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Abstract
Three analytical models have been developed for rock bolts: one for bolts subjected to a concentrated pull load in pullout
tests, one for bolts installed in uniformly deformed rock masses, and one for bolts subjected to the opening of individual rock
joints. The development of the models has been based on the description of the mechanical coupling at the interface between the
bolt and the grout medium for grouted bolts, or between the bolt and the rock for frictionally coupled bolts. For rock bolts in
pullout tests, the shear stress of the interface attenuates exponentially with increasing distance from the point of loading when
the deformation is compatible across the interface. Decoupling may start rst at the loading point when the applied load is large
enough and then propagate towards the far end of the bolt with a further increase in the applied load. The magnitude of the
shear stress on the decoupled bolt section depends on the coupling mechanism at the interface. For fully grouted bolts, the shear
stress on the decoupled section is lower than the peak shear strength of the interface, while for fully frictionally coupled bolts it
is approximately the same as the peak shear strength. For rock bolts installed in uniformly deformed rock, the loading process
of the bolts due to rock deformation has been taken into account in developing the model. Model simulations conrm the
previous ndings that a bolt in situ has a pick-up length, an anchor length and a neutral point. It is also revealed that the face
plate plays a signicant role in enhancing the reinforcement eect. In jointed rock masses, several axial stress peaks may occur
along the bolt because of the opening of rock joints intersecting the bolt. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1365-1609/99/$ - see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 6 5 - 1 6 0 9 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 6 4 - 7
1014 C. Li, B. Stillborg / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 10131029
Nomenclature
A area of the cross-section of the bolt a a constant representing the coupling prop-
Eb Young's modulus of the bolt steel erty of the interface
Er Young's modulus of the rock mass d0 elongation of the bolt in section (0Rx<x0)
Eg Young's modulus of the grout d1 elongation of the bolt in section (x0Rx<x1)
L length of the bolt d2 elongation of the bolt in section (x1Rx<x2)
P0 applied pull load d3 elongation of the bolt in section (x2Rx<L )
P0max pullout load, i.e. the maximum applied pull dJ opening displacement of a rock joint
load dJi opening displacement of the ith joint (i = a,
S inuencing area of a bolt in the rock b, c, . . . )
d0 diameter of a circle in the rock outside dJmax maximum opening displacement of a joint
which the inuence of the bolt disappears before decoupling occurs
db diameter of the bolt ng Poisson's ratio of the grout
dg diameter of the borehole nr Poisson's ratio of the rock mass
du free deformation of the rock slice x a coecient related to the Young's moduli
dub elongation of the bolt element of the bolt steel and the rock
dur the reduction of deformation after bolt re- sb axial stress of the bolt
inforcement, i.e. dur=du dub sb0 axial stress of the bolt at the loading point
dx length of the rock slice sb0i axial stress of the bolt at the ith rock joint
p0 hydrostatic primary stress in the rock Dsr bolting-induced stress increment in the rock
Pf load on the face plate of the bolt mass
ri radius of the circular tunnel tb shear stress at the bolt interface
rp position of the decoupling front on the bolt tbB total shear stress at point B of the bolt
surface interface
s shear strength of the interface for friction- tb1 shear stress at the bolt interface, induced by
ally coupled bolts rock deformation
sr residual shear strength of the interface for tb2 shear stress at the bolt interface, induced
fully grouted bolts due to pull eect
sp peak shear strength of the interface for fully t dA shear stress at point A of the bolt interface,
grouted bolts induced by rock deformation
u original radial displacement of the rock at x t dB shear stress at point B of the bolt interface,
(without bolting) induced by rock deformation
x0,x1 decoupling boundaries at the interface of tA
B shear stress at B due to the pull action of
and x2 fully grouted bolts (see Fig. 4) t dA
o ratio of the residual shear strength to the
Greek symbols peak shear strength, o=sr/sp
D length of a bolt section, D=x2x1
Stephansson's work [2,4] demonstrated that in the bolt under a relatively low applied load, at which
joined rock masses there may exist not only one the deformation is compatible on both sides of the
but several neutral points along the bolt because of bolt interface. Curve b represents the axial stress along
the opening displacement of individual joints. the bolt at a relatively high applied load, at which
Pullout tests are usually used to examine the anchor- decoupling has occurred at part of the bolt interface.
ing capacity of rock bolts. A great number of pullout Fig. 1(b) shows the axial stress along a rock bolt
tests have been conducted so far in various types of installed in an underground mine drift [3]. It is seen
rocks [59]. Farmer [6] carried out fundamental work from this gure that the distribution of the axial stress
in studying the behaviour of bolts under tensile load- along the section close to the borehole collar is com-
ing. His solution predicts that the axial stress of the pletely dierent from that in pullout tests. However,
bolt (also the shear stress at the bolt interface) will along the section to the far end of the bolt, the stress
decrease exponentially from the point of loading to the varies similarly to that in pullout tests. The reason for
far end of the bolt before decoupling occurs. Fig. 1(a) these results is that bolts in situ have a pick-up length
illustrates the results of a typical pullout test [5]. Curve and an anchor length, while bolts in pullout tests only
a represents the distribution of the axial stress along have an anchor length.
