Sample Chapter PDF

10_1458MH_CH03.
qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 56
56 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT
3
The profit and loss
account
Contents
Learning objectives 57 Depreciation 74
Introduction 57 Cost of sales 78
What does the profit and
Bad and doubtful debts 84
loss account tell us? 57
What is profit? 59 Profit and loss and cash
flow 86
Structure of the profit
and loss account 62 Summary of key points 88
Profit and loss account Questions 89
formats 68
Discussion points 90
Profit and loss and the
balance sheet 71 Exercises 90
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 57
WHAT DOES THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT TELL US? 57
Learning objectives
Completion of this chapter will enable you to:
describe what is meant by profit (or loss)
outline the structure of the profit and loss account (income statement) of a limited
company
classify the categories of income and expenditure that comprise the profit and loss account
appreciate the alternative profit and loss account formats
prepare a profit and loss account
explain the links between the profit and loss account and the balance sheet, particularly
with regard to the valuation of fixed assets and depreciation, stock and cost of sales, and
debtors and the doubtful debt provision
explain the links between the profit and loss account and cash flow
appreciate the subjective aspects of profit measurement.
Introduction
In Chapter 2 we looked at how the balance sheet is prepared from transactions carried out by a
business during an accounting period. This chapter will be concerned with the second of the
financial statements, the profit and loss account (or income statement). Although profit and
loss accounts are prepared by all forms of business entity, this chapter, in a similar way to
Chapter 2, deals primarily with the profit and loss accounts of limited companies, both private
and public.
This chapter deals with how profit and loss accounts are structured and how the accounts
within the profit and loss account are categorised. Each of the items within each of the profit and
loss account categories will be described in detail and form the basis to enable the preparation of
a profit and loss account of a limited company in the appropriate format.
We will look at the relationship between the profit and loss account and the balance sheet and
provide an introduction to the relationship between profit (or loss) and cash flow. Like the
balance sheet, the profit and loss account is subjective largely because of the impact on costs of
the variety of approaches that may be taken to the valuation of assets and liabilities.
What does the profit and loss account tell us?

The profit and loss account and income statement are two terms that really mean the same thing.
Profit (or loss) may be considered in two ways, which both give the same result.
The profit and loss account shows the change in wealth of the business over a period. The wealth
of the business is the amount it is worth to the owners, the shareholders. The accumulation of the
total change in wealth since the business began, up to a particular point in time, is reflected within
the equity section of the balance sheet under the heading retained profits. The profit and loss
account measures the change in the balance sheet from one pause to another. An increase in equity
is a profit and a decrease in equity is a loss.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 58
The profit and loss account may also be considered in its measurement of the trading performance
of the business (see Fig. 3.1). The profit and loss account calculates whether or not the company has
made a profit or loss on its operations during the period, through producing and selling its goods or
services. The result, the net earnings or net profit (or loss), is derived from deducting expenses
incurred from revenues derived throughout the period between two pauses.
The total of the expenses (debits) and revenues (credits) accounts within the general ledger com-
prise the profit and loss account. The total of these may be a net debit or a net credit. A net debit
represents a loss and a net credit represents a profit. The net profit or loss is reflected in the balance
sheet of the business under the heading retained profits, which is part of shareholders equity. All
the other accounts within the general ledger, other than expenses and revenues, may be summarised
into various other non-profit and loss account categories and these represent all the other balances
that complete the overall balance sheet of the business.
There are three main points to consider regarding the profit and loss account and how it differs
from the cash flow statement. First, revenues (or sales or income) and expenses (or costs or expendi-
ture) are not necessarily accounted for when cash transfers occur. Sales are normally accounted for
when goods or services are delivered and accepted by the customer. Cash will rarely be received
immediately from the customer, except in businesses like high-street retailers and supermarkets; it is
normally received weeks or months later.
Second, the profit and loss account does not take into account all the events that impact on the
financial position of the company. For example, an issue of new shares in the company, or a loan to
the company, will increase cash but they are neither revenue nor expenses.
Third, non-cash flow items, for example depreciation and bad debts, reduce the profit, or increase
the loss, of the company but do not represent outflows of cash. These topics will be covered in detail
in the next chapter.
Therefore it can be seen that net profit is not the same as cash flow. A company may get into finan-
cial difficulties if it suffers a severe cash shortage even though it may have positive net earnings
(profit).
The profit and loss account of a private limited company or a public limited company should be
able to tell us all about the results of the companys activities over specified accounting periods. The
profit and loss account shows us what revenues have been generated and what costs incurred in
revenues,
sales or income
profit and loss

