the starting lever
16 for movement. cylinder start air valve 4 via line G i.e. to the top o f the cylinder
start air valve piston to push it down. The underside o f the cylinder
Freeing up o f fu e l lever start air valve piston is vented via line H.
Simultaneously with the above operation, the lube oil pressure supply Starting air from the automatic valve is admitted to the engine
goes along line B to the slide valve 13 and then to the fuel cut out cylinders, after each cylinder start air v alve is opened b y the
cylinder 17 to free up the fuel control linkage along line C, so as to distributor in the correct sequence via line 1.
take up the position as per the load indicator setting 22, w hich is set The fuel lever 21 is already set to around 3.5 setting.The engine
up by the fuel lever 21. This freeing up o f the fuel lever assumes that turns on air and then fires on fuel.
the safety cut out pressures are met. Once the engine starts, the starting lever 16 is released to its normal
position by a spring fitted. This action m akes the leverage to
Safety c u t o ut device lower the pilot valve 18, thereby shutting it and shutting pilot air to
A safety cut out device 20 is set to ensure that the lube oil, jacket the distributor 8 and the automatic valve 5. Start air is now shut
cooling and piston cooling w ater pressures are above the pre and the air in the start air manifold line is relieved through small
determined setting.
leakage points in the starting air valves.
In case any o f the pressures are n o t upto the values set, then the
slide valve 13 moves down due to a decrease in pressure at line D. Reversing operation
This causes the slide valve to vent the fuel cut out cylinder, thereby The telegraph lever 15 is brought back from ahead to stop
bringing the fuel rack back to zero through line C. position.
In an emergency, the automatic cut-out devices can be overridden The fuel lever 21 is brought back to minimum setting around 3.5,
as in the case o f reduced pressures. so as to prevent excessive fuel injection when the engine is restarted.
Marine Diesel Engines Starting, Reversing and Manoeuvring
Bringing the telegraph lever 15 to Stop, puts the reversing control 5. Bridge control solenoid system in the engine control room.
valve 23 to stop position U via linkage J. This relieves the oil 6. A larm unit for alarms like low start air pressure remote system
pressure supply from the reversing control valve 23 to the reversing failure.
servom otor 2. T his pressure drop causes the slide valve 13 to
m ove down, thereby bringing back the fuel cut-out cylinder 17 to Bridge Control Procedure
cut fuel injection. O nce the engine is blown through and tested on fuel, controls are
handed ova: to the bridge by pressing a button in the engine control
Telegraph lever 15 is put to astern, thereby pushing the reversing
room, which must be acknowledged on the bridge.
control valve 23 to astern V position via link J. T he oil pressure
from the reversing control valve 23 is supplied to the reversing Starting w ill be blocked, in case any o f the pre-set conditions are
servomotor 2 to turn the camshaft to astern position. O h reaching not met, such as: starting air pressure low, turning gear engaged,
its end position, the running direction interlock will allow oil pressure lube oil pressure low, cooling water pressure low, reversing running
to the starting lever blocking device 14 via line A, to free up the direction interlock, etc.
starting lever 16 for movement. Starting operation is the same as the engine control room starting
The start lever 1 6 is now put to start position and the starting sequence.
sequence is repeated as per the starting operation described earlier. In case o f a failed start attempt, start air will be automatically kept
on.
Bridge Control System Three to four starts are allowed in case o f start failures, after which
a false scavenge air pressure from the control air line is supplied to
B ridge C ontrol U nit the scavenge air limiter, so that m ore fuel can be injected for a
It consists o f the follow ing: better start attempt.
1. A telegraph lever handle for ahead / astern movement w ith speed Start air is always kept open in the engine room even after the
positions like dead slow, slow, half ahead, full ahead and navigational engine is full away.
full ahead.
O nce the engine is started, the speed is increased as per the bridge
2. A speed sensing u nit getting a signal directly from the engine telegraph lever position.
flywheel.
Speeds w ith each speed range can be varied by pressing a button
3. A control unit on the bridge. or a fine setting knob.
4. A load programme unit either on the bridge or in the engine control Automaticjumping over the critical speed range (around 8 to 12%
room. o f the M CR speed) is done by releasing m ore fuel.
202 203
In case o f a ny deviation in critical parameters, the engine is
autom atically slowed down or stopped.
Emergency manoeuvring is possible by overriding the safety devicesJ
CHAPTER 9
ENGINE STRESSES,
VIBRATION AND DYNAMICS
205
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Stresses, Vibration and Dynamics
the latter equaling the product o f the acceleration o f the parts and their that the recurrence o f torque alterations increases directly w ith the
m ass varies directly w ith crank sh aft speed. T h e m ass o f the number o f cylinders and the irregularity o f the crankshaft rotation
reciprocating parts equals the m ass o f the piston assembly and decreases. The continuously changing engine torque is compared with
30-40 % o f the mass o f the connecting rod. The resultant o f these the moment caused by the force resisting the crankshaft rotation. The
forces, referred to as the motive force P is applied to the centre o f the torque exceeds the moment at the instance o f cylinder firing and is less
piston pin and transmitted to the crankshaft through the connecting than the moment during the intermissions. Hence, the two conditions
rod. T he motive force is resolved into tw o components N and S. The are extra torque and torque deficiency, causing irregularity in
norm al com ponent force N presses the piston against the cylinder crankshaft rotation.
liner in a trunk-type engine o r it presses the shoe against the
Irregularity Factor
corresponding guide in a crosshead engine. This force, varying in both
It is the ratio o f the difference between the maximum and minimum
direction and magnitude, produces a recurrent piston thrust against
angular velocities o f the crankshaft and the m ean angular velocity
the opposite sides of the cylinder liner. It also gives rise to an overturning
throughout a cycle o f torque alterations.
m om ent about an arm equal to the distance betw een the axis o f the
piston pin and the crankshaft axis. T he moment opposing the direction
F lyw heel
o f the crankshaft rotation is taken up by the bolts holding dow n the
A flywheel is fitted to the aft end o f the crankshaft to help reduce the
engine to the bedplate.
irregularity o f crankshaft rotation. It is an accumulator which stores
The second component force S is brought down the line o f its action the energy o f the gyrating masses when there is extra torque, and
and applied to the crank pin center. I t can be resolved into two supplying the stored energy during torque deficiency. Increasing the
com ponents : a force T tangential to the crankpin and a force Z number of engine cylinders also decreases the irregularity o f crankshaft
coinciding w ith the crankpin radius. T he force T produces a torque rotation. Exam ple: Adiesel engine with more than 12 cylinders does
w hich varies w ith the crank angle from a m axim um to a minimum not require a flywheel.
within a certain period. This torque causes the crankshaft to rotate
irregularly. T he force Z bends the crankpin and creates wear in the Static Loads
bearing. These are loads caused by the weights o f the engine components and
the bolt loads.
In a multi-cylinder engine, the crankshaft is set to rotate by the torques
produced by all the cylinders in succession. It w ill operate m ore
D ynam ic Loads
regularly than the crankshaft o f a single cylinder engine. However, the
These are loads caused by the cylinder gas fluctuating pressure and
torques w ill not coincide in time, because the cranks are arranged at
inertia loads o f the reciprocating and rotating masses.
certain angles to each other, rather than in the same plane. This implies
206 207
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Stresses, Vibration and Dynamics
208 209
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Stresses, Vibration and Dynamics
210 211
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Stresses, Vibration and Dynamics
It manifests itself by a shaxp increase in the amplitude o f torsional 2. Axial vibration due to in-plane bending o f crank webs can be
shaft vibration. countered by fitting an axial vibration damper at the free end o f the
Critical speed can be measured by a torsiograph, which automatically crankshaft.
records the torsional vibration on a paper tape. 3. Torsional vibration due to varying torque and propeller thrusts is
countered by detuning or damping.
Barred Zone Range 4. Vibration due to guide force moments is countered by detuning, by
It is a range o f operational speed which is barred i.e. overridden. using top bracing to increase the stiffness.
This is a critical speed range w hich m ust be passed as soon as
possible. Detuners
U nder B ridge control, the B ridge control u n it program m e They are frequency control devices used to change the frequency of
autom atically increases the speed setting so that m ore fuel can the system.
enable the engine to cross over this speed range as fast a possible.
Examples:
It is specified for a given engine.
1. Top bracing supporting the engine:
The means o f avoiding these resonant frequencies is to adjust the
The bracing increases the stiffness and raises the natural frequency
speed o f the engine or the mass o f the flywheel or the engine firing
beyond the operating range.
order.
2. Flexible couplings:
T he m ost effective means o f reducing the amplitude o f torsional
These couplings sectionalise the system. T he flexible element
vibration is the sectionalizing o f the shafting and interposing special
absorbs part o f the vibrational energy and hence, decreases its
couplings between the sections.
amplitude. The flexible element can be either rubber o r a spring
A nother m ethod is to use vibration absorbers which are fitted to element
the crankshaft to dissipate the energy o f vibration in a given
3. Hydraulic oil-filled mechanical detuners:
range o f engine speeds. Here, the oil gets passed to and fro past the springs, causing detuning
as well as damping.
R eduction o f E n g in e Vibration
1. T he vibrations d ue to reciprocating and rotating masses can be Dampers
countered by com pensating masses rotating at the engine speed
for first order frequency, and tw ice the engine speed for second These are devices which absorb part o f the vibrational energy.
order frequency. T hese com pensators o r balancers can be Examples:
positioned in the chain drive. 1. Rubber damper using the elasticity o f rubber to absorb part o f the
vibrational energy.
212 213
Marine Diesel Engines
Unit Decarbonisation
214 215
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Overhauls and M aintenance
Fig-125
1 Stud 2 Nut
3 Pin 4 Vent screw
5 Hydraulic nut piston 6 Hydraulic n at cylinder
7 Sealing ring 8 Hole to insert tommy bar
9 Oil pressure inlet
F ig - 124
216 217
Marine Diesel Engir, Engine Overhauls and M aintenance
Once the hydraulic nuts are removed, lifting eye bolts are screwed
on to lift the cylinder head cover (along with the small water jacket)
by the crane.
Land the cylinder cover onto wooden
blocks placed on the platform floor
plates.
D iscard the sealin g m etal gask et
between the cylinder cover and liner.
R em ove the mountings and clean the
cylinder head cover.
Lap the fuel, start air and exhaust valve
bores.
Use new seal rings and cooling w ater
connection gaskets while assembling
back.
