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The Geology and Geochemistry of Uranium and

Thorium Deposits

Mineralogical Association of Canada


Short Course Series Volume 46

Published jointly by the


Mineralogical Association of Canada (MAC) and the
Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits (SGA)

by

Michel Cuney
CREGU, UMR GeoRessources & Universit de Lorraine
Domaine Scientifique Victor Grignard
Vanduvre-ls-Nancy, France

and

Kurt Kyser
Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering
Queens University
Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6

Short Course sponsored by the Mineralogical Association of Canada,


and delivered at the Joint Assembly of the GAC, MAC, and AGU
Montreal, Quebec, 1-2 May, 2015
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ix

1. Nuclear fuel cycles and the economics of uranium 1

2. Uranium deposit types: New classifications 14

3. Geochemical characteristics of uranium and thorium and analytical methodologies 39

4. Radioactivity, heat production and natural reactors 85

5. Magmatic processes involved in uranium deposit formation 99

6. Metasomatic and metamorphichydrothermal uranium deposits 139

7. Low to medium temperature hydrothermal uranium deposits 169

8. Basins and uranium deposits 225

9. Deposits related to low-temperature processes 305

10. Thorium deposits 319

11. Exploration Strategies and the Future of Uranium and Thorium as Energy Resources 335

iii
DETAILED LIST OF CONTENTS

1. NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLES AND THE ECONOMICS OF URANIUM KURT KYSER & MICHEL CUNEY 1

OVERVIEW OF URANIUM 1
NUCLEAR POWER AND THE FUEL CYCLE 2
Concerns about nuclear power 4
THORIUM 5
ECONOMIC FACTORS 6
ECONOMICS OF DEPOSIT TYPES 9
MINES AND RESOURCES 11
SYNOPSIS 12
REFERENCES 13

2. URANIUM DEPOSIT TYPES: NEW CLASSIFICATIONS KURT KYSER & MICHEL CUNEY 14

INTRODUCTION 14
THE 2014 IAEA CLASSIFICATION OF URANIUM DEPOSITS 16
The main uranium deposit types 16
Subtypes and classes 16
1) Intrusive-type deposits 16
2) Granite-related deposits 16
3) Polymetallic iron oxide breccia complex deposits 16
4) Volcanic-related deposits 18
5) Metasomatite deposits 18
6) Metamorphite deposits 18
7) Proterozoic unconformity deposits 19
8) Collapse breccia type deposits 19
9) Sandstone deposits 19
10) Paleo-quartz pebble conglomerate deposits 19
11) Surficial deposits 20
12) Lignite coal deposits 20
13) Carbonate deposits 20
14) Phosphate deposits 20
15) Black shale deposits 20
URANIUM DEPOSIT CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON GENESIS 20
Magmatic deposits (M) 21
Magmatic crystal fractionation processes (MCF) 21
Partial melting (MPM) 24
Hydrothermal deposits (H) 24
Volcanichydrothermal systems 24
Granitehydrothermal systems (GH) 24
Hydrothermal diagenetic systems (HD) 25
Hydrothermal metamorphic systems (HMp) 27
Hydrothermal metasomatic systems (HM) 27
Na-metasomatism-related deposits (HMNa) 27
K-metasomatism-related deposits (HMtK) 28
Skarn-related deposits (HMSk) 28
Meteoric water infiltration-related deposits (M) 28
Basal-type (MB) 29
Roll fronts deposits (Mrf) 29

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Synsedimentary deposits (S) 29
Mechanical sorting-related synsedimentary deposits (SMs) 29
Redox trapping in marine environments (SRtm) 29
Redox trapping in continental environments (SRtc) 30
Crystal chemical and redox trapping-related deposits (SCcr) 30
Evapotranspiration-related deposits (E) 30
Other Types (O) 30
REFERENCES 30

3. GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF URANIUM AND THORIUM AND ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGIES


