3.

0:
PERIODIC
TABLE
3.2 PERIODICITY

1
Periodicity Variation in atomic Across a period
Across the first row of
& ionic radii
transition elements
down a group
Isoelectronic species define
radius
ionic radii across Period 2 and 3

Define
Ionisation
Across a period & down a group
Energy
Successive Ionisation Energy
Define
Electronegativity
Across a period & down a group
Periodicity of Metallic character
Elements Melting & boiling point

Acid base Character of oxides in Period 3 2

 NUCLEAR CHARGE , Z

Number of protons , Z

Nucleuselectron attraction become

stronger

3
 EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE

is the charge felt by the valence electrons

as a results of shielding effect by other electrons

Abbreviation : Zeff

When Zeff increases, the nucleus attraction

towards electrons become stronger

4
 Zeff = Z s 0 < s < Z (s = shielding constant)

Zeff Z number of inner electrons

EXAMPLE: Z Inner Zeff

Na 11 10 +1

Mg 12 10 +2

Al 13 10 +3

Si 14 10 +4

5
 FACTORS AFFECTING
FACTORSATOMIC
AFFECTING
SIZE ATOMIC SIZE

1) Change in effective nuclear charge, Zeff

As Zeff increase

The positive charge felt by an e- increases

Outer e- are pulled closer to nucleus

nucleuselectron attraction increases
Atoms become smaller
6
EXAMPLE:
Sodium, Na(Z = 11) Group 1

Full e- configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Number of inner e- = 10 Zeff = +1

Magnesium, Mg= 12 Group 2

Full e- configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

Number of inner e- = 10 Zeff = +2

So, magnesium smaller than sodium

7
 FACTORS AFFECTING ATOMIC SIZE

2) Change in principle quantum number, n or

sheilding effect
As n increase, shielding effect also increase
Outer e- spend more time farther from nucleus
Outer e- are less attracted to the nucleus
nucleuselectron attraction decreases
Atoms are larger

8
EFFECTI
SHIELDING EFFECT

Ability of other e-, especially inner e-,

to lessen the nuclear attraction on an
outer e-
Shielding effect occur between electrons of
inner orbitals and the electrons occupying the
valence orbitals.

Some shielding effect also occur between

electrons of the same orbital.

9
 repulsion

Outer
electron

Positively
charged
Inner nucleus
electrons
Inner e- shield outer e- more effectively
Outer electron felt less attraction from nucleus
10
 EXAMPLE:
Li (Z = 19) Na(Z = 11)
1s2 2s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
e-
e- e- e-
e-
e- e- e- e-
e-
e-
+1 +1
e-

1s 2s e- 1s 2s
e-
3s

The outer 2s electron in Li atom is shielded effectively from the nucleus

by the two 1s electrons.
The outer 3s electron in Na atom is shielded effectively from the nucleus
by the 2 electrons in 1s and 8 electrons in 2s & 2p. 11
 TRENDS IN ATOMIC SIZE

Atomic radius generally:

(i) Across a period from left to right ,
atomic radius decrease

(ii) Down a group from top to bottom ,

atomic radius increase

12
Example :

Moving from Na to Al (period 3), the atomic

size decreases

13
ATOMIC SIZE DECREASES
ACROSS A PERIOD

14
 TRENDS IN ATOMIC SIZE
(i) Across a Period , from left to right
The atomic radius of elements decreases
Reason:
Across the period, the proton number increases

Effective nuclear charge increases

Nucleus attraction towards valence (outer) electron increases

Electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus

Thus, atomic radii decreases

15
Example :

As we move down from Li to K (Group 1), the

atomic size increases

16
ATOMIC SIZE INCREASES
DOWN A GROUP

17
 TRENDS IN ATOMIC SIZE
(ii) Down a Group , from top to bottom
The atomic radius of elements increases

Reason :
Going down a group, the number of shell (n) increase
due to the number of electrons increases
Shielding effect increases
The distance between valence electrons and nucleus
are farther
Nucleus attraction towards valence (outer) electrons weaker
Thus, atomic radii increases 18
 Example 2

By referring to the electronic configuration,

arrange each set in order of increasing atomic
size. Explain.