A fter assem bling, air supply to the
exhaust valve is opened first so that
the exhaust valve spring air closes the
exhaust valve, after which camshaft lube
oil pum p is started.
218 219
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Overhauls and Maintenance
F ig - 129
220 221
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Overhauls and Maintenance
Clean the grooves and measure the groove / ring clearances. The
groove inner com ers should be cleaned o f deposits.
Piston R in g Clearances
Wear rate = R ing w ear x 1000
Running hrs.
(1) R ing gap o r b u tt clearance
It is taken w here the liner is least w here Pi = 3.14
worn, usually at the lower part, or in
a new liner. T he used ring is inserted Piston Mounting
into the liner and the ring gap (or butt The rings are fitted correctly by checking the top m arking on
clearance) is taken ,by m aking an each ring.
impression o f the gap on a paper.
Coat the piston ring, piston rod, and liner with lube oil; and mount
the lifting tool.
(2) Groove axial clearance
It is taken using a feeler gauge inserted U se new 0-rings on the outside o f the stuffing box and smear a
horizontally in the gap between the top coat o f lube oil.
o f the ring and the groove. Remove the protective rubber sheet for crosshead protection.
Remove the stuffing box hole cover.
Mount the piston guide ring piece (bell mouth) and lower the piston
with the crane.
The piston rod foot is to be guided into the stuffing box opening.
Lower the complete piston in the liner leaving a gap between the
guide ring and the lifting tool.
Turn the engine with the turning gear to put the piston rod centre
hole into the crosshead bearing section.
Remove the guide ring and the lifting tool.
Tighten the piston rod screws and the stuffing box screws.
222 223
Marine Diesel Engir. Engine Overhauls and Maintenance
L in e r Removal
L in e r Calibration
D rain the ja c k e t w ater fro m the Once the cylinder head and piston are
cylinder unit after isolating it removed, the liner is cleaned before
Remove the cylinder head, piston and calibration.
stuffing box. A straight edge tool 1 is supplied to
Remove tw o screws which locate the p rovide th e points a t w hich the
liner on the support ring. measuring gauge is put.
Remove the quills, protecting devices
and oil connections.
Lower the beam tool 1 from the top
and fasten it w ith screws 2 at the
bottom o f the liner. Main Bearing Removal
Turn the engine to TD C and place a Fig-134
Example Sulzer RTA:
support piece 5 along with a hydraulic
jack 4 on to the crosshead pin 3. . Upper H a lf
A bridge lifting tool d ism ounted on Turn the engine so that the respective
the top o f the liner 7 with the help of crank web is approximately horizontal.
screws 8. Disconnect the lube oil pipes at 6.
Ja c k up slig h tly w ith h y d rau lic Som e engines have ja c k b olts 2
pressure and check that the two 0- securing the top half o f the bearing,
rings are detached and liner is loose. while other engines have thrust bolts
Pull the liner out w ith the help o f the or wasted stud bolts. Slacken them
crane. hydraulically and remove the nuts.
L ift the top cover vertically w ith a
L iner Inspection
lifting tackle 6, wire slings and a chain
Check and clean the corrosion layer o f the jacket.U se new 0-rings
block.
when fitting back. Lubricate guide areas with lube oil.Clean landing
Now take the top cover outside the
faces and quill holes. W hen using a new liner, the protection coating
crankcase horizontally with another
layer should not be scraped out. Remove the coating with diesel oil to lifting tackle, wire sling and chain
prevent any damage o f the surface. Check the cylinder liner lubrication block.
after fitting of the quills Fig-135
Fit an eyebolt 3 on the top half bearing
4 and take it out.
224 225
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Overhauls and M aintenance
The figure 136 show s the removal o f the Crosshead Bearing Removal
main bearing top cover 1, upper bearing
The crosshead bearing is the same as the
shell 2 and low er bearing shell 3 as in a
connecting rod top end bearing. Example
B& W engine.
given is as per RTA engines.
First, take the crosshead clearances.
229
228
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Overhauls and Maintenance
231
Marine Diesel Engines
Engine Overhauls and Maintenance
232 233
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Overhauls and M aintenance
I f th e g a u g e e n te r in g A is e q u a l to o r g r e a te r than
[2 m m - (B + C)], then clearance is more than the limit.
Clearance is 0.5 to 1.0 m m for new engines and its m aximum
value is 2 mm.
II
234 235
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Overhauls and Maintenance
It is carried out in suction and spill type fuel pumps. Example: Sulzer R o ta te th e en g in e in th e astern
engines direction.
Cam roller to be on the base.
It's p u rp o se :
Fit dial gauges 2 with 1 mm pretension
To check if the fuel pum p setting is correct for the injection
over the spill valve (now closed) and
timings.
plunger.
To compare w ith the original data f o r :
Set both gauges to O.
(1) Idle Stroke = a in mm.
(2) Beginning o f injection angle, before or after TDC.
(3) Total injection stroke = b in mm.
(4) End o f injection angle, after TDC.
(5) Effective plunger stroke = b - a .
Procedure C h e c k in g B e g in n in g o f In je c tio n
i.e. Closing o f Suction Valve
Initializing Suction Valve D ial Gauge
R o ta te th e en g in e in th e ahead
direction till die suction valve gauge 3
Rotate the engine in ahead direction. shows 0.02 mm.
C am roller to b e o n the peak. Note the plunger gauge 4 reading= a.
Fit dial gauge 7 with 1 m m pretension Also note the flywheel angle.
over the suction valve (now closed)
and set to O.
F ig -155
F ig - 153
236
Marine Diesel Engir Engine Overhauls and M aintenance
238 239
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Overhauls and M aintenance
240 241
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Overhauls and M aintenance
242 243
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Overhauls and M aintenance
244
Engine Overhauls and Maintenance
Marine Diesel Engines
0-R in g Check If there is clearance, tighten the nut w ith the round tommy bar.
Release hydraulic press, apply non-acidic grease to the threads
Raise the pressure slowly so that the return oil and cap the nut.
connection is n o t closed, until oil flow s out o f
A. Then plug the outlet hole, raise the pressure Checks D uring L oosening a nd Tightening
to 100 kg /sq .cm , and m aintain it at this level Pinching or clamping screws should be removed.
for a moment to see that o-ring B seals tight. If the tie-rods are newly tightened, then the wasted studs or jack
bolts o f the main bearings also have to be checked for correct pre
tensioning.
Tightening is done in the correct sequence.
247
246
Marine Diesel Engir. Engine Overhauls and M aintenance
248 249
Marine Diesel Engir, Engine Overhauls and M aintenance
1. Tensile Test is done to test the strength and ductility. The specimen Annealing : HeatingtoUppercrit.temp +'(30 to40deg.C)+ Furnacesoak+cool.
is elongated an<J its elongation measured. Quenching : Hearing toUppercrit. temp + (30to40deg.C)+ Waterrapidcooling.
2. Hardness Test is done to test the m aterials surface hardness.
Indentation is carried out with a 10 m m diameter steel ball under Work Hardening
load, which gives either Rockwell hardness num ber o r Brinell Here, cold working is done e.g. shot blasting with steel balls.
hardness num ber i.e. Load / Indentation area.
Flame Hardening
N on-D estructive Tests An oxy-acetylene flame is used on the surface and later quenching is
carried out with a water spray.
1. Visual or microscopic lens examination for cracks. . .
2. Chalk test. Induction Hardening
3. Fluorescent dye o r red dye aerosol method. Electro-magnetic heating and quenching is done.
Hardening
Heating is done to a temperature higher than upper critical range. At
this range, the iron structure gets transformed to a new structure i.e.
martensite. Stresses are to be relieved by tempering, annealing and
normalizing.
250 251
CHAPTER 11
253
Engine Descriptions and Specifications
Marine Diesel Engines
Sulzer Engines
R TA E ngines
Specifications
7 RTA 84 M Engine:
7 - Numbers o f cylinders
R - Welded bedplate
T - Superlong
A - First in series
84 - B oreincm s
M - Modified
Engine features
Superlong stroke.
Uniflow scavenging in a tw o stroke cycle.
Constant pressure turbo-charging.
254 255
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
256 257
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
R T -F L E X C am shaftless -Intelligent E n g in e ' They are used as intelligent engines b y electronic control and
feedback. Sulzers Intelligent Engine is a concept on which the
Research on the RT-Flex design w as started in June 1998. It is a
RT-Flex engine provides a fully operational basis.
new design which offers distinctive operational benefits which are
not possible with Camshaft engines. An Intelligent Engine is one which will monitor its own condition
according to its feedback and pre-set settings and adjust the key
The first RT-Flexengine went into shipboard service in September
2001.
parameters o f the engines performande, under various conditions
without manual intervention.
The first RT-Flex 60 C engine was built in 2002.
The improved control reduces operational costs, exhaust emissions,
It is an engine incorporating m any o f the design features o f the fuel consumption and time between overhauls.
previous RTA-T and RTA 96 engines, but without the constraints
This flexibility is provided by electronic control o f fuel injection
imposed by the mechanical drive o f fuel injection pumps and valve
exhaust valve actuation, starting air and cylinder lubrication.
actuation pumps.
Using a Common Rail reduces the hydraulic power requirements
It provides far greater flexibility and scope in the engine setting to
and allows fuel and hydraulic pumps to be arranged in a neat set
reach future requirem ents and operational benefits to the ship
up driven off the crankshaft.
owners. .
The WECS 9000 control system electronically controls the function
These are standard Sulzer low -speed two-stroke m arine diesel
o f starting air, load dependent cylinder lubrication, engine cooling,
engines, except that, instead o f the usual cam shaft and its gear
electronically driven Lanchester Balancer (ELBA), etc.
drive, fuel injection pumps; exhaust valve; actuator pum ps and
reversing servomotors; it is equipped with a Common-Rail' system Starting air distribution to different cylinders is controlled by
for fuel injection and exhaust valve actuation, and full electronic individual solenoid valves controlling the start air valves, rather
control o f the engine functions. than the conventional mechanically-driven start air distributor.
It was found to be m ore cost-effective to achieve the benefits of There is no need for the camshaft drive, since all functions are
the RT-Flexseries by using a completely new design, rather than operated by hydraulic pressure (fuel oil or servo oil) under electronic
adapting to the previous existing engine designs. Hence, a new control. This allows a net reduction in engine weight, simplifies
d esig n w as m ade to o ptim ise po w er and speeds for ship engine erection w ork and removes som e physical constraints for
applications. future engine design.