KURT KYSER & MICHEL CUNEY 39

URANIUM IN ROCKS AND MINERALS 39


AQUEOUS GEOCHEMISTRY OF URANIUM 40
Low temperatures 40
High temperatures 42
URANIUM SOLUBILITY IN SILICATE MELTS AND MAGMATIC FLUIDS 43
Uranium in fluids from granite 45
Application to Natural Examples 45
ALTERATION OF URANIUM MINERALS 46
Mobility of uranium in groundwater 47
BIOGEOCHEMISTRY OF URANIUM 48
Uranium and human health 49
THORIUM 49
Thorium Distribution on Earth 50
THORIUM TRANSPORT 50
THORIUM DEPOSITION 52
THORIUM MINERALOGY 52
Thorium Silicates 52
Uranothorite 52
Allanite 55
Thorium-bearing oxides 57
Thorianite 57
Th-bearing NbTaTi oxides 57
Aeschynite and euxenite group minerals 57
Pyrochlore group minerals 57
Samarskite group minerals 57
Fergusonite group minerals 57
Thorium Phosphates 57
Monazite 57
Xenotime 58
Fluorapatite 58
Thorium-bearing Carbonates 58
Bastnaesite 58
ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGIES 58
Radiogenic isotopes and uranium ore deposits 58
Decay schemes 59
The age equation 59
UPb systems 63
SmNd systems 65
KAr and ArAr systems 65
Radiogenic isotopes as Tracers 66

v
Stable isotope geochemistry 67
Application of stable isotope geochemistry to uranium 70
New isotope systems 71
Fluid inclusion studies 73
REFERENCES 76

4. RADIOACTIVITY, HEAT PRODUCTION AND NATURAL REACTORS MICHEL CUNEY &


KURT KYSER 85

RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIOACTIVE DECAY 85


MEASURING RADIATION EXPOSURE 87
HEAT FLOW AND ENERGETICS OF THE EARTH 87
NUCLEAR RADIATION EFFECTS IN MINERALS 89
Radiation damage in a U- or Th-rich crystal 89
Pleochroic haloes 90
Irradiation of mineral oils 90
Radiation-induced coloration in minerals 91
Radiation damage in quartz 91
OTHER EFFECTS AND APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY 91
Autoradiography 91
Fission track dating 92
Induced fission tracks 93
Radon emission 93
Helium emission 94
Water radiolysis 94
THE NATURAL NUCLEAR REACTORS OF OKLO 94
REFERENCES 95

5. MAGMATIC PROCESSES INVOLVED IN URANIUM DEPOSIT FORMATION MICHEL CUNEY &


KURT KYSER 99

INTRODUCTION 99
MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION 100
Ilmaussaq (South Greenland) 100
Regional geology 100
Geochemistry 102
Uranium mineralization 104
Resource estimations 106
Bokan Mountain (USA) 107
Regional geology 107
Geology of the pluton 107
Geochemistry 109
Uranium mineralization 109
Genetic model 112
Other occurrences of albitic episyenite 113
Other world occurrences of mineralized peralkaline granite 113
Albiteriebeckite granite plutons of Kaffo Valley, Nigeria 113
The Ghurayyah deposit, Saudi Arabia 113
Poos de Caldas UMoZr mineralization (Brazil) 113
Thor Lake (Canada) 117
Palabora carbonatite (South Africa) 118

vi
PARTIAL MELTING 118
Introduction 118
The Rssing Deposit (Namibia) 118
General Geology 118
General characteristics of the U mineralization 123
Alaskite geochemistry 124
Parameters controlling the formation of the Rssing deposit 125
Origin of the mineralized alaskites 128
Other world occurrences of Rssing-type mineralization 129
Archean Occurrences 129
Hudsonian s.l. occurrences 130
Grenvillian occurrences 131
Pan-African Occurrences 131
REFERENCES 132