account
expenses, costs
or expenditure
Figure 3.1 The main elements of the profit and loss account
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 59
WHAT IS PROFIT? 59
generating those revenues, and therefore the increase or decrease in wealth of the business during
the period.
The same note of caution we mentioned in Chapter 2 that should be exercised in the analysis of
balance sheet information, applies to profit and loss account information. The profit and loss
account is an historical statement and so it does not tell us anything about the ability of the business
to sustain or improve upon its performance over subsequent periods.
There is not always consistency between the information included in one companys profit and
loss account and that of another company. As with the balance sheet, the profit and loss accounts of
two companies even within the same industry may be very difficult to compare. This will be illustrated
in the wide variety of methods of depreciation calculations and stock valuation methods examined in
this chapter. In addition, the bases of financial ratios (to be examined in detail in Chapter 5) used by
analysts in looking at a companys profit and loss account may often be different.
It is often said of profit and loss statements, as well as of balance sheets, that the value of every item
included in them is a matter of opinion. This is due not only to the alternative stock valuation
and depreciation methods, but also because of the subjective assessment of whether the settlement
of a customer account is doubtful or not, and the sometimes imprecise evaluation of accruals and
provisions.
What is profit?
We saw from the worked examples in Chapter 2 that profit (or loss) may be considered from two
perspectives. We may consider these perspectives to illustrate the links between the profit and loss
account and the balance sheet.
The first perspective, which is not suggested as a method for calculating profit in practice,
compares the balance sheet of an entity at the start of an accounting period with the balance sheet at
the end of the accounting period. We may see from these that the values of each of the components of
the balance sheet may have changed. For example, levels of stocks, debtors, creditors, cash, fixed
assets, and accruals may have changed during an accounting period. We have seen that the net value
of the assets and liabilities in the balance sheet represents the capital, or equity, or the wealth of the
business at a point in time. The change in wealth over an accounting period between the beginning
and end of the accounting period is the profit or loss for the period reflected in the retained earnings
category in the balance sheet.
Profit (or loss) considered in this way can be represented in the equation:
total assets (TA) 0 total liabilities (TL) # equity (E) ! profit (P)
The second perspective, as we discussed in Chapter 2, considers the profit and loss account by
summarising all the trading and non-trading transactions that have occurred during an accounting
period (see Fig. 3.1). This is the method used in practice to calculate the profit or loss for an
accounting period. This summary, or profit and loss account, gives the same result as that derived by
simply looking at the change in wealth between the beginning and end of the accounting period. It is
the same because all the transactions relating to items contained in the profit and loss account are
also all reflected in some way within one or more balance sheet categories. For example, sales are
reflected in debtors, expenses are reflected in creditors, cost of goods that have been sold came out
of stocks.
Profit (or loss) considered in this way can be represented in the equation:
profit (P) # total revenue (TR) 0 total costs (TC)
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 60
Worked Example 3.1

Using the opening balance sheet 1 March 2005 below and the further transactions (a) and (b), we
are able to:
(i) show how the balance sheet will change after these transactionsevents have taken place
(ii) identify the profit which the shareholders should consider is potentially distributable as
a dividend.
Opening balance sheet 1 March 2005

Fixed assets 100,000
Current assets 100,000
less
Current liabilities (100,000)
100,000
Shareholders funds 100,000
During March
(a) The fixed assets were re-valued from 100,000 to 120,000
(b) All the stock of 20,000 was sold for 40,000 cash (that is, not on credit)
(i)
Closing balance sheet 31 March 2005
Fixed assets [100,000 ! 20,000] 120,000
Current assets [100,000 0 20,000 ! 40,000] 120,000
Current liabilities [no change] (100,000)
140,000
Shareholders funds [100,000 ! 20,000 ! 20,000] 140,000
(ii)
The revised balance sheet reflects two profits:
The revaluation surplus of 20,000 is a paper profit; as no cash has been involved it is not
prudent to pay a dividend from this profit (and legally it is not permitted).
The other 20,000 profit is from trading and is a cash profit; it is quite prudent to pay a
dividend from this profit.
The balance sheets show the categories of assets, liabilities and capital, but it can be seen that
there must be an analysis of the movements between the balance sheets to appreciate their
fundamental nature.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 61
WHAT IS PROFIT? 61
Worked Example 3.2