258 259
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
Specifications
RT-Flex 60 C en g in e:
Cylinder bore 600 mm
Piston stroke 2250 mm
Engine speed 91 to 114rpm
M E P atM C R 19.5 bar
Pmax 155 bar
Piston speed 8.5 m/s
Fuel viscosity specification 730 cst at 50 deg.C
Power output/cylinder 2360 K W or 3210 BHP.
Brake specific fuel consumption
A t full load 170 g/kw-hr or 127 g/bhp-hr
A t 85 % load 167 g/kw-hr or 123 g/bhp-hr.
260
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
262 263
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
Reduced maintenance requirements with the simpler setting o f the timings (in older series) which resulted in low excess combustion
engine. The as new running settings are automatically maintained. air supply b y the turbocharger at low loads.
Fuel injection control with integrated flow-out security is precise, VTTis easier to arrange in an electronically controlled engine, unlike
leading to reduced m aintenance costs and longer tim e between . the mechanical arrangements o f earlier engines.
overhauls (TBO).
Increased exhaust heat recovery fu rth er reducing th e fuel
Fuel injection common-rail system provides improved volumetric consum ption, e.g. RT-Flex 60C has an exhaust gas outlet
control resulting in excellent power-balancing between cylinders temperature o f 285 deg.C giving a high potential for waste heat
and cycles with precise injection and equal thermal loads. recovery.
Reliability o f the common-rail hardware and fuel oil pumps, long Potential for future developments. e.g. Differentmodes for different
proven in Sulzers 4-stroke engines. emission regimes. One mode for minimum fuel consumption and
Higher availability due to integrated monitoring functions and built- another to comply w ith global N Ox lim its or local port limits.
in redundancy. Lowering NOx emissions however, increase fuel consumption.
Full power can be developed with one fuel pum p and one servo oil Tribo-Pack Technology
pump inactive. The high pressure fuel pipes, servo-oil delivery pipes
and electronic systems are also duplicated for redundancy.
Fuel injection rate, pressure and shape can be changed.
Stable pressure levels in common rail and supply pipes.
Better suited for heavy fuel oil use through clear separation o f fuel
oil from the hydraulic pilot valves.
- Highly efficient common-rail fuel pumps.
Freedom to select optimum injection pressure, fuel valve timings
and exhaust valve timings at all engine loads and speeds.
C ontrol o f exhaust valve tim ing allows the system to keep
combustion air excess high by earlier closing, when load decreases.
This reduces fuel consumption and component temperature at low
loads. Hence it is m ore advantageous than fixed exhaust valve
Fig-173
264 265
Marine Diesel Engines
Engine Descriptions and Specifications
It is a combination o f design features which allow the time between Description o f the Engine a nd its components
overhauls o f cylinder components, including piston ring renewal,
The bedplate is of a sturdy type surmounted by very rigid A-shaped
to be extended to at least three years.
double- walled columns and cylinder blocks, all screwed by pre-
It also provides m ore safety fo r the piston w hile operating under tensional vertical tie-rods.
adverse conditions. The engine structure is very sturdy withlow stresses buthigh stiffness.
It allows standard cylinder lubricating oil feed rates to fall as low as The cylinder jacket is a single piece iron casting.
1 g/kw-hr. Thethrustbearingisof the tilting pad type, integrated in the bedplate.
The thrust bearing girder has only two Steel cast pieces omitting
welding seams in critical comers. The girder is stiffer than earlier
Features o f Tribo-Pack designs.
Pre-profiled piston rings in all piston grooves. The crankshaft is semi-built type with special care taken for the
Ghromium-ceramic coating on the top piston ring. fillet areas and shrinkfits to cope with compact cylinder distance.
RC (running-in coating) piston rings in all lower piston grooves. The main bearings are o f white metal, thin steel shell type.
Anti-Polishing Ring (APR) at the top o f the cylinder liner. The bearing bores are co-machined, mounted and tightened with
the bearing caps.This allows better precision in the geometry o f
Increased thickness o f chromium layer in the piston ring grooves.
the mounted bearing shells, thereby improving running safety.
Multi-level cylinder lubrication. The crosshead has a full width lower bearing. The pin is o f uniform
Liner o f the appropriate material, with sufficient hard phase. diameter and the two guide shoes are m ade in single steel castings
Careful turning o f the liner running surface and deep-honing o f the with white metal-plated running surfaces. Guide shoes have better
liner over the full length o f the running surface for ideal running flexibility to adapt to the natural deformation of the guide rails under
surface for rings. load.
Mid-stroke liner insulation. The crosshead bearing has a full width shell for the low er half
bearing.
Liner corrosive wear also depends on water droplets entering the
There is a separate elevated pressure o f 16 bar lube oil supply to
engine cylinders. Here, ahighly efficient vane-type water separator
the crosshead. This allows hydrostatic lubrication which lifts the
after the scavenge air cooler is used fo r effective water drainage.
crosshead pin off the bearing at every revolution, ensuring sufficient
Load dependent cylinder lubrication by the multi-level accumulator oil film thickness at all times.
system. The piston rod stuffing box gland is a new type (as used in
Lubricating pum ps are driven by frequency controlled electric RTA-68 TB and RTA-84C engines). It reduces the crank case oil
motors. consumption and maintains the oil quality. It consists o f a highly
effective dirt scraping top part w ith an oil scraping bottom part.
266 267
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
Oil scraping is done by six spring-loaded Combustion chamber conditions influence the tim e between
grey cast iron segments w hich run on a overhauls, the engines reliability and the NOx emissions.
hardened piston rod. Oil can flow back to Piston cooling and fuel injection spray patterns influence the surface
the crankcase through many large vertical temperatures in the combustion chamber as well as earlier deposit
holes. It results in practically no flow from formation.
the neutral space. Instead, there is complete Bore cooling is provided for the liner along w ith shaker cooling
re-circulation o f the scraped off oil to the effect o f the piston for im proved heat transfer, temperature,
c ra n k c a s e , g iv in g le s s s y s te m o il 'mechanical and thermal stress control o f the components.
consumption.
Cylinder H ead Cover
Fig-174
It is m ade o f steel material and bore-cooled. It is secured by eight
Combustion Chamber elastic studs arranged in four pairs. Anti-corrosion cladding is applied
to the head covers, downstream o f the injectors to protect the cylinder
head covers from hot corrosive or erosive attacks.
The Exhaust Valve
It is m ade o f Nimonic 80A material and is housed in a bolted-on
exhaust valve cage.
Fuel Injector Valves
These are three in number. They are symmetrically distributed on the
cylinder head. This arrangement equalizes the temperature distribution
on the piston crown over the liner and head circumference.
Piston
It has a forged steel crown and a very short skirt.
Piston Rings
These are four in number and o f the sam e height, thickness and
geometry.
Liner
It employs bore-cooling with insulated tubes,to adjust the temperature
Fig-175 distribution in the liner and limit stresses.
269
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
Turbocharging Specifications
It is of constant pressure type augmented by electrically-driven auxiliary 6 SMC 60 engine:
blowers. Cylinder bore 600 mm
Piston stroke 2300 mm
Scavenge A ir Receiver Stroke bore ratio 3.8
It has integral non-return flaps and hanging cooler bundles with tubes Total power 16680 BH P (12240 KW)
and fins, circulated with fresh water. Engine speed 105 rpm
MEP 18 bar
Water Separator
Pmax 140 bar
It is o f vane type. It is a new design o f high efficiency. It has ample
drainage provisions to completely collect the condensed water at the S.F.O.C. 118gm/bhp/hr
bottom and drain it. To avoid blow-back through the drains from the Scavenge air pressure 3 bar
high pressure areas, all the drains a re collected at the bottom o f a M ean piston speed 8m /s
vertically m ounted pot, w hich is filled w ith w ater and kept under Specific cylinder oil consumption 0.6 to 1.0 g/bhp/hr
scavenge air pressure. D rain w ater then leaves from the top o f the
pot into an orifice controlling the discharge. Features
Superlong stroke.
Engine Seating Uniflow scavenging in a two-stroke cycle.
It is simple w ith a m odest num ber o f holding down bolts and side Constant pressure turbocharging.
sto p p e rs. N o en d sto p p ers,
The piston crown has chromium plated grooves for four piston
thrust brackets or fitted bolts are
rings. The top-most piston ring is of controlled pressure relief (CPR)
needed, as thrust transmission is
type. Piston rings 2 ,3 ,4 have oblique cuts. Piston ring no. 3 has a
p rovided b y th ru st sleev es,
right-hand cut. Piston ring nos. 2 and 4 have left-hand cuts. An
which are applied to a number of
Aluminium coating is given for running-in.
holding down bolts. The holes in
the tank top for the thrust sleeves The piston rod has a through-going bore for the cooling oil pipe,
which is secured to the piston rod top.
are made by drilling or even flame
cutting. Epoxy resin chocks are Cooling oil is supplied through a telescopic pipe connection on the
used by pouring resin around the guide-shoe or on the crosshead and passed through a bore in the
thrust sleeves. Fig-176 piston rod foot and, through the cooling oil pipe in the piston rod,
270 271
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
273
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
framebox and properly secured against displacement by guide strips main bearing support. The axial movement is damped as a result of
fastened to the guide shoes. the restrictions incorporated in the bores, which interconnect the
oil-filled chambers on the two sides o f the piston. Lubricating oil
The crankpin bearing is fitted with steel shells lined with bearing is supplied to both sides o f the piston from the main system.
metal and assembled in the sam e w ay as the crosshead bearing.
The cam shaft is m ade in one o r more sections. The sections are
T he crankshaft is provided with a chain wheel for the camshaft assembled by means o f flange couplings. For each cylinder, the
drive and a turning wheel. Furthermore, a tuning wheel, a torsional cam shaft has a cam for operation o f the fuel pump, a cam for
vibration dam per and a chain wheel drive for second order and operation o f the exhaust valve and a cam for operation o f the
fourth order moment compensators are installed. indicator drive (option).
At the aftmost end o f the engine, a thrust bearing is fitted. A thrust The fuel pump and exhaust valve cams are shrunk onto the shaft
bearing serves the purpose o f transmitting the axial thrust o f the by heating, whereas the indicator cams are in two parts, which are
propeller through propeller shaft and intermediate shafts to the assembled with fitted bolts.
ships thrust collar.