C. Li, B. Stillborg / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 10131029 1015
It is thought that the relative movement between the a description of the theoretical background, the devel-
rock and the bolt is zero at the neutral point [1]. In opment of the model and an illustrative example. Two
the solution by Tao and Chen [10], the position of the models for rock bolts in situ are then presented, one in
neutral point depends only on the radius of the tunnel uniformly deformed rock masses and one in jointed
and the length of the bolt. That solution was im- rock masses. The details of the development of the
plemented in the analytical models created by Indrar- models are summarised in the Appendices.
atna and Kaiser [11] and Hyett et al. [12]. It seems
that Tao and Chen's solution is valid only when the
deformation is compatible across the bolt interface. 2. Coupling between the bolt and the rock
When decoupling occurs, the position of the neutral
point is obviously also related to the shear strength of Windsor [13] proposed the concept that a reinforce-
the interface. Field monitoring and pullout tests have ment system comprises four principal components: the
indicated two facts concerning the loading of a rock rock, the reinforcing element, the internal xture and
bolt in situ: (1) rock deformation applies a load on the the external xture. For reinforcement with a bolt, the
pick-up section of the bolt; (2) the load on the pick-up reinforcing element refers to the bolt and the external
section drags the anchor section of the bolt towards xture refers to the face plate and nut. The internal
the underground opening. These two facts must be xture is either a medium, such as cement mortar or
taken into account in developing analytical models for resin for grouted bolts, or a mechanical action like
rock bolts. ``friction'' at the bolt interface for frictionally coupled
The aim of this paper is to develop analytical bolts. The internal xture provides a coupling con-
models for fully coupled rock bolts. A model for rock dition at the interface. With reference to the com-
bolts in pullout tests is introduced rst, together with ponent of internal xture, Windsor [13] classied the
current reinforcement devices into three groups: ``con-
tinuously mechanically coupled (CMC)'', ``continu-
ously frictionally coupled (CFC)'' and ``discretely
mechanically or frictionally coupled (DMFC)'' sys-
tems. According to this classication system, cement-
and resin-grouted bolts belong to the CMC system,
while Split set and Swellex bolts belong to the CFC
system.
When fully grouted bolts are subjected to a pull
load, failure may occur at the boltgrout interface, in
the grout medium or at the groutrock interface,
depending on which one is the weakest. For fully fric-
tionally coupled bolts, however, there is only one
possibility of failure decoupling at the boltrock
interface. In this study we concentrate on the failure at
the interface between the bolt and the coupling med-
ium (either the grout medium or the rock).
In general, the shear strength of an interface com-
prises three components: adhesion, mechanical inter-
lock and friction. They are lost in sequence as the
compatibility of deformation is lost across the inter-
face. The result is a decoupling front that attenuates at
an increasing distance from the point of the applied
load. The decoupling front rst mobilises the adhesive
component of strength, then the mechanical interlock
component and nally the frictional component. The
shear strength of the interface decreases during this
process. The shear strength after the loss of some of
the strength components is called the residual shear
strength in this paper. For grouted rock bolts like
rebar, all the three components of strength exist at the
Fig. 1. Distribution of the axial stress (a) along a grouted steel bar bolt interface. However, for the fully frictionally
during a pullout test, after Hawkes and Evans [5], and (b) along a coupled bolt, the ``Split set'' bolt, only a friction com-
grouted rock bolt in situ, after Sun [3]. ponent exists at the bolt interface. For Swellex bolts,
1016 C. Li, B. Stillborg / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 10131029
2Gr
a2 3b
d0
Eb ln
db
where
2Gr Gg
a2 " #
dg d0 3.2. Fully grouted rock bolts
Eb Gr ln Gg ln
db dg
The stresses in dierent sections of the bolt can now
be described in detail as follows (see Fig. 4):
Er Eg
Gr and Gg 3a 1. On the section 0 R x < x0: the bolt interface is com-
21 nr 21 ng
pletely decoupled, leading to a zero shear stress at
sb0 is the axial stress of the bolt at the loading point, the interface and a constant axial stress in the bolt,
Eb is Young's modulus of the bolt steel, Er is Young's i.e.:
modulus of the rock mass, Eg is Young's modulus of
tb x 0
the grout, nr is Poisson's ratio of the rock mass, ng is
Poisson's ratio of the grout, dg is the diameter of the
borehole, and d0 is the diameter of a circle in the rock sb x sb0 5
outside which the inuence of the bolt disappears.