(a) 37Rb, 19K , 55Cs

(b) 12Mg , 19K , 20Ca

19
 TRENDS AMONG
TRANSITION ELEMENTS

Atomic size decreases at first but the remain

fairly constant

The d electrons fill inner orbitals, so they shield

outer electrons from the increasing nuclear change
much more effectively. As a result, the outer 4s
20
electrons are not pulled closer
 IONIC SIZE
Compare to their parent atoms:

Cations are smaller

Anions are larger

21
 EXAMPLE:

Sodium, Na(Z = 11)

e- configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Na (Z = 11) Na+
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6

22
EXAMPLE:
Na Na+

Number of protons 11 11

Nuclear charge (Z) +11 +11

Number of e- 11 10

When a cation forms, e- are removed from the outer shell

The electron cloud will shrink
Electronelectron repulsion decreases

The attraction of nucleus towards the remaining electron

stronger
The size of cation decreases
23
EXAMPLE:

F (Z = 9) F
1s2 2s2 2p5 1s2 2s2 2p6

24
EXAMPLE:
F F

Number of protons 9 9

Nuclear charge (Z) +9 +9

Number of e- 9 10

When an anion forms, e- are added from the outer

shell

Electronelectron repulsion increases

Electron cloud expand

The attraction of nucleus towards outer electron weaker

The size of anion increases 25

26
27
 Example 3

Write the electronic configuration for each species.

Choose the larger particle in each pair:
(a) 13Al or Al3+
(b) S or S 2
16

28
 ISOELECTRONIC
Isoelectronic species are groups of atoms and
ions which have the same electronic
configuration.

Within isoelectronic species:

The bigger the nuclear charge, the stronger the
attraction of nucleus towards the remaining
electrons. Thus, the smaller the species.

29
 EXAMPLE :

Na+, Mg2+, Al3+ and Si4+ are isoelectronic :

Na+ = 1s 22s2 2p6

Mg2+ = 1s 22s2 2p6
Al3+ = 1s 22s2 2p6
Si4+ = 1s 22s2 2p6

30
 Isoelectronic species with electronic configuration
1s2 2s2 2p6 (10 electron)
Species Number Number
of of
electron proton
Na+ 10 11 When proton number
increase,effective nuclear
Mg2+ 10 12 charge increase.
Al3+ 10 13 The attraction between
Si4+ 10 14 nucleus and remaining
electrons stronger.
Therefore, the ionic radii
decrease.
The ionic radii of Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+ > Si4+
31
 Isoelectronic species with electronic configuration
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (18 electron)
Species Number Number
of of
electron proton

When proton number

P3- 18 15 increase, effective nuclear
charge increase.
S2- 18 16
The attraction between
Cl- 18 17 nucleus and remaining
electrosn stronger.
Therefore, the ionic radii
decrease.
The ionic radii of Cl- < S2- < P3-
32
EXAMPLE:

Size: N3 > O2 > F > Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+

Period 2 Period 3
All ions have total 10 electrons (isoelectronic).
When the proton number increase, the effective
nuclear charge increase.
Attraction between nucleus and the remaining
electron stronger.
So, size of the ions decrease.
33
 Example 4

Give the electron configurations of these ions,

and indicate which ones are isoelectronic.

(a) Ca2+
(b) K+
(c) O2

Given 20Ca , 19K , 8O

34
 TRENDS IN IONIC SIZE

The ionic size decreases across a period but

increases significantly from cation
to anion

35
1 2 13 14 15 16 17

IONIC SIZE DECREASES ACROSS A

PERIOD BUT INCREASES SIGNIFICANTLY
FROM CATION TO ANION 36
 They are isoelectronic : Na+ to Si4+ (10 electrons) with
same electronic configuration : : 1s2 2s2 2p6
Moving from Na+ to Si4+ , number of protons increase ,
effective nuclear charge increase.
So, nucleuselectrons attraction stronger
37

Size of ions decreases

 Great jump in size from Si4+ (10e ) to P3 (18 e )
Electrons are added to 3p orbital to form P3 . So, the
principle quantum no. (n) increases.
The completely-filled inner orbital electrons have effectively
shielded the outer electrons in P3 from the attraction of the
nucleus attraction.
Electron electron repulsion increases and
nucleuselectrons attraction weaker
Size increases sharply 38
 From P3 to Cl
They are isoelectronic (18e) , with same electronic
configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6.
From P3 to Cl , number of protons increase, leads
to increasing in effective nuclear charge .
So, electron held more tightly to the nucleus
39
Size of ions decreases
 IONISATION ENERGY
DEFINITION Ionisation energy is minimum energy required
for complete removal of 1 mol of electron from 1 mol of
gaseous atoms or gaseous ions.
FIRST IONISATION ENERGY (IE1) SECOND IONISATION ENERGY (IE2)
Minimum energy required for Minimum energy required for
complete removal of 1 mol of complete removal of 1 mol of
electron from 1 mol of gaseous electron from 1 mol of gaseous
atoms. ions (charge +1).
Equation : Equation :
Atom(g) ion+(g) + e DE=+ve Ion+(g) ion2+(g) + e DE =+ve