After the engine has been test run, the camshaft parts and the cylinder
The thrust shoes rest on surfaces in the thrust bearing housing and frame will be provided with pin gauge marks, and the necessary
are held in place by means o f stoppers or cross bars. The segments pin gauges are delivered together with the engine, enabling the
have w hite m etal cast onto the wearing faces against the thrust cam shaft tim ing to be checked and readjusted if the parts have
collar. been dismantled.
The thrust bearing is lubricated by the pressure lubrication system M oment compensators: On the basis o f calculations, the engine
o f the engine. T he oil is supplied between the segments through may be provided with flyweights to counteract engine forces and
spray pipes and spray nozzles. moments.
T he thrust bearing is provided with alarm, slow-down and shut The exhaust valve is actuated by a cam on the camshaft through a
down devices fo r low lube oil pressure and high segment hydraulic transmission.
temperature.
Puncture v a lv e : In the top cover o f the fuel pump, a puncture
To counteract heavy axial vibrations and any resultant adverse valve is fitted. The puncture valve consists o f a piston which
forces and vibrations, the crankshaft is provided with an axial communicates w ith the control air system o f the engine. In the
vibration damper. The damper consists o f a piston and a slit-type event o f actuation o f the shut-down system, and when stop is
housing. The piston is made as an integrated collar on one o f the activated, compressed air is supplied to the top o f the piston, causing
main bearing journals and the housing is mounted on the pertaining the piston with pin to be pressed downward and keep the suction
274 275
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
valve in the open position. This will puncture the oil flow to the The engine is provided with two or m ore auxiliary blowers. The
fuel valve. As long as the puncture valve is activated, the fuel oil is suction sides are connected to the space after the water mist catcher.
returned through bores to the pump housing, and no injection takes The discharge sides are connected to the scavenge air receiver.
place. Separate non-return valves are installed at the suction side or
discharge side o f the auxiliary blowers, in order to prevent reversed
T he roller guide o f each fuel pum p incorporates an angular air flow. The non-return valves protect the blowers and the engine,
displaceable reversing link. Reversing is achieved by shifting the during start-up as well as during the running o f the auxiliaiy blowers.
roller in the fuel pump drive mechanism at each cylinder. The link
From the exhaust valves, the exhaust gas is led to the exhaust gas
connecting the roller guide and roller is provided with a reversing
receiver where the pulsatory pressure from the individual exhaust
arm, and a pivot is mounted at the top end o f die reversing arm.
valves is equalized and led to the turbocharger at a constant
T he pivot travels in a reversing guide connected to an air cylinder.
pressure. Inside the exhaust gas receiver, a protective grating is
The link is self-locking in either the ahead or astern position without
mounted before the turbocharger.
the aid o f external forces. Each cylinder is reversed individually,
and the reversing mechanism is activated by compressed air. The charging air cooler insert is o f the block type. T he cooler is
designed with an air reversing chamber which incorporates a water
The fuel valve consists o f a valve head and a valve housing. Fitted
m ist catcher. The w ater m ist catcher is built up o f a num ber of
within the valve housing is a non-return valve, and a spindle and
lamellas which separate the condensation water from the scavenge
spindle guide with a pressure spring and a nozzle. The spindle may
air during the passage o f the air flow.
be provided with a cut-off slide. W hen the fuel valve is fitted in the
cylinder cover, the valve parts are tightened together by the pressure Each cylinder cover is provided with a spring-loaded safety valve
from the securing nuts. which is set to open at a pressure som ewhat higher than the
maximum firing pressure in the cylinder.
The functioning o f the fuel valve is as follows: The electrical fuel oil
prim ary pum p circulates preheated oil through the fuel pump and On the exhaust side o f the engine a number o f spring-loaded relief
fuel valve. The fuel oil passes through the fuel valve, leaving through valves are fitted, which will open in the event o f excessive pressure
a circulation bore and the return oil pipe on the valve head. When in the crankcase/chain casing, for instance as aresult o f the ignition
the pressure at the beginning o f the fuel pum ps delivery stroke o f oil mist.
has reached the predetermined pressure, the circulating bores are The scavenge air receiver is fitted with a safety valve.
closed. When the pressure has reached the predetermined opening The bedplate consists o f two welded, longitudinal girders and a
value for the fuel valve, the spindle will be lifted and oil injected num ber o f cross girders w hich support th e main bearings. The
through the nozzle into the engine cylinder. On completion o f the main bearings consist o f steel shells, lined with bearing metal. The
fuel pum ps delivery stroke, the valve spindle is pressed against bedplate is fitted with an axial vibration damper.
the seat and injection now ceases. T he circulating bore is now A framebox is bolted on to the top o f the bedplate. Together, the
uncovered and oil starts to recirculate through the valve.
bedplate and the framebox constitute the crankcase o f the engine.
276 277
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
278 279
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
280 281
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
282 283
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
285
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
T he aim o f the system is to prevent longer than necessary off- Parts om itted in camshaft-less M E engine
service repair tim e by increasing the engines availability and Chain drive
reliability, thus reducing operational costs. Additional savings can Chain wheel frame
also be ach iev ed th ro u g h th e a p p ro p riate scheduling o f Chain box on frame box
maintenance and spare parts ordered.
Camshaft with cams
PM1 System Roller guides for fuel pumps and exhaust valves
The PM I system is a com puterized tool for evaluating cylinder Fuel injection pumps
pressures in M A N B& W D iesel engines. It consists o f a hand Exhaust valve actuators
held transducer and control unit, which interfaces with a PC.
Starting air distributor
A single operator can collect and display a com plete set o f
measurements in less than fifteen minutes. It uses a high performance Governor
piezo-electric pressure transducer and an advanced crankshaft Regulating shaft
angle trigger system for determining the TD C o f each cylinder to Mechanical cylinder lubricator
reliably and precisely measure cylinder pressures.
Local control stand.
T he cylinder pressure data is presented as easy-to-interpret
m easurem ent curves on the PC as well as in tabular form. By The above-mentioned parts are replaced by
calculating the maximum pressure deviation o f each cylinder and Hydraulic Power Supply (HPS)
computing index settings for balanced output from all cylinders, Hydraulic Cylinder Units (HCU)
the engine output can be adjusted for enhanced performance.
Engine Control System (ECS), controlling the following:
The system automatically calculates effective power, mean indicated
Electronically Profiled Injection (EPIC)
pressure, and gives proposals for fuel pump index adjustments.
Exhaust valve actuation
Alphatronic 2 000 Control System Fuel oil pressure boosters
This electronic propulsion control system for ships with CP propellers Start and reversing sequences
enables the navigator to manoeuvre the ship from the bridge. This can Governor function
be done without consideration for engine load conditions as the system Starting air valves
automatically enacts an overload protection. The pre-pulsion control
Auxiliary blowers
can be transferred at any time to other control areas such as the bridge
Crankshaft position sensing system
wing or control room panel. A separate emergency back-up system,
Electronically controlled AlphaLubricator
as required by the m ajor classification societies, maintains a pre-set
engine speed and propeller pitch, and is physically integrated into the Local Operating Panel (LOP).
control panel.
286 287
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Descriptions and Specifications
Fig-184
CHAPTER 12
ENGINE DEVELOPMENTS
291
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Developments
TUrbocharger
1. Constant pressure 2-stage turbochargers are used on large slow
speed modem engines. Turbocharger efficiency is improved and
hence the turbocharger needs less energy. Therefore, more energy
is available at the crankshaft. Pow er Take In (PTI) and Power
Take O ut ( PTO) units can be coupled.
2. U se o f two turbochargers rather than one. Standby reliability is
more. O ne turbocharger can be cut off at low loads w hich gives
more efficiency than using both turbochargers and less dependency
on auxiliary blowers. Bearing housing on the turbine end is cooled with a small amount
3. UncooledTurbochargers: o f water, thereby controlling the lube oil temperature.
Un-cooled turbochargers allow greater heat recovery as there Simultaneous cooling is carried out for the jacket o f the gas
is less heat loss to the cooling water as in cooled turbochargers. outlet casing to allow som e cooling and control o f the entire
Thermal efficiency o f the overall plant increases. casing surface within safety limits i.e. protection against fire
T he gas inlet ducts are totally uncooled. and accidental contact. Example o f the latest turbocharger
N o contact w ith cooling w ater at any point for the gas inlet series is A B B s TPL-B series used for large 2-stroke diesel
side. engines. This series gives a much higher turbocharger efficiency
This allow s m axim um h eat availability to the exhaust gas than the earlier VTR-4E and VTR-4D series.
economizer for further waste heat recovery.
292 293
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Developments
U ncooled turbochargers m ay also totally dispense o f water 10. Turbine and compressor cleaning i.e. water washing, is possible
cooling, thereby giving the advantages o f no water connection, under full engine load conditions.
easy integration, high application flexibility and reduced 11. The free floating axial bearing disc gives a compensation for
corrosion. inclination and friction allowing a low wear o f the bearing with a
4. Com pressor noise reduction is done by m eans o f felt-covered longer life time.
shaped plates.
12. Radial bearing bushes w ith squeeze oil dam per provide high
reliability and an increased time between overhauls.
13. The inlet and outlet o f the oil passages is from the bottom allowing
easy connection for lubrication.
14. Wide compressor map allowing high application flexibility.
15. Stiff construction with a high eigen-frequency mono block silencer.
This lowers the sensitivity to the engine vibration and reduces the
stress on the turbocharger supports.
16. Improved and extensive testing to ensure safe operations under
any circumstance. The tests include: resonance endurance test,
5. Improved bearings allow 35,000 running hours before bearing low cycle fatigue test, temperature cycle test, hot shut down test,
change. E.g. A BBs special TPL inboard plain bearings. oil leakage test, compressor and turbine containment test, blade
6. An emergency oil gravity tank (e.g. TPL91-B series) ensures safe vibration test, thrust bearing test and a prototype qualification
run-out o f the turbocharger rotor in the event o f a power blackout test.
causing failure o f the engine lube oil pump. This is for the new 17. Different turbine and compressor trims are available for optimized
TPL plain bearings designed fo r direct lubrication by the engine matching for all applications.
lube oil system through a 50 micron filter.
18. Im proved pressure ratio and turbocharger efficiency. Peak
7. A simpler, robust design is used. efficiencies of more than 87 % are obtainable. High compression
8. Fewer parts than the earlier series giving low er life cycle costs, ratios give increased mean effective pressures and less fuel
faster overhauls and easier service. consumption.