Eq. (2) is also valid for fully frictionally coupled 2. On the section x0 R x < x1: the interface is partially
decoupled, resulting in a residual shear strength sr
at the interface. The shear and axial stresses are
given by:
tb x sr
4sr
sb x sb0 x x 0 6
db
For equilibrium the applied load P0 should equal the For fully frictionally coupled rock bolts, the residual
total shear force at the bolt interface, i.e. shear strength of the interface is approximately the
L same as the peak shear strength, i.e. sr=sp=s (see Fig.
1 5). The shear stress on dierent sections of the bolt is
P0 pdb tb dx pdb sr x 1 x 0 sp D1 o
x0 2 described in detail as follows:
1. On the section 0 R x < x2: the shear stress has
db 2a
d Lx 2
sp 1 e b reached the level of the strength of the interface.
2a The shear stress on this section remains constant,
where L is the length of the bolt. It is obtained from while the axial stress linearly decreases, i.e.:
the above expression that the maximum applied load
tb x sr
P0max can be expressed as:
db pdb
P0max pdb sp o L ln o D x 0 sb x sb0 sx 11
2a A
10
1 db 2. On the section x > x2: the deformation is compati-
D1 o 1 o ble across the interface and the shear stress is less
2 2a
than the peak shear strength. Both the shear and
The following is an example to demonstrate how to the axial stresses decrease exponentially towards the
back-calculate the peak shear strength of the interface far end of the bolt:
C. Li, B. Stillborg / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 10131029 1019
Fig. 7. The shear stress and axial load along a fully grouted rock bolt subjected to an axial load of 90 kN.
xx 2
2a 2s
tb x s e db sb x 2
a
xx 2
2s 2a On the other hand, the axial stress at x=x2 can be
sb x e db 12
a obtained from Eq. (11) as:
It is seen from Eq. (12) that the axial stress at x=x2 is P0 pdb
sb x 2 sx 2
given by A A
Fig. 8. Axial load along a fully grouted rock bolt at dierent levels of applied load.
1020 C. Li, B. Stillborg / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 10131029
Letting the right sides of the above two expressions be db=35 mm. The length of the bolt section embedded
equal, we obtain the expression for the position of the in each concrete block was 1.5 m long, i.e. L = 1.5 m.
decoupling front, x2, as: Substituting these data into Eq. (15) yields the shear
strength of the bolt interface, i.e. s = 0.7 MPa. It is
1 2As obtained from Eq. (3b) that the constant a=0.27. The
x2 P0 13
pdb s a shear stress and the axial load along the Swellex bolt
are calculated using the relevant equations above and
For equilibrium the applied load P0 should equal the
are illustrated in Fig. 9. The axial load of the bolt at
total shear force at the bolt interface, i.e.
dierent levels of applied load is shown in Fig. 10.
L
P0 pdb tb dx
0
14 4. Rock bolts in situ
Lx 2
pd 2b s 2a db
spdb x 2 1e 4.1. A model for bolts subjected to uniform rock
2 a
deformation
The applied load reaches its maximum, P0max, when
the shear strength of the interface is mobilised along Rock bolts in situ tend to restrain the deformation
the entire length of the bolt, i.e. when x2=L. Substi- of rock with an increase in their axial loads. In other
tuting P0=P0max and x2=L into Eq. (13), we obtain words, it is rock deformation that applies a load to
the shear strength for fully frictionally coupled bolts rock bolts in situ. For the sake of simplicity, a bolt
as: anchored at two points, as illustrated in Fig. 11, is
P0max used to explain the superposition of two components
s 15 of the shear stress. Rock deformation will induce a
pdb L
component of shear stress t dA at A and a component
Stillborg [8] tested the Swellex bolt in his pullout of shear stress t dB at B. Assuming t dA > t dB, the shear
tests. Displacement monitoring at the far end of the force acting at anchor A would tend to drag the bolt
bolt indicated that the bolt was slipping under the to the left and thus induce another component of
load P0max=110 kN. That indicated that decoupling shear stress at point B, t A A
B . The sense of t B is opposite
d
occurred along the entire length of the bolt. The diam- to the sense of t B. The total shear stress at B is:
eter of the borehole was 35 mm. The diameter of the
Swellex bolt is the same as that of the borehole, i.e. tbB tA d
B tB 16
Fig. 9. The shear stress and axial load along a Swellex rock bolt at 5 kN of applied load.