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Na(g) Na+(g) +e DE=496 kJ/mol Na+(g)Na2+(g)+ e DE=4560kJ/mol
40
Down a group; IE1 decreases WHY ?

Down a group, the atomic size increase because the principal

quantum number (n) and shielding effect increase

The distance between nucleus to outer/ valence e- increases

The nucleuselectron attraction weaker, so easier to remove

outer / valence e-

Less energy needed to remove e-

IE1 decreases down the group

41
Across a period; IE1 increase WHY ?

Across a period, the atomic size decreases because the proton

number increases and Zeff increases

The distance of nucleus to outer / valence e- decreases

Nucleuselectron attraction stronger, so difficult to

remove outer/valence e-
More energy needed to remove e-

IE1 increases across a period

42
 Example 5

Write the electronic configuration for each species.

Rank the elements in each of the following sets in
order of decreasing IE1:
(a) 36Kr , 2He , 18Ar
(b) 19K , 20Ca , 37Rb

43
 ANOMALOUS IN
IONISATION ENERGY

anomalous!

44
 ANOMALOUS IN
IONISATION ENERGY
Between Group 2 and 13:

Be(g) Be+(g) + 1e B(g) B+(g) + 1e

1s2 2s2 2p1 1s2 2s2
1s2 2s2 1s2 2s1

Be : electron is removed from the completely filled 2s

orbital, which is more stable.
B : electron is removed from the partially filled 2p orbital,
which is less stable.
More energy required to removed an electron from more
stable 2s orbital of Be than from less stable 2p orbital of
45
B.
 ANOMALOUS IN
IONISATION ENERGY
Between Group 15 and 16:

N(g) N+(g) + 1e O(g) O+(g) + 1e

1s2 2s2 2p3 1s2 2s2 2p4
(half-filled 2p orbital) ( partially-filled 2p orbital)

N : electron is removed from the half filled 2p orbital,

which is more stable.
O : electron is removed the partially filled 2p orbital,
which is less stable.
More energy required to removed an electron from more
stable 2p orbital of N than from less stable 2p orbital of46 O.
 Example 6

In general, ionisation energy increase from left to right

across a given period.
Aluminium and Magnesium are in same period however,
Aluminium (Al), has a lower first ionization energy than
magnesium (Mg).
Explain.

47
 IONISATION ENERGY
1. We can deduce the electronic configuration of
an element and its position in the periodic table
based on successive ionisation energy.

2. IE always increase in the following order:

IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < IE4 < IE5 < IE6 ..

EXAMPLE: : Be (Z = 4) 1s2 2s2 IE1 = 900 kJ/mol

IE2 = 1760 kJ/mol

IE3 = 14850 kJ/mol

IE4 = 21910 kJ/mol 48

 SUCCESSIVE IE

IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < IE4 < IE5 < IE6 ..

Successive ionisation energies (IE1, IE2, and so on) of a

a given element increase because each electron is
removed away from an ion with a progressively
higher positive charge

A careful examination of the successive ionisation

energy value will lead us to notify the sudden increase
(drastic increase).
49
 SUCCESSIVE IE
EXAMPLE:

Be(g) Be+(g) + e- IE1= 900 kJ/mol

First e- removed
from 2s 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s1

Be+(g) Be2+(g) + e- IE2= 1 760 kJ/mol

Second e-
removed from 2s 1s2 2s1 1s2 There is sudden
increase of IE
Third e- removed Be2+(g) Be3+(g) + e- IE3= 14 850 kJ/mol
from 1s (inner 1s2 1s1
shell)

Fourth e- removed Be3+(g)Be4+(g) + e- IE4= 21 910 kJ/mol

from 1s
1s1 50
 Electronic First Second Third Fourth Sixth First
configuration

Li 1s2 2s1 520 7297 11810 - - -

Be 1s2 2s2 900 1760 14850 21910 - -
B 1s2 2s2 2p1 800 2430 3659 25020 32810 -

For Li : sudden increase is between IE1 to IE2 because the second

electron is removed from 1s orbital, inner shell.