9. Complete dismantling requires minimum additional space. Turbine 19. R adial com pressor and axial turbine have the follow ing
parts can be dismantled from the compressor side and hence, there improvements:
is no need to disconnect the h o t gas pipes allowing easier and The turbine uses a w ide chord blade w ithout a damping wire
safer handling. for constant pressure use.
294 295
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Developments
The compressor uses a single piece aluminium alloy wheel with Honing is carried out o f the running surface o f the liner.
a splitter-bladed im peller and back-swept blades for high Higher jacket temperatures with load dependent cooling.
efficiency and a w ide compressor map. Anti polishing ring is incorporated at the topmost part o f the liner.
Enlarged compressor diameters further increase the volume of
the flow.
C ylinder L ubrication
Scavenge System Multilevel cylinder liner lubrication for better usage o f the cylinder
lube oil.
Uniflow scavenging m ethod is used for large slow speed modem Alpha lubrication system in B&W M E engines.
engines. Frequency control electric m otor drive fo r the lubricators with
A reduced cylinder oil consumption is therefore possible. automatic lubrication for pre-lubrication, post-lubrication, slow
Improved air cooler design w ith a new and very efficient water turning and emergency modes.
separator is introduced. Load dependent cylinder lubrication changing the feed rate with
Scavenge ports have reduced heights.
respect to the engine load.
Exhaust System
Piston
Variable Exhaust Closing (VEC) enables the exhaust valve to close A new Oros design is provided
earlier at 70% to 85 % lo a d , giving higher com pression and peak fo r th e p isto n . T h e a v erag e
pressures. temperature in the crown region
is 410 deg.C, rather than 480
Combustion Chamber deg.C as in conventional types.
Engulfed type combustion chamber with improved material selection The injector gets more distance for
is introduced. fuel penetration, thereby reducing
Low er temperatures are possible due to the the tem peratures in the crown
piston shape and design. region.
296 297
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Developments
Crosshead
E ngine Speed
Short, rigid, hollow type with a larger diameter pin.
Slower speeds allow m ore pow er extraction. A larger propeller size
A continuous bottom half bearing. can be used with less propeller slip and more efficiency.
Bearing is o f thin shell white metal type.
High section modulus with a reduced mass.
Intelligent Engines
Lube oil pressure is increased to 16 bar in RTA engines, unlike
earlier 4.5 bar in older series. These are th e latest RT-Flex and M E series o f cam shaft-less
electronically-controlled engines. They are a whole new concept and
Stroke Bore Ratio design change, w hich is exhaustively covered in the engine
description chapter.
A n increased stroke bore ratio o f 4 .2 to 4.4. This allows a greater
ratio for expansion i.e. expansion ratio increases. Thermal efficiency
increases as more heat energy can be utilized. Thus, SFOC and fuel
consumption reduces. SFOC and thermal efficiency depend on the
exhaust blowdown pressure which is m uch less.
Engine Components
Semi-built welded type crankshaft.
Fabricated steel bedplate.
Integrated thrust block.
Tie rods terminating at the bearing housing level. The tie rods are
threaded and do not pass through tubes and, therefore easier to
remove.
298
CHAPTER 13
ENGINE EMISSIONS
Engine Emissions
The emissions from the engine exhaust consists o f sulphur oxides,
nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particles, soot and
smoke.
301
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Emissions
302 303
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Emissions
The exhaust emissions contain large quantities o f carbon monoxide, Methods o f measurement
because o f the excess oxygen supplied in combustion air. Increase in 1. Bosch smoke scale 0 -1 0
the norm al operating levels indicate poor atomization o f the fuel by
the fuel injectors.
304 305
Marine Diesel Engines
4. Ringleman number 0- 5
CHAPTER 14
I n d ic a te d M e a n E ffe c tiv e P r e s s u r e o r M e a n In d ic a te d
Pressure (M IP )
It is the pressure which on acting upon the piston, performs the same
w ork as the actual pressure in the operating cycle. It is the ratio of
work done during the w orking stroke to the sw ept volume. It is
determined graphically from a diagram or calculated from engine
parameters.
M easurement o f M IP
It can be done by measuring the area o f the indicator diagram.
The various methods are :
1. Planimeter
2. Mid-ordinate method.
3. Counting the number o f squares, if the diagram is taken on a special
square type graph sheet.
306
Engine Performance and Indicator Cards
Marine Diesel Engines
Rated P ow er
O n board the ship, the M IP is obtained by m easuring the area o f the
It is a continuous effective pow er given by the m anufacturer for a
indicator diagram (in sq.cms) and dividing it by the length o f the
certain rated rpm o f the crankshaft, taking into account the auxiliaries
diagram (cms).
used under normal service conditions, with a provision for overload.
Indicated H orse Pow er
Gross Power
IH P = P x L x A x N
It is a continuous effective pow er guaranteed by the engine supplier
4500
for an approximate rpm using a certain set of auxiliaries under normal
where,
service conditions without any allowance for overload.
P = M IPinkg/sq.cm
L = Engine stroke, in metres O verload Power
A = Cross sectional area o f o ne cylinder, in sq.cm It is a short-time effective pow er in excess o f the rated pow er with
N = Speed o f the engine in rpm the same set o f auxiliaries, under the same service conditions, which
= N fo r 2-stroke & = N /2 for 4-stroke can be used periodically for a limited interval only.
4500 = The conversion ofkg-m /m in to H.P. in metric units.
M inim um Power
B rake H orse P ow er (BH P) It is the lowermost effective power guaranteed by the engine supplier
It is the pow er output m easured a t the crankshaft by a brake- for an appropriate crankshaft rpm.
dynamometer on the manufacturers test bed. O n board a ship, Bhp
can be determ ined by a torsiom eter w hich gives shaft horse power. M inim um Stable E ngine Speed
The Shp is less than the Bhp o f the dynam om eter by the frictional It is the rate o f crankshaft rotation at a given irregularity factor. Any
horse pow er at the thrust block. speed below the minimum stable speed would result in stalling o f the
engine.-
M echanical E fficiency
It is the ratio o f the brake horse power to the indicated horse power.
E ffective Pow er
Its value is 0.75 to 0.85.
It is the pow er at the output end o f the engine i.e. at the crankshaft
= O utput at the crank shaft .= Brake H orse Power
flange position. It is the indicated horse power minus the mechanical
Input at the cylinder Indicated H orse Power losses.
Actual Efficiency = H eat converted into actual work
Therm al E fficiency
Total heat supplied
= H eat converted to useful work
Total heat supplied
= Indicated Efficiency x Mech. Efficiency
Its value is approxim ately 0.60
308 309
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Performance and Indicator Cards
310 311
Marine Diesel Engir.
Engine Performance and Indicator Cards
Test-Bed Tests
d) Overload T est: The engine is run in an overloaded condition
These include trials on the engine w hich is loaded by a water brake.
at a set" controlled overload rating.
The following trials are d o n e:
e) MinimumStableSpeedTest:Theengineminimumstable
Consumption trials.
(ii) Starting and reversing trials.
speedisconfirmedforsmoothrunningatagivenirregularity
(m) Running astern trials.
factor. Theengineshouldnotstallatthisspeed.
f) Starting and Reversing T est: This test checks the starting and
(iv) Increased torque trials.
reversing system for reliability, and also the capacity o f the air
Se a Trials reservoir for minimum number o f starts and its pressure drop.
The following sea trial tests are performed on new ships to check the g) Vibration T est: Torsion vibrations and transverse vibrations
ships performance conforming to acceptable standards specified by are checked.
the manufacturer: h) Cylinder Cut Out Test.
j) Minimum number o f units firing test.
M ooring Trial j) Noise measurement test.
Before testing out in the open sea, a m ooring trial is done when k) Stop Trials : To test how quickly the ship can stop for
the ship is in a m oored condition. safety reasons, when sailing under constant propulsion.
(ii) Running-in Trial
This trial is done during the running-in period o f the piston rings Param eter Observation during Tests
and cylinder liner at a controlled output, only for a short running- The following parameters are to be observed and noted during the
in period. above tests for different loads: Fuel oil temperature, viscosity, density
and pressure at the inlet to main engine; engine room temperature;
(iii) Preliminary Trial
ambient air temperature; relative humidity; rpm; load index; exhaust
This is a trial done to confirm the engines performance before temperature for each cylinder; exhaust temperature before and after
going through the official trial.
the turbochargers; lube oil temperatures before and after the cooler;
(iv) Official Trial piston cooling oil discharge temperature for each cylinder; cooling
This is done officially in the open sea. T he following tests are fresh water tem perature before and after the cooler; cooling water
carried out: discharge temperature for each cylinder; lube oil pressure; air pressure
a) Consumption test. drop across air cooler; cooling fresh water pressure; air temperature
b) Guarantee speed test between tw o fixed points at maximum at air inlet; air temperature after air cooler; cooling temperature before
continuous rated power. and after air cooler; indicator diagrams; fuel flow m eter and
c) A ste rn r u n n in g te s t w h e re a s te rn p o w e r is lim ite d consumption calculation; cylinder oil flow meter and consumption; and
(50 to 80% o f maximum ahead running power rating). exhaust gas pressure before and after the turbochargers.
312 313
Marine Diesel Engines
Engine Performance and Indicator Cards
From the above readings o f trials, calculations are don,e and the
propeller graph is plotted.
A 1 0 0 % reference point
Load Diagram M Specified M C R
A load diagram is one w hich shows the graph o f engine speed O Optim ising point
relationship with power over the operating range o f a specific engine.
It is dictated by the Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) for a specific
rpm and engine load. Point, A = M
Propeller Curve
$ S Si 3 ot 8 8 8 iS 8 8 3
It is a curve o f the propeller characteristics im posed onto a load
diagram. The propeller curve is a curve plotted with the relationship
between the propeller power and the shaft rotational speed.
The numbered lines in the diagram denote the following curves:
Line 1: The P ropeller Curve
It intersects the maximum continuous rating o f 100% power
and 100% speed values.
Line 2: Clean Propeller and H ull Line
It is the same as Line 1 assuming engine propeller and hull are
in clean condition.
Line 3: M axim um Engine Speed Line
It is the lim iting line drawn at 103.5 to 105 % speed for
continuous operations, depending on the engine builder. The
engine should not be ran at low loads and above 100 % speed
for long periods.
Line4: Am ple A ir Available Line
It gives the limit for ample availability o f air above which thermal
overload limits the torque and the speed.