A trading company, Squirrel Ltd, has an accounting period that covers the 12 months to 31
December 2005. During that period the company entered into the following transactions:
Sales of 1,300,000, included a sales invoice for January 2006, amounting to 100,000.
Expenses of 1,000,000, included a payment of 60,000 for rent relating to the 6 months to 31
March 2006.
The expenses excluded some heating costs relating to the last 2 weeks of December 2005, for
which the estimated cost was around 5,000. The quarterly invoice covering that period was not
expected until late March 2006.
The above information may be used to look at why the annual net profit should be revenues
less expenses, and why there should be accounting concepts applied to the treatment of those
expenses.
The profit and loss account for a year tries to match revenues and expenses for that year (com-
plying with the matching concept see Chapter 1). The term net profit means the difference
between revenues and expenses. Gross profit is derived from sales less the costs of those sales,
and net profit is derived from deducting expenses from gross profit. Net profit is not the differ-
ence between cash receipts and cash payments. Cash inflows and outflows suffer from timing
differences.
The reported sales for the year must relate only to the 12 months to 31 December. Sales for
Squirrel Ltd for the year 2005 are 1,200,000 (1,300,000 less 100,000). Using the matching
concept, the expenses must also be for 12 months. So, the estimated heating costs of 5,000 for
the last 2 weeks of December 2005 must be added, and the rent relating to January to March 2006
of 30,000 (60,0002) must be deducted from the total expenses of 1,000,000. Without these
adjustments, the expenses would not represent 12 months expenses.
Net profit for the 12 months to 31 December 2005 for Squirrel Ltd is therefore:
Sales 1,200,000 [1,300,000 less 100,000]

less Expenses 975,000 [1,000,000 plus 5,000 less 60,000 plus 30,000]
which equals 225,000
There must be an application of concepts and standard practices in arriving at net profit, other-
wise users of financial information would not have reasonable confidence in the amounts being
shown in the accounts reported by companies, large or small.
In this chapter we will look at the profit and loss account from the second perspective. We will look
at how a profit and loss account is constructed and prepared by deducting total costs from total rev-
enues, as the second of the three key financial statements that are required to be prepared by a limited
company.
Progress check 3.1 Explain the perspectives from which we may consider the profit (or loss) of a
business.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 62
Structure of the profit and loss account

As we have seen previously, the profit and loss account measures whether or not the company has
made a profit or loss on its operations during the period, through producing or buying and selling its
goods or services. It measures whether total sales or revenues are higher than the total costs (profit),
or whether total costs are higher than total sales or revenues (loss).
The total revenue of a business is generated from the provision of goods or services and may be, for
example, in the form of:
sales (goods)
interest received (on loans)
rents (from property)
subscriptions (to TV channels)
fees (professions)
royalties (books, CDs).
The total costs of a business include the expenditure incurred as a result of the generation of
revenue. The total costs of a business include, for example:
costs of goods purchased for resale
costs of manufacturing goods for sale
transport and distribution costs
advertising
promotion
insurance
costs of the consumption of fixed assets over their useful lives (depreciation)
wages and salaries
interest paid
stationery costs
photocopy costs
communications costs
electricity
water and effluent costs
travel expenses
entertaining expenses
postage.
Each of the above examples of costs (by no means an exhaustive list) incurred in the generation of
revenue by a business appears itself as a separate heading, or is grouped within one or other of the
other main headings within the profit and loss account. Figure 3.2 shows each of the levels of profit
that are derived after allowing for the various categories of revenues and expenses.
We will look at how a basic profit and loss account is constructed to arrive at the profit on ordinary
activities after taxation (or net profit) for the company. Net profit is also sometimes called net earn-
ings, from which may be deducted dividends payable to ordinary shareholders. The net result is then
the retained profit for the financial year.
Figure 3.3 shows an example of the profit and loss account format adopted by a public limited
company, Flatco plc.
Each of the categories of revenue and cost within the profit and loss account (see Fig. 3.4) can be
examined in a little more detail.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 63
STRUCTURE OF THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT 63
profit after gross margin