6. METASOMATIC AND METAMORPHICHYDROTHERMAL URANIUM DEPOSITS MICHEL CUNEY &


KURT KYSER 139

INTRODUCTION 139
URANIUM DEPOSITS RELATED TO NA-METASOMATISM 139
General characteristics 139
The central Ukraine province 141
Regional geology 141
Mineral paragenesis 142
Uranium minerals 144
Geochemistry of metasomatite 144
ThUREE geochemistry 145
The Krivoy Rog district 146
The Michurinkoe deposit 147
Resources 148
Genetic model 148
Lagoa Real (Bahia, Brazil) 149
Regional geology 149
Lagoa Real granite 150
Na-metasomatism 150
Uranium mineralization 151
Geochemistry 152
Genetic model 155
Other world occurrences of uranium deposits associated with Na-metasomatism 155
Valhalla (NW Queensland, Australia) 155
Skuppesavon (northern Sweden) 156
URANIUM DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH K-METASOMATISM 156
Introduction 156
Geologic setting 157
Alteration 157
Mineralization 157
Genetic model 159
SKARNS 159
URANIUM DEPOSITS RELATED TO VERY HIGH-TEMPERATURE METASOMATISM:
TRANOMARO, MADAGASCAR 159
Regional geology 159

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Metasomatic skarns 160
ThU mineralization 161
Genetic Model 161
HYDROTHERMAL METAMORPHIC URANIUM DEPOSITS 162
REFERENCES 163

7. LOW TO MEDIUM TEMPERATURE HYDROTHERMAL URANIUM DEPOSITS 169

INTRODUCTION 169
IGNEOUS ROCK TYPES AND URANIUM METALLOGENESIS 169
Peraluminous leucogranite and volcanic rocks 170
Highly fractionated calcalkaline granite 170
S-type granite 171
The Guret type biotite-cordierite granite (G-type) 171
Two mica leucogranite (L-type) 171
Peralkaline granite, syenite and volcanic rocks 172
High K calc-alkaline granite 173
INTRA- AND PERI-GRANITIC URANIUM DEPOSITS 174
Relations between Variscan granite types and U mineralization 175
Radioelement distribution in the Variscan crust 176
Characterization of the protoliths of U-enriched peraluminous leucogranite 176
Successive fractionation in the Saint Sylvestre granite complex 178
Relations between magmatic U enrichments and hydrothermal deposits 183
Alteration and uranium mobility 183
Characteristics of vein uranium deposits 185
OTHER VEIN-TYPE URANIUM DEPOSITS 186
METALLOGENETIC MODELS FOR THE VARISCAN GRANITE RELATED URANIUM
DEPOSITS 186
VOLCANIC-RELATED URANIUM DEPOSITS 186
The Streltsovskoye caldera (Transbaikalia, Russia) 188
Geological setting 188
Uranium distribution in granite 190
Uranium deposits 192
Uranium sources 194
Other volcanic-related uranium districts of Asia 195
Dornot (northeastern Mongolia) 196
China 196
Other volcanic-related uranium districts of the world 196
The U-Mo Kitts-Michelin deposit 196
Th-U-REE Rexpar deposit 197
U-Zr-F Moonlight and U-Hg Aurora deposits 197
U-Mo-F Marysvale deposit 197
Lakeview district U mineralization 197
U-Be-Li-F Spor Mountain mineralization 197
U-Mo mineralization of the Sierra Pea Blanca 198
U-Mo Ben Lomond deposit 198
U-Mo-Sn-F Maureen uranium deposit 198
Arjeplog-Arvidsjaur U province 198
Duobblon deposit 198
Skuppesavon U district 198
Macusani U mineralization 199
Los Frailes U occurrences 199

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La Puna U mineralization 199
Novazza (U-Mo-Zn ) and Val Vedello (U, Cu, Pb, Zn, Sb, As, and Hg) deposits 199
Vulsini and Vico calderas 199
U deposits related to volcanic rocks in Bulgaria 200
MODEL FOR URANIUM DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANISM 200
Nature of the magmatism 200
Melt chemistry recorded by magmatic inclusion 200
Nature of the volcanic system 201
OLYMPIC DAM 201
Geological setting 201
The Roxby Downs Granite 202
The Gawler Range Volcanics 202
The IOCG mineralization 202
Uranium mineralization 202
LOW TO MEDIUM TEMPERATURE HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSITS HOSTED IN METAMORPHIC
ROCKS WITHOUT CLEAR RELATIONS WITH GRANITES 203
Beaverlodge district 203
Introduction 203
Geology 203
Deposits 205
Genesis of the Beaverlodge deposits 207
Schwartzwalder deposit 209
Introduction 209
Alteration 209
Mineralization 209
Source 209
Ore-forming processes 210
Midnite deposit 210
Geological Setting 210
The Midnite ore body 210
Ore deposit model 210
REFERENCES 211