314
315
Marine Diesel Engines
Engine Performance and Indicator Cards
Safety Margins
There are 4 safety margins u se d :
1. Sea Margin (approximately. 15% power)
It is the expected increase in pow er required to maintain the
vessels calm weather speed, measured along the propeller curve.
2. L ight Running M argin (approximately 5 to 6 %)
This is the compensation for the loss in rpm between dry docks for
constant power operation. It consists o f :
316 317
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Performance and Indicator Cards
Indicator Diagrams
Purpose
To enable the evaluation o f the pow er developed in each engine
cylinder.
To highlight conditions during fuel injection, combustion and
after-burning.
To highlight conditions prevailing in tire cylinder during the scavenge/
exhaust gas exchange process.
To show the pressure variations in the cylinder w ith respect to
piston displacements.
Rg-194
318 319
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Performance and Indicator Cards
Pc o m p
1. Pow er Cards (In-Phase) out, w here compression and
It plots the pressure variations e x p a n s io n lin e s a re th e
in the cylinder ( fig-195) and sam e. This show s correct
c a n b e in te g ra te d w ith a synchronizing o f the indicator
piston m ovem ent with the
planim eter to calculate the
engine piston movement.
m ean in d ic a te d p re ssu re
(as shown in fig -194). The
The figure shows compression
power developed in a cylinder
Fig-195 and re-expansion lines not
c a n b e c a lc u la te d by
coinciding. The compression
m ultiplication o f the engine card is positive in area and
sp e e d a n d th e c y lin d e r hence, th e in d ic a to r cam
constant. It also highlights sh o u ld b e re ta rd e d . T his
afterburning. implies that the indicator cam
setting is wrong. F ig - 198
2. D ra w C ards (9 0 d egrees
out o f phase) T h e fig u re sh o w s th e
It is similar to a pow er card compression card is negative
but taken w ith the indicator in a re a an d h en ce, the
drum rotation 90 degrees out in d ic a to r cam sh o u ld be
o f phase. It highlights the fuel advanced. This implies that
injection process, point o f the indicator cam setting is
Fig-196 wrong.
injection and com pression F i g - 199
pressure.
4. L ight S pring Diagrams
3. Com pression Cards It is a diagram taken similar to the power card and in phase with
The compression card is only a line on the indicator diagram and the engine, but with a light compression spring fitted to the indicator.
gives the compression pressure and a timing check on the indicator It shows the pressure variations during exhaust and scavenge
cam. It is taken at a reduced rpm w ith the fuel cut-out. operations.
320 321
Marine Diesel Engines
Engine Performance and Indicator Cards
F ig -2 0 2 sh o w s n orm al
correct com bustion.
O b se rv e th a t th e
c o m p re ssio n p re ssu re
(Pcom p) and m axim um
pressure (Pmax) coincide
w ith the m anufacturers
data.
322 323
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Performance and Indicator Cards
timings, camshaft drive wear, worn fuel pump plunger, faulty delivery Fig-208 shows leaking exhaust
valve or suction valve spring, injectornozzle trumpets, or worn injector valve or worn piston rings. Observe
Pcomp is lower and ignition point
F ig -2 0 5 sh o w s p re ssu re is later. P m a x an d e x h a u st
o s c illa tio n s . O b se rv e th e tem p eratu res in crease, w hile
oscillations startonly afterignition. pow er decreases.
Oscillations are due to the gas
column or indicator drive. To use
this diagram, take the mean o f the Fig-209 show s an overloaded
oscillation amplitude as shown to engine. O bserve Pcomp is higher
Fig-205 get the curve. and Pm ax is higher. Exhaust
temperature and smoke increases.
- F ig -2 0 7 sh o w s low
I com pression pressure.
"1 a r c c Observe Pcomp is lower,
R g-210
S u j resulting in a lower Pmax
and early ignition.
Fig-211 shows choked intake. Observe that due to a choked intake,
Fig - 207 compression pressure is less throughout the curve. It results in a
324 325
Marine Diesel Engines Engine Performance and Indicator Cards
low er Pcomp and Pmax, while exhaust tem perature and smoke
increases. The turbocharger surges.
326 327
Marine Diesel Engines
328 329
Marine Diesel Engines Governors and Control
D ead B a n d
It is a band or range in speed, only after w hich the governor will
respond.
H u n tin g
It is the fluctuation in the engine speed due to over o r under control of
the governor. Too much sensitivity can cause hunting.
330 331
Marine Diesel Engines
Governors and Control
332 333
Marine Diesel Engines Governors and Control
The advantages o f the electronic governor Turning the knob clockwise changes the tension o f the speeder
Less mechanical components; quick response; no friction; capable of spring and increases the speed o f the engine.
com plex engine speed control; taking into account the engine load The number o f turns that the speed setting knob has turned can be
and electrical load; overspeed control; load sharing requirements; easy seen on the speed setting indicator, which has a minim um and
installation; and easy adjustments. maximum fuel setting limit.
The main disadvantages o f the electronic governor is that it can fail Load L im iter Knob
in case there is a failure o f input current to the governor from any
It limits the fuel and, therefore the load.
source. T he rem edy is to com bine the electronic governor with a
mechanical hydraulic governor which will act as the back up in case of It limits the stroke o f the power piston by altering the position of
electronic governor failure. the droop lever fulcrum point.
It is used only when load on the engine is to be limited, as in cases
Governor Adjustments of running-in after major overhauls.
Com pensation Range
It can b e adjusted by changing the fulcrum position on the lever Speed Droop Knob
connection between the servo output linkage and the compensation It is used to control the speed droop during load sharing operations
transmitter piston. between generators. It is not usually adjusted.
334 335
Marine Diesel Engines Governors and Control
N ecessity o f d roop f o r lo a d
sharing
In order to achieve sharing o f
lo a d , th e g e n e r a to r l a n d
g e n e r a t o r lin e s s h o u ld ,
in terse c t, as in th e c ase o f
Fig-228. This is only possible
336 337
Marine Diesel Engines
Governors and Control
338
339
Marine Diesel Engines Governors and Control
A ctuator Speed Pick-Up Start B lo ck : It indicates that the engine starting is blocked in case of
It is a feedback link which prevents excessive actuator motor speeds. turning gear engaged, low start air pressure, both ipm detectors failure,
It allows the actuator amplifier to position the actuator at the correct engine tripped, automatic start air valve blocked or start air distributor
position quickly. blocked.
Actu a to r Above Reversing Limit indicates that the engine speed is m ore than
It is a brush-less servom otor fitted w ith a digital encoder for motor the maximum level at which brake air can be supplied.
output position.
Start Set Point indicates that the governor setting is at its preset start
level to allow sufficient fuel for starting. This signal is maintained for 6
2) R em ote C ontrol Unit
seconds.
Ahead / Astern S.V. indicates the presence o f the bridge speed
setting signal.
Stop governor indicates the presence o f a signal to the governor to
stop fuel admission. This is not a cut-out device.
Cancel Lim iter Governor indicates the scavenge air lim iter and
Fig-231 torque limiter are cancelled. This happens in case the engine fails to
start after three automatic starts. A n alarm indicates the repeated-
start function activation.
The mimic diagram as shown displays the functioning o f the remote
control unit from the bridge. This mimic diagram has indicator lights Above Start Level indicates that the start system will be activated to
to show the sequence and changes taking place during maneuvering. brake the engine before reversing can take place.
The following components in this mimic diagram are described below.
Start S. V indicates start air system is activated.
Bridge shows bridge control. Stop S. V. indicates the starting air has started the engine above the set
point for starting.
System S im u la tio n : It is used during testing and sim ulation o f the
engine running conditions while the engine is actually stopped. Set Point Limiter indicates that the bridge engine speed request has
not been allowed due to the load-up programme being activated above
Stop indicates th at the bridge telegraph lever is at stop or the
full ahead rpm, or due to the critical range speed being blocked by the
emergency stop button is pressed.
bridge control system, or a slow down condition has been activated.
Ahead/Astern C om m and: It only indicates the bridge command that This can be cancelled at the bridge panel.
has been requested and not the engine o r camshaft position.
340 341
Marine Diesel Engines Governors and Control
4) E n g in e P rotection
It is provided to safeguard the engine d uring:
a) O verspeed i.e. 107 % o f M CR :
It activates the emergency stop solonoid for shutdown o f the
engine.
b) Shutdown for:
low lube oil pressure (1 bar)
jacket water .high temperature(96 deg.C)
thrust block high temperature (85 deg.C)
cam shaft oil low pressure (1.5 bar).
342 343
CHAPTER 16
WATCH KEEPING
AND SAFETY
345
Marine Diesel Engines Watch Keeping And Safety
347
346
Marine Diesel Engines Watch Keeping A nd Safety
Check the oily water separator and sample the water being pumped any problems encountered during the previous watches. Ensure
overboard. All over board pumping procedures should be followed proper knowledge o f procedures to be followed in the event o f a
strictly according to the companys policies and instructions. Ensure failure o f any equipment. Read the Standing orders and Chief
that weighted cocks on double bottom sounding pipes are in shut Engineers instructions.
position and caps closed. The main engine is to be checked Check if any operations are being carried out like fuel transfers;
thoroughly from the crankcase platform upto the economizer fresh water tank filling; and disposal o f oil residues, bilges, sewage
platform. Feel the crank case and scavenge doors for any increase or garbage.
in temperatures. Listen to the engine sound and observe any unusual
noise. Check all auxiliaries like air compressors and purifiers.
Check the piston cooling flow from the sight glass. Check the compressor running temperatures; tim e to press up the
air receiver; lubricator operation and level; sump oil level; and running
Check the scavenge drains to see quality and quantity o f oil or current amperes.
w ater leaks.
Check the purifier inlet oil temperature; overflow pipe for oil
Check the air cooler air-side drains to m ake sure that the drained overflow; running current amperes; back pressure, filter pressure;
w ater is from condensation and not from sea water. Scavenge and leakages.
temperature m ust not be too low.
Check all objects in the engine room in case they have to be lashed,
Check the hydraulic governor oil level. especially during bad weather conditions.
Feel air starting pipes to see if they are h o t and touch the high Check the nature and location o f all w ork being carried out on
pressure pipe to feel the pressure pulses o f injection. various machineries.
For hearing machinery sounds, use a metal rod with one end to' the Check the w ork being done by all engine room personnel and
ear and the other end touching the machinery. hazards involved.
Drain all air bottles o f water. Check if any system has been isolated or whether any abnormalities
Check all parameters and gauges in the engine control room. are present with the machinery.