dividends (or gross profit)
profit
net profit and operating
after tax loss profit
account
profit before profit before

tax interest
Figure 3.2 Levels of profit within the profit and loss account
Flatco plc
Profit and loss account for the year ended 31 December 2005
000
Turnover 3,500
Cost of sales (2,500)
Gross profit 1,000
Distribution costs (300)
Administrative expenses (250)
450
Other operating income 100
Operating profit 550
Income from other investments 100
Profit before interest and tax 650
Net interest (60)
Profit before tax 590
Tax on profit on ordinary activities (50)
Net profit (or profit on ordinary activities after tax) 540
Dividends (70)
Net result (or retained profit for the financial year) 470
Figure 3.3 A profit and loss account format
Turnover
The main source of income for a company is its turnover, primarily comprised of sales of its products
and services to third-party customers. Revenues and costs are not necessarily accounted for when
cash transfers occur. Sales are normally accounted for when goods or services are delivered and
invoiced, and accepted by the customer, even if payment is not received until some time later, even in
a subsequent trading period.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 64
turnover
cost of
dividends sales
profit
taxation or distribution
loss costs
net administrative
interest expenses
other
income
Figure 3.4 Elements of the profit and loss account
It should be noted that a cost or expense is the financial result of the consumption that occurred
during the accounting period that relates directly or indirectly to the production or sales of the goods
or services, and is accounted for as it is incurred rather than on a cash payment basis. Costs may be
cash-related, invoiced costs such as raw materials or non-cash items like depreciation charges.
Cost of sales (COS)

The sum of direct costs of goods sold plus any manufacturing expenses relating to the sales (or
turnover) is termed cost of sales, or production cost of sales, or cost of goods sold. These costs
include:
costs of raw materials stocks
costs of inward-bound freight paid by the company
packaging costs
direct production salaries and wages
production expenses, including depreciation of trading-related fixed assets.
Gross margin (or gross profit)

The difference between turnover, or sales, and COS is gross profit or gross margin. It needs to be
positive and large enough to at least cover all other expenses.
Other operating expenses: distribution costs and administrative

expenses
Although not directly related to the production process, but contributing to the activity of the
company, there are further costs that are termed other operating expenses. These include distribu-
tion costs and selling costs, administration costs, and research and development costs (unless they
relate to specific projects and the costs may be deferred to future periods).
Distribution costs include the costs of selling and delivering goods and services. Such costs may
include:
advertising
market research
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 65
promotion
costs of the sales department
outbound freight costs
delivery fleet costs
costs of the warehouse and goods outward department.
Administrative expenses effectively include all costs not included in cost of sales, distribution
costs, and financial costs. They may include:
costs of service departments such as
finance
human resources
research and development
engineering
telephone costs
computer costs
amortised goodwill.
Distribution costs and administrative expenses include all expenses related to the normal opera-
tions of the company, except those directly related to manufacturing like the costs of the purchasing
department, logistics department, and quality department. They also exclude the share of overhead
costs, for example, heating and lighting, business rates, water and effluent costs, relating to manu-
facturing activities. Administrative expenses exclude financial expenses and revenues, because these
are really a function of the financial structure of the company (the extent of its funding by owners
share capital and by lenders debt, or loans), and any other non-operational expenses and revenues.
Other operating income

Other operating income includes all other revenues that have not been included in other parts of the
profit and loss account. It does not include sales of goods or services, reported turnover, or any sort
of interest receivable, reported within the net interest category.
Operating profit (OP)

Operating profit (see Fig. 3.2 and Fig. 3.3), or
OP # turnover 0 COS 0 other operating expenses ! other operating income
The operating profit is the net of all operating revenues and costs, regardless of the financial struc-
ture of the company and whatever exceptional events occurred during the period that resulted in
exceptional costs. Operating profit is not required to be disclosed according to the Companies Act
19851989, but its disclosure is one of the specific recommendations within the standard on
Reporting Financial Performance, FRS 3. It is therefore an extremely important profitloss subtotal
because it allows inter-firm comparisons of companies operating in the same markets but having dif-
ferent financial policies.
Income from other fixed asset investments