8. BASINS AND URANIUM DEPOSITS 225

BASINS AND EARTH EVOLUTION 225


UNCONFORMITY-RELATED DEPOSITS 226
Proterozoic Basins Why so much uranium? 227
ATHABASCA BASIN 229
General geology 229
Alteration 232
Uranium deposits 235
Constraints on source of fluids 238
Timing of fluid events and their relationship to mineralization 241
Genetic models and modeling 242
THELON BASIN, CANADA 245
Geologic setting 245
Sedimentology and stratigraphy 245
Uranium deposits 248
Paragenesis and fluid evolution in the Thelon Basin 249
KOMBOLGIE BASIN, AUSTRALIA 252
Sedimentology and stratigraphy 254

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Paragenesis and fluid evolution in the Kombolgie Basin 255
Uranium depoists 257
Jabiluka 257
Nabarlek 260
Westmoreland 261
Timing and spatial extent of the mineralizing fluids 263
OTHER BASINS HOSTING UNCONFORMITY-RELATED MINERALIZATION 265
Hornby Bay 265
Otish Basin 266
Karku, Russia 268
Franceville Basin, Gabon 271
CONCLUSIONS 273
SANDSTONE-HOSTED DEPOSITS 274
Basal-type 276
Tabular-type 277
Uravan Mineral Belt and Colorado Plateau 281
Monument ValleyWhite Canyon districts 282
Powder River Basin, Wyoming 283
Asia 283
Roll-front type 284
Tectonic/lithologic type 286
Solution collapse breccia-type deposits, Arizona, USA 286
Shinkolobwe, D.R. Congo 288
Kazakhstan 289
Niger 289
REFERENCES 289

9. DEPOSITS RELATED TO LOW-TEMPERATURE PROCESSES 305

LOW-TEMPERATURE DEPOSITS 305


Quartz-pebble conglomerate uranium deposits 305
Blind River-Elliot Lake district 306
The Witwatersrand Basin 308
Koli 310
Surficial uranium deposits 310
Calcrete-hosted uranium deposits 310
Phosphate and shale deposits 313
Lignite-coal deposits 314
Wetland deposits 314
Seawater 315
REFERENCES 315

10. THORIUM DEPOSITS MICHEL CUNEY & KURT KYSER 319

INTRODUCTION 319
WORLD RESOURCES 321
THORIUM DEPOSITS 322
Deposits related to crystal fractionation 322
Acidic plutonic, pegmatitic, or volcanic rocks 322
Carbonatites 323
The Bayan Obo deposit 323
The Fen Complex 324
The Arax carbonatite 324

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The Mountain Pass deposit 324
The Poos de Caldas volcano-plutonic complex 324
The Palabora intrusive complex 324
Carbonatite occurrences in Australia 325
Deposits related to partial melting 325
Deposits related to metasomatic systems 325
Deposits related to high temperature hydrothermal fluids 326
Uranothorite veins 326
Monazite veins 328
Syn-sedimentary deposits 328
Coastal placers 328
Dunes 329
Offshore Placers 329
Stream Placers 329
Fossil Placers 329
Metamorphosed Placers 329
Coal, lignite 330
CONCLUSIONS 330
REFERENCES 330

11. EXPLORATION STRATEGIES AND THE FUTURE OF URANIUM AND THORIUM AS ENERGY
RESOURCES 335

COMMON DENOMINATORS 335


Timing is everything 335
Knowledge of the nature of the fluids 336
Gradients in redox environments 336
The source of uranium 336
Carbon is an effective reductant for fixing uranium 337
Mineralogy 337
Sedimentology 337
Structures 337
Uranium deposits are geochemical anomalies 337
RADIATION SAFETY REGULATIONS 338
CASE STUDY APPLICATIONS 338
Geology 338
Remote sensing 338
Geophysics 338
Geochemistry 340
REFERENCES 343