C. Li, B. Stillborg / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 10131029 1021
Fig. 10. The axial load along a Swellex rock bolt at dierent levels of applied load.
For a fully coupled bolt, the component t A B will be an bolt in the rock, which equals the area surrounded by
integration over the bolt section to the left side of four adjacent bolts in pattern bolting.
point B. On the basis of this idea, we obtained the ex- Here we take a tunnel circular in its cross-section as
pression of the shear stress at position x on the bolt an example to demonstrate the application of Eq. (17).
surface as follows (see Appendix A for detailed deri- Assume that the country rock surrounding the tunnel
vation): undergoes an elastic deformation. The second-order
" # derivative of the elastic radial displacement u of the
A d2 u a x d2 u 2a xt rock can be expressed as:
tb x xGr e db dt 17
pdb dx 2 2 ri dt2
p0 r2i
ux00 19
where Gr x 3
or
Fig. 12. Shear stress along a fully grouted rock bolt under the con-
dition of compatible interface deformation (Eb=210 GPa, Er=5 A d2 u a pdb
sp xGr sr rp ri ,
GPa, nr=0.25, S = 1 m, db=20 mm, ri=4 m, p0=15 MPa). pdb dx 2 2 A 21b
for bolts without a face plate
the far end of the bolt. This agrees with the eld moni-
toring data obtained, for example, by Freeman [1]. In
Eqs. (21a) and (b) are used to determine the distance
this example, decoupling at the bolt interface has not
rp. The shear stress on the section x > rp is calculated
been considered. When the rock deformation is large
as:
enough, the shear strength of the interface will be
" #
mobilised in the pick-up section of the bolt. The distri-
A d2 u a x d2 u 2a xt
bution of shear stress along the bolt, when decoupling tb x xGr e db dt
pdb dx 2 2 ri dt2
occurs, will be as that illustrated in Fig. 13. The shear
failure at the interface would result in a release of the " #
a rp
d2 u xrp 22a
restrained rock deformation at the near end of the xGr dt e
2a d
b ,
bolt, if no face plate were to exist. In the case where a 2 ri dt2
face plate exists, the displacement of the tunnel wall
loads the plate. The load on the face plate can be cal- for bolts with a face plate
culated as:
! or
rp " #
A d2 u x
Pf pdb xGr 2 sr dx 20 A d2 u a d2 u 2a xt
ri pdb dx tb x xGr e db dt
pdb dx 2 2 rp dt
2
Shear failure ceases at x=rp and beyond that point xrp 22b
the displacement is compatible across the interface. a pdb 2a d
sr rp ri e b ,
Fig. 15. Theoretical solution of the shear stress and axial stress along
a fully grouted rock bolt without a face plate (sp=0.5 MPa, sr=0.2 Fig. 16. The shear stress measured on two fully grouted bolts in situ,
MPa). (a) bolt No. 9, (b) bolt No. 10. After Bjornfot and Stephansson [4].
1024 C. Li, B. Stillborg / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 10131029
Fig. 19. The axial stress and load of the bolt versus the opening dis-
placement of the joint for frictionally coupled bolts. Parameters for
Fig. 17. The shear stress (tb) and the axial tensile stress (sb), induced Standard Swellex: s = 0.7 MPa, db=39 mm, t = 2 mm, Eb=210
by joint opening, in fully coupled rock bolts GPa, Er=45 GPa, nr=0.25.
C. Li, B. Stillborg / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 10131029 1025
Acknowledgements
The grant for this work from Ake and Greta Lis-
shed's Foundation is acknowledged. The valuable
Fig. 20. Axial stress along a bolt subjected to joint openings. The comments by the anonymous reviewers are greatly ap-
opening displacements: dJa=50 mm at joint a, dJb=20 mm at joint b
preciated.
and dJc=5 mm at joint c.