Income from other fixed asset investments specifically excludes interest receivable, but includes divi-
dends receivable from subsidiary or fellow subsidiary companies and from non-related companies.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 66
Profit before interest and tax (PBIT)

Profit before interest and tax, or
PBIT # OP ! income from other fixed asset investments
PBIT is a measure of the profitability of the operations of a company regardless of the amount of
interest payable and receivable on overdrafts and loans, and regardless of the amount of corporation
tax it may have to pay.
Net interest
Net interest is the difference between financial revenues and charges, interest receivable and payable,
and includes other financial costs like bank charges, and costs of transferring funds. The overall level
of cost (or revenue) will be dependent on the type of company and level of interest rates and
debtequity mix within the funding of the company.
Profit before tax (PBT)

Profit before tax, or
PBT # PBIT !0 net interest
Tax on profit on ordinary activities

Corporation tax is payable on profits of limited companies. The companies, as entities, are respon-
sible for the tax, rather than individuals as with sole traders and partnerships. Tax is shown in the
profit and loss accounts, balance sheets and cash flow statements of limited companies.
The corporation tax shown on the face of the profit and loss account will have been based on a
computation carried out prior to the exact amount payable having been agreed with the Inland
Revenue. There may therefore be some differences from year to year between the tax payable numbers
reported and tax actually paid.
Profit after tax (PAT)

PAT, or net profit, is the profit on ordinary activities after tax. The final charge that a company has to
suffer, provided it has made sufficient profits, is therefore corporate taxation.
PAT # PBT 0 corporation tax
Progress check 3.2 What exactly do we mean by cost of sales? What types of expense does cost of
sales include and what types of expense does it exclude?
The net profit has resulted from the following processes. The assets, owned by the shareholders,
have generated the operating profit. Operating profit has been used to pay interest to bankers and
other lenders, and corporation tax to the Inland Revenue. What is left belongs to the owners of the
assets, the shareholders. The net profit is the increase in wealth of the company.
The directors propose how much will be distributed to shareholders in dividends, and how much
will be held as retained earnings as part of the equity of the company and reinvested in the operations
of the company. The shareholders vote on whether to accept or reject the directors proposal. The
net profit is used to provide the shareholders returns, the dividends they receive from their total
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 67
investment in the equity of the company. So, not only does the net profit have to be positive, but it has
to be high enough to reward the risk the shareholders took in investing in the company. In some
circumstances a dividend may be paid out of retained earnings, even though the company may have
made a loss during the period. This is obviously only acceptable in the short term and cannot be
continued for successive accounting periods.
Dividends
The Companies Acts do not have a specific requirement for dividends to be shown in the profit and
loss account, but both the Acts and FRS 3 imply that dividends are usually deducted from the profit or
loss for the financial year in arriving at the profit or loss retained for the year. The dividend line in the
profit and loss account includes any interim payment that may have been made and any final dividend
proposed by the directors to be paid to shareholders later in the year.
Retained profit for the financial year

The retained profit for the year is what is left on the profit and loss account after deducting dividends
for the year. The balance on the profit and loss account forms part of the capital (or equity, or share-
holders funds) of the company. The companys annual report is required to include a statement that
discloses the reconciliation of the movement in shareholders funds that has taken place between the
beginning and the end of the financial year (see Fig. 3.5).
Flatco plc
Reconciliation of movement in shareholders funds
for the year ended 31 December 2005
000 000
Shareholders funds at start of year 2,524
Profit for the financial year 510
Dividends (70) 470
Shareholders funds at end of year 2,994
Figure 3.5 Reconciliation of movement in shareholders funds
Progress check 3.3 The profit or loss that a business has earned or suffered during an accounting
period may be ascertained by deducting the total costs from the total revenues for the period. Identify
in which category of the profit and loss account the following items may appear.
interest received accountancy fees

share premiums electricity standing charge
interest paid rents received
depreciation on factory machinery for the year telephone charges
CD royalties received advertising and promotion
outward freight costs raw materials purchases
sales of redundant stocks stocks of work in progress
travel and subsistence sales of finished product
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 68
Profit and loss account formats