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PREFACE

The Mineralogical Association of Canada this support and these companies are warmly
(MAC) has been an ardent supporter of short thanked for their support.
courses, particularly on uranium having During this time in the former Soviet Union,
sponsored a short course volume in 1978 entitled uranium geologists were considered critical, so
Uranium Deposits: Their Mineralogy and that research continued. During the 1990s, other
Origin and edited by M.M. Kimberley and nations such as Japan, India and China continued
another volume in 2008 entitled Recent and not- their research efforts as nuclear energy was
so-recent developments in uranium deposits and strategic in their energy mix. Research supported
implications for exploration and written by M. by state agencies and the IAEA continued during
Cuney and K. Kyser, and a volume in 2013 this time on aspects of the geochemistry of
entitled Uranium Cradle to Grave, edited by uranium in solution and in the environment (e.g.
Peter Burns and Ginger Sigmon. These proved to Grenthe et al., 1992). Studies of the Oklo natural
be among the most popular short course volumes reactors in Gabon (e.g. Gauthier Lafaye et al.
ever for MAC, with the latter two volumes used 1996), the Cigar Lake deposit in the Athabasca
in both undergraduate and graduate courses on Basin (e.g. Cramer and Smellie 1994), and Poos
mineral deposits geology and by the exploration de Caldas in Brazil (e.g. Chapman et al. 1991)
industry. There have been various conferences were undertaken as natural analogs for the long
supported by international uranium concerns such term disposal of nuclear waste in geologic
as the International Atomic Energy Agency formations and remediation of closed uranium
(IAEA), but MAC is among the few professional mines (Merkel et al. 2006).
organizations that see value in promoting a The purpose of this short course is to
knowledge base for uranium deposits. Other highlight data and research that have recently
organizations, such as the Prospectors and developed and place these results in a framework
Developers Association of Canada, Saskatchewan of the extensive knowledge base for uranium and
Energy and Resources, Mineralogical Society of thorium, as well as discuss new techniques and
America, Canadian Institute of Mining, ideas that can be integrated into effective
Metallurgy, and Petroleum and CREGU have exploration strategies for uranium. New models
supported short courses and conferences on developed for different deposits and the
uranium, with most of these occurring a few years mechanisms that control their genesis are central
ago in response to the renewed interest in themes in this short course volume as is the
uranium as an alternative energy source. An addition of thorium in this discussion. This
international group of scientists (Grenthe et al., volume is divided into the following chapters:
1992) supported by the NEA and OECD 1. Nuclear Fuel Cycles and the Economics of
published the only available compilation of Uranium discusses the discovery of uranium,
selected thermodynamic data on uranium in 1992. which countries have the greatest reserves, who
A lack of interest in uranium by the mining uses nuclear energy, and what is the nuclear fuel
industry and subsequently by the research cycle. The interplay between the market price of
community was largely the result of the low spot uranium and exploration are discussed. As a
price since 1987, which has continued except for commodity, interest in uranium is driven by its
a short resurgence in 2008. Low uranium prices spot price, although the spot price serves only as a
have a ripple effect in that not only are guide for the value of uranium because most of
expenditures in exploration for uranium the uranium sold for use in reactors is brokered
depressed, but support for research in uranium through long-term contracts.
deposit studies also decreases. Despite the demise
2. New Classifications of Deposit Types
in uranium exploration and support for research,
discusses how deposits can be classified based on
some government organizations and companies
both their genesis and geological characteristics.
that specialized in uranium such as Uranerz,
What are the types of deposits and in which
Cameco and Cogema (now AREVA) continued to
geological environments are they found. In
support research, albeit at a reduced level. The
reality, this section is focused on the natural
authors of this volume are among those who
uranium cycle and how various environments are
continued with their research on uranium through

