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INTRODUCTION TO
GENETICS
Gregor Mendel and his Experiment
Genotype and Phenotypes
Monohybrid Cross
Punnett Square
Genotypic , Phenotypic and Probability Ratio
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Characteristics
These are features you
exhibit physically ( your
looks)
i.e. Eye color, height, ear
attachment
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Traits
The different versions of a
characteristic
Characteristics Traits
Eye Color Black/Brown Blue/Green
Height Short Tall
Earlobes
Free Attached
Attachment
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GENETICS
Study of Heredity
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Heredity
is the
passing on of
traits from
parents to
offspring.
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Dominant Traits
the overpowering form
of the trait
the form of trait that
appears in offspring
inheriting a different kind
of trait from each parent.
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Recessive Trait
the overpowered form of trait
the form of trait that does not
appear in offspring inheriting a
different form of trait from each
parent
the hidden form of the trait
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What determines traits?

Pinaglihian?
Parental blood?
No....No.....No......
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What then?
GENES
A message, or code for one trait
Sections in chromosomes that
determine traits
Occurs in pairs, one from each
parent.
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Gregor Mendel
An Austrian monk
who observed the
inheritance of
certain traits in pea
plants.
Explain some basic
laws in genetics.
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Studied many traits in

pea plants
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Showed how
traits are
passed on
from parents
to offspring
Father of
Genetics
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Seven Traits of Pea Plants

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Why pea plant?

Grow quickly,
Reproduce by self pollination,
Possess characteristics that can
easily be recognized,
Pollination can be controlled
Produce enough offspring.
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Mendels Laws
1. Law of Dominance
2. Law of Independent
Assortment
3. Law of Segregation
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Alleles
The different version of a gene for
the same trait.
i.e.: T and t are alleles of the gene
that controls height in pea plants.

T t
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Law of Independent
Assortment
Mendel studied that inheritance
of two traits at the same time.
The association of traits in a
parent did seem to matter
He concluded that traits are
independently inherited
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Law of Dominance
An allele that controls a trait is
called dominant and allele that
is hidden is called recessive.
Mendel Crossed Pure tall and
pure small pea plant but all the
offspring is tall.
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Law of Independent
Assortment
P F1 F2
Round,
Yellow Seeds
Round and Round and
(both
Yellow Green
dominant All seeds are
traits) round and
Wrinkled, yellow
Green Seed (self-fertilizes)
Wrinkled and Wrinkled and
(both
Yellow Green
recessive
traits)
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Law of Segregation
Mendel hypothesize that genes
separate when gametes form.
States that each pair of alleles
segregates or separates during
meiosis.
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Dominant Genes
It has the power to
overshadow the
recessive gene
Represented by a capital
letter
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Recessive Genes
The gene that is
overshadowed by a dominant
gene
Recessive genes can only
express themselves in the
absence of the dominant gene
Represented by a small letter
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How To Represent The

Genes
Genes are represented by letters
Always use the first letter of the
dominant gene.
Represent the gene of a dominant
trait by a capital letter and small
letter for the gene of a recessive
trait.
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Genotype
genetic classification of a
gene
genetic make up of an
individual
AA, Aa, aa
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Homozygous - contains 2
identical genes for the same
trait
AA, BB, cc, CC
Heterozygous - contains 2
different genes for the same
trait
Aa, Bb, Cc
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Hybrid an organism that

receives a dominant and
recessive alleles from
parents.
Pure-bred an organism
that produces offspring with
the parental trait only.
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Phenotype
appearance of a trait
hair texture
straight or curly
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Genotype VS Phenotype
Genotype Phenotype
Rr Hybrid Red Tomato
CC Curly hair dog
nn Dwarf corn plant
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MONOHYBRID CROSS
also known as one-factor
cross
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Punnett Square
Developed by Reginald
Punnett.
A diagram used to
show the probability
or chances of a certain
trait being passed
from one generation to
another.
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Punnett Square
Is a way to Mothers genes

show which
genes will

Fathers genes
combine when
an egg and
sperm
combine.
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Father: Hybrid Red Dominant: Red

Mother: Hybrid Red Recessive: Orange
R r

R RR Rr
Rr Rr
_____ x _____

r Rr r r
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Reading Punnett squares

Gametes are placed above and to
the left of the square
Offspring are placed in the square.
Capital letters (Y) represent
dominant alleles.
Lower case letters (y) represent
recessive alleles.
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Probability
The likelihood of a
particular event will occur.
Chance
Can be expressed as a
fraction or a percent.
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Expected Results
are what can be predicted in
offspring based on genetic traits of
parents

Observed Results
Traits are actually seen in an
offspring when parents with
certain genetic traits mate.
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Phenotype
Father: Homozygous Tall
Mother: Homozygous dwarf
Genotype
Tall: T Dwarf: t
Given: TT X tt

t t
Genotype: Tt
T Tt Tt Phenotype: Tall
Genotypic Ratio: 4 Tt
Phenotypic Ratio: 4 Tall
T Tt Tt
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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Monohybrid Cross
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Problem I
In mouse black eyed mouse is
dominant to red eyed mouse. If
a hybrid male, black eyed
mouse is crossed with a red
eyed, female mouse. What will
be the expected results
(offspring)?
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Step 1
Identify the Dominant and
Recessive Alleles and assign
the letter to be used.
Dominant Recessive
Traits Black Eyed Red Eyed
Letter
B b
Representation
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Step 2
Write the genotype to
represent the gene.
Male (Father) Female (Mother)
Hybrid Blacked Eyed Red Eyed