The Companies Act 1985, as amended in 1989, outlines the permitted formats for published finan-
cial statements. There are four alternative formats for the profit and loss account.
In formats 1 and 3, expenses are classified by function, for example cost of sales, distribution
costs, administrative expenses. Both formats require identical information and have much in
common with the internal management accounts prepared monthly by most UK companies.
In formats 2 and 4, expenses are classified by type, for example raw materials and consumables,
staff costs, and depreciation. Formats 3 and 4 are rarely used. Format 1 is seen more frequently than
format 2, and is the format adopted by most of the larger UK plcs. The profit and loss account in the
example adopted by Flatco plc (Fig. 3.3) has been based on format 1.
FRS 3, Reporting Financial Performance, contains supplementary provisions relating to the
format of the profit and loss account, in addition to the four alternative formats allowed in the
Companies Act. One of the main provisions of FRS 3 relates to the separate identification within
the profit and loss account of turnover and operating profit relating to continuing operations and
discontinued operations.
The other important provisions of FRS 3 relate to the treatment of:
1. Extraordinary items
2. Exceptional items
3. Earnings per share
4. Reconciliation of the movement in shareholders funds.
1. Extraordinary items
Extraordinary items, defined as material (significant) income or costs which are derived or incurred
from events or transactions outside the ordinary activities of the company which were not expected to
occur frequently or regularly, were previously required to be disclosed in a separate line on the profit
and loss account. A companys ordinary activities have now been defined so broadly that extra-
ordinary items have now effectively disappeared from the face of the profit and loss account.
The costs resulting from the complete destruction of a factory may be sufficiently extraordinary to
warrant the appearance of extraordinary items as a separate item on the profit and loss account.
2. Exceptional items
Exceptional items are items of abnormal size and incidence, which are derived from the ordinary
activities of the business. FRS 3 requires exceptional items to be included under the statutory format
headings to which they relate and disclosed on the face of the profit and loss account if necessary to
give a true and fair view.
3. Earnings per share

FRS 3 also refers to earnings per share, which would normally be disclosed after the retained profit
for the year (not shown in the Flatco plc example).
4. Reconciliation of the movement in shareholders funds

The movement in shareholders funds for Flatco plc, disclosed in accordance with the requirements
of FRS 3, is shown in Fig. 3.5. The actual report would of course include the previous year 2004
comparative figures.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 69
PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT FORMATS 69
Flatco plc
Profit and loss account for the year ended 31 December 2005
000
Turnover
Continuing operations 3,500
Discontinued operations
3,500
Cost of sales (2,500)
Gross profit 1,000
Distribution costs (300)

Administrative expenses (155)
Other operating costs
Exceptional items: redundancy costs (95) (550)
Other operating income 100
Operating profit
Continuing operations 550
Discontinued operations 550
Income from other investments 100
Profit before interest and tax 650
Net interest (60)
Profit on ordinary activities after tax 540
Dividends (70)
Retained profit for the financial year 470
Figure 3.6 Format 1 profit and loss account in compliance with the
Companies Act 198589 and FRS 3
Figure 3.6 shows the profit and loss account for Flatco plc restated in line with format 1 and illus-
trating the provisions of FRS 3. The Companies Act requires comparative figures for the previous year
for each line in the profit and loss account (not shown in the example), usually shown in a column to
the right of the current years figures.
Worked Example 3.3

The relevant profit and loss account balances, representing the costs and revenues for the year to
date as extracted from the trial balance of Perfecto Ltd at 30 September 2005, are presented below
in an alphabetical list:
000
Advertising and promotion 54
Corporation tax 70
Costs of administration departments 146
Costs of production departments 277
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 70
Costs of purchasing and logistics department 77