A dsb A d2 u
tb1 x xGr A5
pdb dx pdb dx 2
sb Dsr a xt
2a d
du dub dur dx dx A1 dtb2 x dsb te b A6
Eb Er 2
where dx is the length of the rock slice, du is the free The total shear stress at x induced due to the pull
deformation of the rock slice, dub is the elongation of eect of the shear stress on the bolt section between ri
the bolt element, dur is the reduced deformation of the and x is obtained by integration of the above shear
rock due to bolting, sb is the tensile stress in the bolt, stress increment, that is:
Dsr is the compressive stress increment in the rock x x
mass, induced by bolting, Er is Young's modulus of a d2 u 2a xt
tb2 x dtb2 x xGr 2
e db dt A7
the rock mass, and Eb is Young's modulus of the bolt ri 2 ri dt
steel.
The force equilibrium on the plane perpendicular to Finally, the total shear stress on the bolt at x is the
the bolt gives: sum of tb1 and tb2, that is:
du/dx is the rst-order derivative of the free radial dis- The shear stress, at x=rp, induced by the axial load
placement of the rock, u, with respect to x. on the face-plate load, Pf , and by the shear stress on
From the point of view of force equilibrium, the the decoupled interface, sr, is:
C. Li, B. Stillborg / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 10131029 1027
a Pf opening and the load induced in the bolt. An opening
tb2 rp pdb sr rp ri
2 A displacement of the rock joint is equivalent to applying
rp 2 A10 an axial tensile load to both sides of the bolt at the
a d u
xGr dt joint. We shall look at this problem for fully grouted
2 2
ri dt bolts and for frictionally coupled bolts separately.
For equilibrium the total shear stress at rp should
B.1. Fully grouted rock bolts
equal the peak shear strength of the interface, that is:
The axial tensile stress in the bolt is symmetric to
sp tb1 rp tb2 rp the rock joint. Therefore, we consider only half of the
" # rockbolt system. The model for the shear stress along
rp a bolt subjected to an axial load is shown in Fig. 4.
A d2 u a d2 u
xGr dt A11 The elongation of the bolt in dierent sections is
pdb dx 2 2 ri dt2
denoted as follows: d0 is the elongation of the bolt in
Eq. (A11) is used to determine the distance rp for bolts section (0 R x < x0); d1 is the elongation of the bolt in
with a face plate. For x > rp, the total shear stress is section (x0 R x < x1); d2 is the elongation of the bolt
calculated as: in section (x1 R x < x2); and d3 is the elongation of
" # the bolt in section (x2 R x < L ), where L is the half
length of the bolt. The sum of these four components
A d2 u a x d2 u 2a xt
tb x xGr e db dt
is the total elongation of the bolt from each side of the
pdb dx 2 2 ri dt2
A12 joint. Thus, the displacement of the joint opening is
" # twice this summation, i.e.
rp 2
a d u xt
2a d
xGr dt e b
2 ri dt 2 X
3
dJ 2 di B1
For a bolt without a face plate, Pf is zero. The shear i0
stress, at x=rp, induced by the shear stress on the Not all the four elongation comments appear in the
decoupled interface, sr, becomes above expression at any given time. When the joint
a pdb opens very little, the axial load induced does not cause
tb2 rp sr rp ri A13 the interface to be decoupled. In this case, only d3
2 A
exists in Eq. (B1). The components d2, d1 and d0
Similarly to the case with a face plate, the total shear appear subsequently in the equation with increases in
stress at rp should equal the peak shear strength of the the joint opening.
interface, that is
1. For the case where the interface undergoes compati-
sp tb1 rp tb2 rp ble deformation across the interface, the shear stress
along the bolt is illustrated in Fig. 6. In this case we
A d2 u a pdb have
xGr sr rp ri A14
pdb dx 2 2 A
d0 d1 d 2 0 B2
Eq. (A14) is used to determine the distance rp for bolts
As shown in Eqs. (2) and (4), the shear and axial
without a face plate. For x > rp, the total shear stress
stresses along the bolt are given by
is calculated as:
2 3
2 x 2 2a x t
4 A d u a d u db dt 5
tb x xGr e
pdb dx 2 2 rp dt2
A15
xt
a pdb 2a
db
sr rp ri e
2 A
a 2a
x
2sp
tb x sb0 e db sb x 2
2 a
x Therefore, we obtain
2a d
sb x sb0 e b B3
db sb0 2 D
x2 21 o B10
This stage ceases when the shear stress at x = 0 4o sp a db
reaches the peak shear strength of the interface, sp.
The corresponding axial stress at the joint at this The elongation of the bolt can be obtained by the
moment is following integration
2sp 1
sb0 B4 di e dx sb dx B11
a Eb
tb x s References