Check that the load is sufficient on the generators. It is preferable Check proper working o f the communication system.
to run the generators at higher loads rather than at low loads which Some companies now require both watch-keepers to sign a hand
would cause fouling, especially when running on heavy fuel oil. over form listing all checks and abnormalities.
Check the engine room log book requirem ents for any cargo or . Only after the incoming watch-keeper is fully satisfied with the hand
maneuvering operations; requirements for adverse conditions; and over, will he take over charge from the outgoing watch-keeper.
348 349
Marine Diesel Engines
Watch Keeping And Safety
350
351
Marine Diesel Engir, Watch Keeping And Safety
Self-closing crankcase relief valves are fitted at various points along Prevention
the crankcase 1 to relieve pressure, irrespective o f the origin in the Regular draining, cleaning and monitoring o f the scavenge spaces.
cran k case. Correct rate o f cylinder lubrication.
The valve should be self-closing to prevent ingress o f air which Correct maintenance o f piston rings, cylinder liners and fuel
leads to a secondary explosion. Self-closing function is achieved injection equipment.
by the spring 3 which shuts the disc valve 2, if the crankcase pressure
is less than 0.05 bar. Remedy
A n oil-wetted m etallic gauze 5 is fitted on the internal side for In Sulzer engines: Slow down the engine, cut-off the fuel, increase
stopping a flame emerging from the relief valve. cylinder lubrication; and continue running till the fire bums out. Stop
A rubber o-ring 6 provides oil tightness and sealing. A deflector 4 the engine. After waiting till the scavenge space cools down, open up
is fitted to deflect any flam e or pressure wave in case o f an for inspection and ascertain the cause.
explosion.
352 353
Marine D iesel Engines Watch Keeping A nd Safety
I h B & W e n g in es: C ut-off the fuel, slow down the engine, request F looding
the bridge; and stop the engine and auxiliary blower. Apply extinguishing In case o f flooding, raise the emergency alarm, inform the bridge,
m edium , allow the scavenge space to cool, and then open up for slow dow n and stop the m ain engine. According to the capacity
inspection and ascertain the cause. Components affected by scavenge needed, designated bilge pum ps or sea water pum ps using the
fires include Piston rod, cylinder liner, stuffing box, piston and rod emergency bilge injection valve are to be started. Identify and isolate
alignm ent, scoring or cracks in the liner, and tie rod tension. the cause o f flooding. Once pumping is started make sure the level of
water should be going down and not increasing. Also, give due attention
O il S p ill that the level should not flood any o f the pumps or the engine flywheel
In case o f an oil spill, stop the fuel oil transfer operations and raise the bottom level. Take care that no water should fall onto any electrical
general alarm . Follow the O il Spill Contingency Plan. Identify the starter p anel, device o r w iring.
source o f the spill and immediately restrict any further oil spillage by
isolation- Drain and contain the oil on the ship by putting the oil into a G rounding
slop tank or an empty cargo tank. Clean the spill area using an oil spill In case o f grounding, immediately stop the main engine and raise the
dispersant and the gear from the oil spill storage station. Try to recover emergency alarm. Inform the bridge. Change over from low to high
as much oil as possible. Log events and communicate with the port sea suction. Take die soundings o f all double bottom tanks in the engine
authorities. room as well as the cargo tanks to check for intactness. Report the
condition o f the engine room to the Master who will assess the danger
C ollisio n o f sinking, flooding, capsizing, oil pollution and vessels stability.
In case o f a collision o f the ship, stop the main engine. Activate the Record the events and status o f the main engine.
emergency general alarm. The engine room should be immediately
manned in case f UM S mode. Check if there is any ingress o f water Check the following : crank case inspection and deflections if
into the engine room. Take the soundings o f all double bottom tanks necessary, stem tube system condition and leakages, steering gear,
to check that they are intact. Keep all fire fighting gear on standby. and all sea w ater coolers and filters.
Check for oil pollution around the ship. Check all machinery to see if
they are affected especially the electrical plant. R eport to the bridge Sudden Overspeeding
the condition o f the engine room , the main engine and the auxiliaries. Sudden overspeeding can be caused b y :
The Master will then assess the danger o f sinking, capsizing or flooding. Fuel racks getting stuck.
The designated person ashore, the superintendent o f the ship and the A faulty governor.
port authorities are to be informed. Racing or jum ping o f the propeller in bad weather.
354 355
Marine Diesel Engines Watch Keeping And Safety
356 357
Marine Diesel Engines Watch Keeping And Safety
Less air supply to the engine due to fouled gas o r air side o f the Blow past o f piston rings.
turbocharger; fouled air cooler; faulty scavenge valves in the air
E ngine Speed Drops
receiver; fouled scavenge ports; or fouled exhaust gas economizer.
This can occur because o f :
O verloaded running conditions. C heck load indicator, exhaust
Fuel pressure after the booster pump is too low.
temperatures and peak pressures.
Fuel pump defective or a fuel piping fault.
Excessive cylinder lubrication.
Incorrect fuel injection.
Injection nozzles n o t atom izing the fuel completely, e.g. due to
carbon trum pet form ation and eroded or blocked spray holes. Fouling o f air or exhaust passages.
Incorrect fuel temperature o r viscosity, or a shift in the individual Fuel air lock, gassing, water in the fuel, or poor fuel combustion.
fuel cams. Scavenge fire.
Com pression pressure too low d ue to leaking piston rings or Governor problem.
exhaust valve.
Too low turbocharger rpm. O ne U nit E xh a u st Temperature Drops
This can occur because o f :
Scavenge fire.
Afaulty thermometer.
Less fuel supplied due to faulty fuel injection pump, pipes, injector
A ll Cylinders E x h a u st Tem perature Increase
or timings; o r a shift in the fuel cams.
This can occur because o f fouling in turbocharger, air cooler, intake
Exhaust valve does not open due to the actuator pum p o r piping
air filter, scavenge valves in the air receiver, scavenge ports or exhaust
passages. Incorrect fuel timings, bad quality fuel or inadequate fuel being defective.
treatment also result in increased exhaust temperatures.
358 359
Marine Diesel Engines Watch Keeping And Safety
360 361
Marine Diesel Engines Watch Keeping And Safety
Start air distributor piston is sticking. Suction o r spill valves leaking or stuck.
Start air distributor is wrongly adjusted. Pum p push rods jam m ed or fuel cams displaced or incorrect
Start air distributor control valve is sticking. timings.
Fuel pump relief valve leaking.
Cylinder air start valves are defective or sticky.
Violent Start
E n g in e Turns O n Air, B u t N o t O n F u el This occurs due to:
This can occur because o f : Speed setting is too high. It injects too much fuel for the start.
In B& W engines, the puncture valves are not properly vented. Fuel setting or timings are wrong.
Fuel regulating linkage jam m ed or held back by the stop cylinder.
Cylinderisexcessivelylubricatedcausinganaccumulationofcylinder
Fuel lever on local maneuvering stand is not on remote mode. oil.
G overnor is defective and does n ot release the fuel linkage, or Auxiliary blowers w ere not running earlier causing fuel oil
there is no boost air to the governor. accumulation rather than blowing away fuel vapours (like purging).
Rotary valve o f the rotation direction safeguard is sticking.
Shut down o f fuel pumps. N o t R eversing p r Starting I n O nly O ne D irection
This can occur because o f :
Fuel filter is blocked or fuel pum p index is too low.
Start air valve for that unit may be sticking. The remedy is to give a
Pre-set control air signal to the governor is too low. kick in the opposite direction. Now a different unit will receive
start air due to the change in the crank position.
E ng in e D oes N o t F ire The reverse control valve is jammed.
This occurs due t o : The reversing servomotor o f the fuel or start air distributor is jammed
Less fuel being injected or the speed setting knob is set too low. or gets stuck before reaching a new end position due to insufficient
Governor does not release the regulating linkage. oil pressure. Therefore the engine turns on air, but no fuel is released
V IT & FQS functions are too late. as the rotation direction safeguard blocks it.
Start air pressure is insufficient to turn the engine fast enough. If the engine is running in one direction and reversed, propeller
Fuel is unsuitable o r its viscosity high. continues to turn in that direction. Therefore, m ore air and fuel is
Compression pressure is too low due to faulty piston ring sealing required for starting against the propeller force (first to bring the
or exhaust valve closing. propeller to standstill like braking). If the engine still does not start,
Fuel pum p defect. Check the cut-out device, jam m ed plunger or the propeller m ay tend to turn the engine in the original direction
clearances. i.e. opposite to the given m ovement. Therefore the rotational
Injector nozzle needle sticking o r holes blocked. direction safeguard blocks the fuel.
362 363
Marine Diesel Engines
Watch Keeping And Safety
364 365
Marine Diesel Engines Watch Keeping And Safety
A c tio n : Check the crankcase w alls for carbon deposits, leaking from
Cut-out the fuel pump, increase cylinder lubrication and stop the diaphragm.
engine. Check the crankpin and web alignment mark.
C ontinue cylinder lubrication and turning even after engine is All bolts, nuts and locking marks.
stopped to prevent seizure.
Crankcase relief door.
O pen and dism antle the piston. If slight scoring is seen on the Any discolourisation signifying hot spots.
piston, then smoothen with an oil stone (carborundium stone) and
Clearances o f bearings.
an emery cloth. Check cylinder lubrication and piston clearances
after inspection.
Individual Piston K nocking A t TDC
C a u ses:
Cracked C ylinder H ead
Early fuel injection due to incorrect fuel pum p or fuel cam
Causes :
adjustment
Excessive tightening o f cylinder head cover studs, combined with
Overloaded engine unit. Check effective delivery stroke of
thermal stresses.
respective fuel pump.
Corrosion at the combustion surface o f the cylinder head.
Fuel valve nozzle sticking.
Normal expansion facility for the cylinder head is restricted.
Fouled cylinder orunsuitable fuel.
Inflexible structure under firing.
Top piston ring strikes against the ridge worn a t the cylinder
Defect in cylinder head casting. liner top.
Indications: Excessive clearances between piston and cylinder.
Knocking in the cylinder. Excessive bearing clearance o f running gear.
Jacket cooling w ater temperature increases. Running gear bolts have loosened.
Jacket cooling w ater pressure fluctuates. The piston may be striking against the cylinder head cover at TDC.
Expansion tank level may drop.