Depreciation on factory machinery 284
Depreciation on office equipment 35
Direct labour cost of sales 203
Freight out costs 230
Interest paid 20
Interest received 10
Materials cost of sales 611
Rent and utilities (23 factory, 13 office) 48
Sales 2,279
Warehousing and goods outward costs 84
We will prepare a profit and loss account for Perfecto Ltd for the year to 30 September 2005,
using format 1, and which complies as far as possible with the provisions included in FRS 3.
Perfecto Ltd
Profit and loss account for the year ended 30 September 2005
Figures in 000
Turnover 2,279
Cost of sales [277 ! 77 ! 284 ! 203 ! 611 ! 32 (23 of 48)] (1,484)
Gross profit 795
Distribution costs [54 ! 230 ! 84] (368)
Administrative expenses [146 ! 35 ! 16 (13 of 48)] (197)
(565)
Operating profit 230
Net interest [20 0 10] (10)
Profit on ordinary activities after tax 150
The Companies Act 19851989 requires group accounts to be prepared for the holding company in
addition to the accounts that are required to be prepared for each of the individual companies within
the group. Consolidated accounts exclude all transactions between companies within the group, for
example inter-company sales and purchases. In most other respects the group consolidated accounts
reflect an amalgamation of each of the components of the profit and loss accounts of all the compa-
nies within the group.
Progress check 3.4 There are four profit and loss account formats that comply with the requirements
of the Companies Act 19851989. How do formats 1 and 3 differ from formats 2 and 4? Which format
appears to be favoured by the majority of UK companies?
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 71
PROFIT AND LOSS AND THE BALANCE SHEET 71
Profit and loss and the balance sheet

The balance sheet and the profit and loss account, whilst they are both historical statements, are not
alternatives or competing options. They show different financial information, as we have discussed.
The balance sheet shows the financial position at the start and at the end of an accounting period, and
the profit and loss account shows what has happened during the period, the financial performance.
The profit and loss account and the balance sheet are linked in two ways:
the cumulative balance on the profit and loss account is reflected within the equity, or the share-
holders funds, category of the balance sheet representing the increase in the wealth of the business
some of the items contained in the profit and loss account are also all reflected in some way
within one or more balance sheet categories.
In Chapter 2 we saw how the balance on the profit and loss account was reflected in retained earn-
ings, within the equity of the company. We will now look at some of the types of adjusting entries
used to prepare the profit and loss account, which are also reflected in the balance sheet.
In this chapter we will look at some further categories of adjusting entries:
depreciation, the depreciation provision, and fixed assets
the cost of sales, and the valuation of stocks
bad and doubtful debts, and trade debtors.
Worked Example 3.4

Ronly Bonly Jones Ltd, or RBJ, buys and sells giftware. It made a profit of 10,000 during the
month of January 2005.
We will use the balance sheet as at 1 January 2005 as the starting point and then look at how
each of the elements in the profit and loss account for January is reflected in the balance sheet to
derive the balance sheet as at 31 January 2005.
The profit and loss account for January 2005 and the balance sheet as at 1 January 2005 are as
follows:
Profit and loss account for January 2005 000

Sales 650
Cost of goods sold
Opening stocks 45
Purchases 424
469
less Closing stocks 79 (390)
Gross profit 260
Depreciation (5)
Expenses (245)
Profit for January [650 0 390 0 5 0 245] 10
Additional information
RBJ acquired fixed assets in January for 20,000 cash, and raised additional share capital of
10,000.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 72
Creditors were paid 422,000 in the month and 632,000 was received from customers. The
bank account at the end of January 2005 was overdrawn by 39,000.
Balance sheet as at 1 January 2005 000

Fixed assets at cost 130
Depreciation provision (20)
Stocks 45
Debtors 64
Cash and bank 6
225
Creditors (87)
Share capital (50)
Profit and loss account (88)
(225)
Lets derive the 31 January 2005 balance sheet from the information that has been provided.
Figures in 000 Fixed Depn Stocks Debtors Cash Creditors Equity Profitloss
assets account
1 January 2005 130 (20) 45 64 6 (87) (50) (88)
Sales 650 (650)
Cash from customers (632) 632 0
Purchases 424 (424) 0
Cash to creditors (422) 422 0
Stock sold (390) 390
Depreciation (5) 5
Expenses (245) 245
Fixed asset additions 20 (20) 0
Issue of shares 10 (10) 0
31 January 2005 150 (25) 79 82 (39) (89) (60) (98)
Ronly Bonly Jones Ltd

Balance sheet at 1 January 2005 and at 31 January 2005 is as follows:
1 January 2005 31 January 2005

000 000
Fixed assets at cost 130 150
Depreciation provision (20) (25)
Stocks 45 79
Debtors 64 82
Cash and bank 6
225 286
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 73
PROFIT AND LOSS AND THE BALANCE SHEET 73
Creditors (87) (89)