Bb bb
Bb X bb
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Step 3
Mother/Female
Make a b b
punnett

Father/Male
square and B
enter the
alleles. b
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Step 4
Complete the Mother/Female
Punnett b b
Square by

Father/Male
combining the B Bb Bb
alleles in the
appropriate b bb bb
boxes
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Step 5
Using the result from step 4 identify
the genotypic ratio and phenotypic
ratio / expected result.
Mother/Female
Genotypic Ratio:
b b 2Bb:2bb
2:2
Father/Male

B Bb Bb
Black eyed Black eyed
Phenotypic Ratio:
2 Black e.:2 Red e.
2:2
b bb bb
Red eyed Red eyed
Probability Ratio:
50% : 50%
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Problem II
A heterozygous, smooth pea
pod plant is crossed with
wrinkled pea pod plant. There
two alleles for pea plant,
smooth the wrinkled. Predict
the offspring from this cross.
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Problem III
In human, acondroplasia dwarfism is dominant
over normal. A homozygous dominant person dies
before the age of one. A heterozygous person is
dwarfed. A homozygous recessive is normal. If a
heterozygous dwarf man marries a dwarf
heterozygous woman
a. What is the probability of having a normal
kid?
b. What is the probability of having a child that
dies at the age of one from this disorder?
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Problem IV
In Dalmatian dogs, the gene for black
spotted dog is dominant over a liver
colored spots. If the breeder crossed
a pure-bred black spotted dog to a
female dog and got offspring of 2
hybrid black spot and 2 pure-bred
black spot. What is the genotype of
the female dog?
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Problem IV
In a cross of yellow seeded plant and
another yellow seeded plant and
produced offspring of which about
25% were green seeded plants. What
are the genotype of the parents?
(yellow is dominant over green)
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Post Laboratory DNA Extraction

EDTA from soap helps break down
cell membranes and release DNA.
salt helps bring the DNA together,
cold alcohol helps the DNA
precipitate and come out of
solution so it can be collected.
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DIHYBRID CROSS
Two-factor cross that
involves two sets of traits
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Mendels Experiment
Does the gene for being tall or
short have anything to do with
the gene for seed color?
Must a wrinkle seed be also
green?
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Problem I
A Hybrid Axial flower position
with pure yellow seed was
crossed with terminal flower
position with green seeds.
Find the phenotypic ratio and
genotypic ratio of the offspring.
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Step 1
Identify the Dominant and
Recessive Alleles and assign
the letter to be used.
Characteristics Dominant Recessive
Flower Position Axial Terminal
Letter Representation A a
Seed Color Yellow Green
Letter Representation Y y
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Step 2
Write the genotype to
represent the gene.
Male (Father) Female (Mother)
Hybrid Axial with pure Terminal with green
yellow seeds seeds

AaYY aayy
AaYY X aayy
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Step 3
Determine the possible
gametes of the parents (P1).
Father (male) Mother (female)
Trait 2 Trait 2

Y Y y y

A AY AY a ay ay
Trait 1
Trait 1

a aY aY a ay ay
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Step 4
Make a Mother/Female
ay ay ay ay
Punnett
AY AaYy AaYy AaYy AaYy
square
and enter Father/Male AY AaYy AaYy AaYy AaYy

the aY aaYy aaYy aaYy aaYy

gametes aY aaYy aaYy aaYy aaYy

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Step 5
Using the result from step 4 identify
the genotypic ratio and phenotypic
ratio / expected result.
AaYy AaYy AaYy AaYy
Genotypic Ratio:
8AaYy:8aaYy
AaYy AaYy AaYy AaYy 8:8
Phenotypic Ratio:
8 Hybrid Axial & Hybrid Yellow :
aaYy aaYy aaYy aaYy 8 Terminal & Hybrid Yellow
8:8
aaYy aaYy aaYy aaYy Probability Ratio:
50% : 50%
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This explains Mendels

Second Law.
That traits are independently
inherited.
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Problem II
A female guinea pig is
heterozygous for both fur color
and coat texture is crossed with a
male that has light fur color and
is heterozygous for coat texture.
Dark fur is dominant over light fur.
Rough coat texture over smooth
coat.
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Problem III
In pea plants, round seed is
dominant over wrinkled and
yellow seed is dominant over
green.
A plant heterozygous for seed
texture and those for seed color is
crossed with a plant that is
wrinkled and heterozygous for
seed color.
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MODIFICATION OF
MENDELIAN PRINCIPLE
Incomplete Dominance
Codominance
Polygenic Traits
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Incomplete Dominance
How does it work?

No
Father trait Mother
overpowers the
other!
Offspring
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Incomplete Dominance
Some genes are not completely
dominant which violates
Mendels first law.
A hybrid individual shows a
phenotype that is intermediate
between the homozygous
phenotype.
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Codominance
Both alleles in a hybrid
organism express
themselves fully.
Example is blood type.
I , I , I , I
A B AB O
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Blood Types
Blood Type Phenotype Genotype

Type A AA or AO IAIA or IAi

Type B BB or BO IBIB or IBi
Type AB AB IAIB
Type O OO ii
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Problem I
One parent has blood
type AB while the other
has blood type O. What
might be the blood types
of the children?
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Problem II
Both parents are blood
type B but they have a
child with blood type O.
What is the genotype of
the blood types of the
parents?
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Incomplete Dominance
Some genes are not completely
dominant which violates
Mendels first law.
A hybrid individual shows a
phenotype that is intermediate
between the homozygous
phenotype.