For Be : sudden increase is between IE2 to IE3 because the third

electron is removed from 1s orbital, inner shell.

For B : sudden increase is between IE3 to IE4 because the fourth

electron is removed from 1s orbital, inner shell. 51
 Analysing the data of successive ionisation energy,
will enable us to figure out the position of element in
the Periodic Table by looking for the sudden increase.

A very large increase in IE indicates the removal of a

particular electron involves an electron from an inner
shell, which has a stable noble gas electron
configuration

52
 IDENTIFYING AN ELEMENT
FROM SUCCESSIVE IE
From the data, we can deduce:

Number of valence e-

Group number of the element

53
 5the 4the
3rde
EXAMPLE: 2nde
1ste
nuc
Si (Z = 14) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

786 kJ/mol IE1: 1st e- removed from 3p subshell

1580 kJ/mol IE2: 2nd e- removed from 3p subshell

3230 kJ/mol IE3: 3rd e- removed from 3s subshell

4360 kJ/mol IE4: 4th e- removed from 3s subshell

Sudden increase
16100 kJ/mol IE5: 5th e- removed from 2p subshell ,inner shell
54
 EXAMPLE:

Si (Z = 14) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

Sudden increase in ionisation energy from

IE4 to IE5
The 5th electron is removed from the inner
shell which has a stable noble gas electron
configuration and closer to nucleus
Much greater energy needed to remove the e-
Valence e- = 4 Group = 14
Valence e- configuration = 3s23p2
55
 Example 7
Deduce the group number of the element with
the following ionisation energies (in kJ/mol)
and write its valence electron configuration.

IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5 IE6

1012 1903 2910 4956 6278 22,230

56
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY (EN)
DEFINITION Electronegativity is a relative ability of a
bonded atom to attract the shared electrons toward
itself in a chemical bond.

H H H
F

H2 HF
57
 EXAMPLE:
d+ d
HF

H
F
HF

The e- spend more time closer to F

F is more electronegative than H

Cause F ends of the bond partially

negative and H end partially positive

HF polar bond 58
 TRENDS IN
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Across a period, nuclear charge , atomic size ,
so ability of an atom to attract the shared electrons
toward itself increase , thus electronegativity

Down a group, no. of shell (n) or shielding effect ,

atomic size, so ability of an atom to attract the shared
electrons toward itself decrease,
thus electronegativity

Nonmetals are more electronegative than metal

Highest EN value (4.0) assigned to F

59
EXAMPLE: Note: ( ) electronegativity scale

Period 2:

Li Be B C N O F
(1.0) (1.5) (2.0) (2.5) (3.0) (3.5) (4.0)

electronegativity
increase
Period 3:

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
(0.9) (1.2) (1.5) (1.8) (2.1) (2.5) (3.0)

electronegativity
increase 60
EXAMPLE: Note: ( ) electronegativity scale

Group 17:

F
(4.0)
Down a group
Cl electronegativity decrease
(3.0)

Br
(2.8)

I
(2.5)
61
 TRENDS IN METALLIC
CHARACTER
DEFINITION : Metallic character is the ability to lose
electron and form positive ion.

Decrease across a period

Increase down a group
The easier to the electrons to be removed
from an atom, the more metallic the element
Metallic character increase with atomic size
62
 TRENDS IN METALLIC
CHARACTER
Across a period Down a group
effective nuclear charge (Zeff ) number of shell increases,
increases, atomic size decreases shielding effect increases,
atomic size increases

ability to donate electron decreases ability to remove electrons

increases
tendency to form positive ions
decreases tendency to form positive
ion increases
metallic character decreases metallic character increases

63
 EXAMPLE: Period 3

metal metalloid nonmetal

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

metallic character
decrease

64
Metallic character
increase

65
 Increasing Metallic Character
Increasing Metallic Character

66
 TRENDS OF MELTING & BOILING POINTS
ACROSS PERIOD 3
Across period 3: network
simple covalent
covalent
metal structure
structure

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
M.P (oC) 97.8 651 660 1410 44 119 101 189
B.P (oC) 892 1107 2450 2360 280 446 34 186