Sparks from funnel. Bearing Temperature Increase
Causes
C ra n k Case In spection Checks Low lube oil pressure supply to bearing or low oil level in supply
W hite metal particles or foreign particles in the lube oil. tank.
Colour o f the lube oil and oil flow. Air lock in the lube oil or lubricating grooves obstructed.
Check for white metal squeezing at bearings. Oil piping defective or lube oil valves shut.
366 367
Watch Keeping And Safety
Drain cock in the trunking o f the exhaust gas boiler. Differential pressure low alarm.
Drain cock at the turbine housing to make sure that no water is A ir vent at the cooler.
coming to the turbine.
A ir vent at the discharge filter.
M anom eter at inlet and outlet o f exhaust gas boiler and a safety
valve. F u e l O il System
Drains at the service tanks, settling tanks, filters, mixing column
Piston C ooling System
andheaters.
Low pressure cut out approximately 2 bar.
Relief valves at the booster pump discharge, heater, common inlet
High inlet temperature slow down alarm at 60 deg.C and shut down
manifold to the pump and on the individual fuel pump.
at 65 deg.C.
Fuel high temperature alarm at 120 deg.C.
Low level alarm in the cooling water drain tank.
Low Fuel temperature alarm at 85 deg.C.
Sight glass at every unit with a piston cooling non-flow alarm.
Viscometer, thermometer and pressure gauges.
Jac k e t C ooling System
Low inlet pressure shut down at approximately 2 bar. Starting A ir System
High outlet tem perature slow down at 90 deg C and alarm at 85 Bottle
deg C . Relief valve set at 32 bar.
Low level alarm in the expansion tank. Fusible plug.
Sight glass in the expansion tank. Drain cock and pressure gauges.
A ir separator and v e n t Non return, stop, and isolating valves.
L ubricating O il System A ir Compressor
Sump low and high level alarm. Low pressure (first stage) and high pressure (second stage) relief
M ain lube oil pressure low alarm at 2.2 b a r and shut down valves.
at 2 bar. Non-return valve at compressor outlet to air bottle.
Lube oil outlet temperature alarm at 50 deg.C and slow down at Corrosion resistant bursting disc o r relief valve in the coolers
55 deg.C. on the water side.
R elief valves at the discharge side of both pum ps connecting Air discharge high temperature cut-out
the discharge side back to the suction side.
Cooling water high temperature cut-out.
Pressure gauges after cooler and after discharge filter.
Low lube oil pressure cut-out.
370 371
Marine Diesel Engines
Watch Keeping And Safety
Start A ir Line
Flam e tra p , bursting disc cap o r a relief valve. cock with main air from bottle open, and admitting start air to engine.
Automatic shut-off master valve. The engine does not turn on air, since the air to distributor is shut, but
Non-return start air valves. as a safety measure in case o f a leaking start air valve, the turning gear
Drain cock in the manifold and at other parts. has to be disengaged.
372
373
Marine Diesel Engines
BIBLIO G RA PH Y
In B & W engines, puncture valves are fitted on the top o f each
fuel pump, which spill the high pressure oil back to suction side of
1. KANE, A.B.
the pump.
Marine Internal Combustion Engines, 1973.
In medium speed auxiliary generator engines, fly weights using
Prevention of Crankcase Explosions in Marine Diesels, 1969.
centrifugal force activate a stop cylinder to push back the fuel racks.
Reversing Gears o f Marine Diesels, 1965.
2. VANCHIED, V.A.
Marine Internal Combustion Engines, 1957.
3. MASLOV, V.V.
Slow Speed Diesel Auxiliaries, 1968.
5.M U N T O N R ., M cNAUGHTJ.
Automation o f Highly Powered Diesel Machinery, 1966.
7. CHRISTENSEN, S.G.
Lambs questions and answers on the Marine Diesel Engine, 1990.
8. COWLEY, J.
The running and maintenance o f Marine Machinery,1994.
374
Marine Diesel Engines
INDEX
specific cylinder lube oil, 169 PMI transducer, 286 starting problems, 361 setting, adjustment, 236
Conventional VIT, 145 sensor, 283 telegraph, 342 suction and spill control, 133
Cooling system Cylinder relief valve lifting, 357 Entabulature, 24 suction control, 131
function, 173 Excess air coefficient, 311 Fuel quality setting, 140
piston cooling, 175 D Exhaust gas Fuel timings, incorrect, 356
treatment. 175 Dampers, 213 grouping, 89 Fuel valve
Crankcase explosion, relief valve, 351 Dead band, 320 recirculation, 303 conventional type, 291
inspection, 366 Decarbonisation, 215 temperature rise, drop, 359 functioning, 276
Crankshaft Delay, ignition, injection, 118 Exhaust valve, 51 mini-sac type, 291
deflections, 63 Destructive, non-destructive tests, 250 failures, 57 slide type, 291
failures, 61 Detuners, 213 materials, 152 Fuel, water emulsion, 303
fully built up, 58 Developments, removal, 218 Funnel sparks, 357
fully welded, 60 combustion chamber, 296 rotators, 55
materials, 61 crosshead, 298 seat profile, 54 G
semi-built up, 59 cylinder lubrication, 297 springs, 53 Gas exchange process, 84
solid single piece, 60 engine components, 298 type, 52 Governor effect, 320
stresses, 62 exhaust system, 296 Exhaust, smoky, 358 Governor
Crash manoeuvring, 195 fuel system, 291 compensation range, rate, 334
Critical speed, 211 liner, 296 F effect, 320
Crosshead piston, 297 Fatigue failures, 21 electric, 333
bearing clearance, 234 scavenge system, 296 Fire ring, 296 electronic, 337
bearing removal, 227 SFOC, 298 Firing function, isochronous, 329
developments, 76 stroke bore ratio, 298 interval, 178 load limiter knob, 335
failures, 76 turbocharger system, 292 order, 188 local speed setting knob, 334
pin removal, 229 Droop, 336 Flame hardening, 251 mechanical, hydraulic, 331
Cycles Flash point, fire point, 112 speed droop knob, 337
2-stroke, 9 E Flooding, 355 variable speed, droop, 329
4-stroke, 12 Efficiency, volumetric, 105 Flywheel, 207 Grounding, 355
dual, actual, 7 Electronic control, 261, 278 Friction, types, 151
otto, diesel, 6 Electronic profiled injection, 279 Fuel H
Cylinder head Emissions, 301 definitions, 110 Hardening, 251
cover, 50 Engine specifications, 116 Hunting, 320
crack, 366 diagnostic system, 285 types, 109 Hydraulic nut, removal, 217
defects, 51 forces, 205 Fuel injector valve, 125 Hydrocarbon, 305
materials, 50 knocking, 367, 368 overhaul, 244
removal, 216 protection, 342 Fuel limiters, 339 I
Cylinder lubrication, 283 remote control, 340 Fuel pump timing, 4-stroke, 241 Imbalance, primary, secondary, 209
load-dependent, 167 reversing problems, 363 Fuel pump, Indicated horse power, 308
multi-level, 170 room watch, round, 345 cut-out, lead, 239 Indicator diagrams, 318
Cylinder oil, types, 163 speed drop, 359 cut-out, zero-checks, 238 analysis, 323
Cylinder pressure speed fluctuation, 356 port control, 134 Indicator instrument, 322
Marine Diesel Engines Marine Diesel Engines
faults, 327
Induction hardening, 251
testing, 156 2-stroke, 4-stroke, 34
composite, 33
Q
Quenching, 251
types, 151
Injection Lubricators, 166, 169 crack, 364 Quills, 48, 164
electronic, 136 hot, 365
pilot, 135 M inspection, 221 R
twin, 136 Main bearing, jet-shaker effect, 30 RD, RND, RTA engine differences, 253
Intelligent engine, 259, 278 clearances, 232 knocking, 367 Residual fuels, 122
Internal combustion engines, 1 removal, 225 materials, 31 Reversing, 189
Maintenance planning system, 285 mounting, 223 methods, 190
J Manoeuvring oros, 32, 297 roller shifting, 276
Jacket water diagram, 198 removal, 220 RT-flex engines, 254
pressure, temperature rise, 360 flowchart, 197 defects, 35 RTA engines, 254
Material rotating, 35 Running direction interlock, 195
K engine, 78 water, oil-cooled, 30, 32- Running gear hot, 361
Knock, 118 testing, 250 Piston ring, Running-in, 40
ME engines, 278 anti-polishing ring, 43
L Mean effective pressure, 307 broken, 365
cleaning ring, 43
s
Light spring diagram, analysis, 326 Mean indicated pressure, 307 Safety
Liner, 45 Mean piston speed , 2 clearance, 222 cut-out device, 200
bore-cooled, 174 Mechanical efficiency, 308 coatings, 42 margins, 316
calibration, 225 Microbial degradation, 161 collapse, 38 Safeties
crack, 365 Motion, loss, gain, 194 compression type, 36 crankcase, scavenge, 369
failures, 49 CPR type, 42 cylinder head; manifold, 369
inspection, 224 N flutter, 38 fuel oil system, 371
load-dependent cooling, 174 Nitriding, 251 life, 43 jacket cooling system, 370
removal, 224 Normalising, 251 manufacture, 41 lube oil system, 370
Liner wear NOx, 302 oil scraper type, 37 piston cooling system, 370
corrosive, abrasive, 47 scuffing material, 40 start air system, 371
friction, clover leaf, 47 o
Octane number, 114
shapes, 41
SIPWA, 44
Scavenge
air limiter, 188
diagram, 314 Oil spill, 354 Planimeter, 319
sharing, 335 Opposed piston, 82 Power, 310 Scavenging
Lubrication Over speeding, 355 rated, gross, overload, loop, cross, 82
boundary, 152 Over speeding, safeguards, 373 minimum, continuous, reverse flow, 82
crosshead, 171 Overlap, 179 maximum continuous, uniflow, 81
cylinder, 162 normal, astern output, , Sea trials, 312
elasto-hydrodynamic, 152 P Power loss, 356 Selective catalytic reduction, 304
function, 149 Penetration, 119 Power take in, off, 92 Sensitivity, 320
hydrodynamic, 151 Pinching, clamping screws, 24, 248 Pressure changing, 85 Stuffing gland, 44
hydrostatic, 151 Pipe, high pressure, 147 Propeller curve, 314 Slow turning, 188
properties, 152 Piston Puncture value, 275,77 SMC engines, 271
Marine Diesel Engines
S H R O F F P U B L IS H E R S &
D I S T R I B U T O R S P V T. L T D .