xii
conducive to accumulating significant They are related to medium to low temperature
concentrations of uranium and thorium. hydrothermal remobilization of uranium within
3. Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Uranium granitic, volcanic rocks, and metamorphic rocks
and Thorium consists of a brief review of the and include the diverse hydrothermal deposits in
geochemical properties of uranium and thorium the infamous Beaverlodge area in Canada.
that figure greatly in the development of deposits. 8. Basins and Uranium Deposits examines
Our goal here is not to discuss in detail the uranium mineralization related to sedimentary
geochemistry of uranium and thorium, which are basins. Unconformity-related deposits are
not very well known except by those in the associated with a reduction front near the
processing or disposal industries, but to present unconformity between Proterozoic sandstone
an overview of the stability of uranium and units and underlying metamorphosed basement
thorium in natural fluids at a variety of lithologies. The deposits are structurally hosted
temperatures. either in the basement or in the overlying
sandstone. Models involving the source of
4. Radioactivity, Heat Production and Flux, and
uranium from breakdown of uranium-bearing
Natural Reactors gets at the importance of
phases in altered basement rocks along fault
uranium and thorium in producing radiation and
zones or from an oxidized basinal brine carrying
heat and how this helps scientific research and
uranium leached from detrital phases are also
exploration, how it affects the formation of
discussed, as are the role of paleoaquifers in the
deposits and the structure and color of minerals,
prospectivity of a basin.
how this has led to the existence of natural
reactors in Gabon, and how U and Th bearing These types of deposits were largely
minerals can be dated through a wide variety of replaced in the Phanerozoic by breccia pipes and
techniques. Radiation is also examined as this is sandstone-hosted low-temperature deposits such
both the benefit of uranium and thorium, but also as roll-front, tabular and sedimentary copper
for the reason they are feared. associated deposits. These occur in medium to
coarse-grained sandstone units deposited in a
5. Magmatic Fractionation describes uranium
continental fluvial or marginal marine sedi-
mineralization generated by high temperature
mentary environment such that impermeable
magmatic processes related to magmas and
shale/mudstone units immediately above and
granitoid bodies in migmatitic environments such
below the mineralized sandstone confine fluid
as alaskite. Extreme fractional crystallization of
flow so that uranium can precipitate under
peralkaline magmas can lead to the formation of
reducing conditions within the sandstone because
very large low-grade U and Th resources because
of carbonaceous material, sulfides, hydrocarbons
of the high solubility of U and Th in highly
and interbedded basic volcanic rocks with
depolymerized magmas. The effects of crustal
abundant ferro-magnesian minerals.
melting processes on the production of melts that
host uranium mineralization are examined. 9. Deposits Related to Low Temperature
Processes examines quartz pebble conglomerate
6. Metasomatic Deposits is concerned with high
deposits at Elliot Lake in Canada and the
temperature hydrothermal processes associated
Witwatersrand golduranium deposits in South
with regional Na metasomatism and quartz
Africa, the latter a resource of increasing
dissolution, forming discontinuous occurrences of
importance. Also included as low-temperature
uraniferous Na-metasomatized granite, metasedi-
deposits are surficial deposits in sediments and
mentary or metavolcanic units that extend over
soils, with those in calcrete being the largest
several tens of kilometres. The metasomatic
deposits.
deposits in Ukraine with their significant reserves
10. Thorium Deposits discusses the wide
are also examined. Less common uranium
spectrum of thorium deposit types, how they are
deposits associated with K-metasomatism at
classified, how they form and where they are
Elkon in Siberia and skarns are also reviewed.
this is a relatively new energy commodity that is
7. Low to medium temperature hydrothermal only now beginning to be understood. This
uranium examines granite-related and volcanic- chapter also shows that that the thorium resources
related deposits, a diverse category of deposits can be of the same order of magnitude as the
generally exhibiting vein-type morphology, but uranium resources, despite the much lower
also as disseminated ore in episyenitic bodies. solubility of thorium in most geologic fluids.
xiii
11. Exploration Strategies and the Future of conditions and results of a "critical event" in a