The irregularity due to:

Types (strength) of chemical bonds
Structure of molecules
Types of intermolecular forces 67
 Metal/ Metallic structure (Na to Al)
Metal has positive metal ions attracted
to the electrons sea which form the
metallic bonding.
The strength of metallic bonding is
proportional to the number of valence
electrons.
To melt or boil, the metals need to overcome the
strong metallic bonds

The more valence electrons of the metals, the stronger the

metallic bond and the higher the melting / boiling point
NOTE :
Metallic bond can be explained by using electron sea model will be discussed 68
further in subtopic 4.5
 Network covalent structure (Si)
Si has infinite number of strong covalent bonds
in the structure
A very high energy is needed to break the infinite
number of strong covalent bonds
Melting and boiling point of Si is very high because during
melting or boiling process, the substance need to overcome the
infinite number of strong covalent bonds between Si atoms.

69
 Simple covalent structure (P to Ar)
The non-metal elements exist as molecules of P4, S8, Cl2 and
Ar (monoatom). They have simple covalent structures.

The covalent bond between the atoms is very strong

but the intermolecularforces exist between molecules
(Van der Waals forces), is very weak.
The strength of Van der Waals force is proportional to the
molecular size (relative molecular weight).
To melt or boil, the molecules need to overcome the weak
van der Waal forces exist between molecules.

Molecular size: Ar < Cl2 < P4 < S8

so, the strenght of VDW force increases.

Melting / boiling point : Ar < Cl < P < S 70

van der Waals forces

71
van der Waals forces

72
 S
SS SS
S
S S

van der Waals forces

73
74
 TRENDS OF MELTING & BOILING POINTS
DOWN GROUP 1 (METALS)

Down group 1
Ionic size increase .
Attraction between nucleus and electron
sea become weaker
Less energy is needed to overcome
the attraction.
Melting and boiling point decrease

75
 e-
e- e- e-
e- e- e- e-
e-
e-
e- e- e-
e-
e- e-
e- e-
e-
e-

Electron sea
Sodium metal model of Na

76
 Example 7

Briefly account for the following relative values:

(a) The melting point of sodium is 89oC, whereas

that of potassium is 63oC.
(b) The melting points of Li and Be are 180oC and
1287oC, respectively.

77
 TRENDS OF MELTING & BOILING POINTS
DOWN GROUP 17 (SIMPLE MOLECULAR)

Down group 17.

Size of molecules (molecular weight) increase.

Intermolecular forces (Van der Waals)
become stronger.
More energy is needed to overcome the
attraction.
Melting and boiling point increase

78
79
 ACIDBASE PROPERTIES
OF OXIDES ACROSS PERIOD 3
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Formula of
oxides NaO MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO3 Cl2O7
Types of Giant
compounds Ionic Compounds Network Molecular covalent
structure compounds
Chemical Basic oxides Amphoteric Acidic
properties
Interparticles During melting and boiling The To boil or melt, the
forces process, the substances substance substance need to
need to overcome the need to overcome the
strong ionic bond overcome intermolecular forces
the infinite (weak van der Waals
number of forces)
strong
covalent 80
bonds
 Across a period 3:

Metallic character of elements: decreases

Oxides: basic , amphoteric , acidic

acidbase properties across period

81
Maingroup metal oxides
When react with oxygen, Na and Mg form
basic oxide

These oxides are ionic compounds

Na2O react with water to form base NaOH

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)

MgO is insoluble in water, however, it does

react with acids to produce salt and water

MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

82
Maingroup metal oxides
When react with oxygen, Al form
amphotheric (act as base and acid) oxide

Al2O3 is an ionic compounds

Al2O3 act as acid :

Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2NaAl(OH)4(aq)

Al2O3 act as base :

Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

83
Metalloid oxides
When burn in oxygen, Si form acidic
oxide, SiO2
SiO2 has a giant network structure which contain
infinite number of strong covalent bonds.
SiO2 is insoluble in water, however, it does
react with bases to produce salt and water

SiO2 (s) + NaOH (aq) Na2SiO3(aq)+H2O (l)

84
Nonmetal oxides
When burn in oxygen, P, S and Cl form
acidic oxide
These oxides are covalent compounds

In water, they acts as acids, producing H+

and reacts with bases

SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)

Cl2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2HClO4(aq)

85
END OF SLIDE SHOW

86