Uranium and Thorium as Energy Resources geologic system, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
discusses what we have learned recently that may 60, 4831-4852,
help us to explore for uranium deposits. The GRENTHE, I., FUGER J., KONINGS, J.M., MULLER,
future use of uranium and thorium are discussed, A. B. & NGUYEN-TRUNG, C., WANNER, H.
with thorium emerging as a viable, but (1992): Chemical Thermodynamics of
technologically challenging resource. Uranium. NEA, OECD, Vienna.
These chapters are by no means meant to be MERKEL, B.J. (2006): Long term fate of uranium
comprehensive as the knowledge base for tailings in mountain areas, in: Merkel, B.J.,
uranium deposits is vast (see for example Hasche-Berger, A. (Eds.), Uranium in the
Dahlkamp 2009, 2010), and that for thorium is environment; mining impact and consequences.
growing rapidly. Unfortunately, much of the Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany,
knowledge on uranium is manifest in the pp. 47-56.
literature from research prior to 1990, and much
of this is outdated. We have learned a great deal GENERAL REFERENCES
in formulating this short course, and we hope that Analytical Chemistry of Uranium (2015): Karpas,
some of this knowledge will be useful to you. Z., CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, Boca
Those interested in uranium and thorium should Raton, FL., 300 pp.
find the list of books in the references, among Australias uranium resources, geology and
many others, to be useful in expanding their development of deposits. 2001: McKay, A.D.
knowledge base. & Mizitis, Y., AGSO-Geoscience Australia,
We are indebted to many for their support of Mineral Resource Report 1, 200 p.
this volume, including the Mineralogical Chemical Thermodynamics of Uranium. 1992:
Association of Canada and the Society for NEA, OECD, Vienna. Grenthe, I., Fuger J.,
Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits for their Konings, J.M., Muller, A.B., Nguyen-Trung,
sponsorship. In particular, Rob Raeside of the C., Wanner, H.
MAC is thanked for his patience and diligence in EXTECH IV : geology and uranium EXploration
editing this volume. Several others at the Queens TECHnology of the Proterozoic Athabasca
Facility for Isotope Research provided Basin, Saskatchewan and Alberta. C.W.
constructive criticism and editorial skills that Jefferson & G. Delaney (ed.), Geological
greatly improved this volume. Survey of Canada, 2007.
IAEA (1994): Decommissioning of Facilities for
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SMELLIE, J.A.T. (1991): The Poos de Caldas 362, Vienna, 186p.
Project: Summary and implications for The extreme diversity of uranium deposits, Cuney
radioactive waste management. Poos de M., Mineralium Deposita, 2009, 44, 39
Caldas Report 15. NAGRA NTB 90-33, SKB TR Nuclear Development Forty Years of Uranium
90-24 & UK DOE WR 90-055. Resources, Production and Demand in
CRAMER, J.J. & SMELLIE, J.A.T. (1994): Final Perspective The Red Book Retrospective.
report of the AECL/SKB Cigar Lake Analog Paris, OECD, 2006.
Study. AECL Technical Report, AECL-10851, Uranium and thorium: The extreme diversity of
Whiteshell, Canada and SKB Technical Report, the resources of the worlds energy minerals.
TR 94-04, Stockholm, Sweden. Cuney M., In Non-renewable resources.
DAHLKAMP, F.J. (2009): Uranium deposits of the Geoscientific and Societal Challenges.
worldAsia. Springer-Verlag Berlin-Heidelberg Springer, 2012.
493 p. Uranium Geochemistry, Mineralogy, Geology,
DAHLKAMP, F.J. (2010): Uranium deposits of the Exploration and Resources. De Vivo, B.,
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Verlag Berlin-Heidelberg 495 p. eds., The Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
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Franceville Basin, Gabon: a review of the
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Uranium in the Environment. Mining Impact and U-Series Geochemistry (2003): Reviews in
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Hasche-Berger, Andrea (Eds.), Springer, 898 p. Henderson, C., Lundstrom, C. & Turner, S.P.,
Uranium Ore Deposits. Dahlkamp, Franz J., eds.), Mineral. Soc. Amer., v. 52.
1993, XI, 460 pp. World distribution of uranium deposits (UDEPO)
Uranium: Mineralogy, Geochemistry and the with uranium deposit classification:
Environment (1999): Reviews in Mineralogy International Atomic Energy Agency, 2009,
(Burns, P.C. & Finch, R., eds.), Mineral. Soc. Vienna, Austria, IAEA-TECDOC-1629, 117
Amer., v. 38. p., http://www-pub. iaea.org/MTCD/
Uranium in the Pine Creek Geosyncline. publications/PDF/TE_1629_ web.pdf.
Ferguson, J., and Goleby, A.B., eds., 1970,
Vienna, International Atomic Energy Agency.
Uranium 2014 Resources, Production and
Demand. Paris : OECD, 2014.

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