Bank overdraft (39)
Share capital (50) (60)
Profit and loss account (88) (98)
(225) (286)
Worked Example 3.4 shows the changes in the balance sheet that have taken place over the month
of January. The 31 January 2005 balance sheet has been derived from considering each element in the
profit and loss account for January and its impact on the balance sheet, and movements between
accounts within the balance sheet:
sales to customers on credit are the starting point for the profit and loss account, which also
increase debtors
cash received from customers increases cash and reduces debtors
purchases of goods on credit for resale increase stock and increase creditors
cash paid to creditors reduces cash and reduces creditors
stock sold reduces stock and is a cost to the profit and loss account
depreciation of fixed assets increases the depreciation provision and is a cost to the profit and
loss account
payments of expenses reduce cash and are a cost to the profit and loss account
payments for additions to fixed assets increase fixed assets and reduce cash
issues of ordinary shares increase equity capital and increase cash.
In Worked Example 3.4, depreciation is a relatively small number. Normally, profit and loss
account movements may have significant impacts on the balance sheet in the areas of both stocks and
depreciation:
during the years 1999 and 2000 several major retailers had to announce that their profits would
be lower due to their stocks having to be heavily discounted (for example, Marks and Spencer
plc)
depreciation of an automotive assembly line may need to be changed due to a revision in its
estimated useful economic life following a reassessment of the life cycle of a vehicle.
Progress check 3.5 Describe the ways in which a companys profit and loss account and its balance
sheet are linked.
We have already discussed the links between the various categories in the profit and loss account
and those within the balance sheet. Consequently, the ways in which specific balance sheet items are
valued have a significant impact on the profit reported for an entity for a particular period. The
requirement for the valuation, or revaluation of, for example, assets like machinery, raw materials,
and finished product may be a result of their consumption or being used up; it may be because of their
deterioration or obsolescence, or significant changes in their market value. For whatever reason,
such changes in the valuation of assets must be reflected in the profit and loss account in the period
in which they occur. We will focus here on the valuation of the three key areas of:
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 74
fixed assets, reflected in the profit and loss account within depreciation
stocks, reflected in the profit and loss account within cost of sales
debtors, reflected in the profit and loss account within bad and doubtful debts.
Depreciation
Generally, the total cost of using a fixed asset over its life may be defined as the original investment
less an estimate of the portion of its cost that may be recovered (its residual value) at the end of the
assets useful life. FRS 15 defines depreciation as a measure of the wearing out, consumption or
other reduction in the useful economic life of a fixed asset, whether arising from use, passage of time
or obsolescence through technological or market changes. In accordance with the accruals
(matching) concept a fair proportion of the total cost (or valuation) of a fixed asset, its depreciation,
should be charged to the profit and loss account during each period that sales or other benefits are
received from the use of that asset. At the same time as the depreciation charge is made to the profit
and loss account, the value of the fixed asset is reduced by the same amount from a corresponding
entry to credit the cumulative depreciation provision account. The cumulative balance at any point in
time on the depreciation provision account for a fixed asset is deducted from its historical cost to
provide its net value shown in the balance sheet at that time.
Worked Example 3.5

Many companies operate and succeed in one market for many years. One of many business facts
of life is that recurring profits can come to an abrupt end when a successful business model
develops a basic flaw. Changes in technology can cause a change in trading or force a complete
review of the equipment that has been highly profitable in the past. Photo-Me International, the
photo-booth operator, announced a 24.1m non-cash write-down of its old analogue photo-
booths in January 2001.
There a number of reasons why this type of equipment review might affect the annual profits:
(i) The profit and loss account for a year aims to match incomes and expenses for that year,
complying with the matching concept (see Chapter 1).
(ii) One of the expenses relates to the use of plant and equipment, which normally represents
wear and tear, and is called depreciation.
(iii) The choice of method of depreciating an asset will result in differing amounts of depreci-
ation for the year and so the annual profit and loss account can be quite different because
of this subjective decision (which involves opinions that may vary from manager to
manager).
(iv) The Accounting Standards Board (ASB) introduced FRS 11, Impairment of Fixed Assets
and Goodwill, to force companies to formally review the fixed assets for any changes in
circumstances (impairment is not recurring, whereas depreciation or wear and tear is
recurring).
(v) In the Photo-Me circumstances outlined above, the company would have had to ack-
nowledge a change in technology from analogue to digital. The result is that the balance
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 75
DEPRECIATION 75
sheet net book values of its fixed assets would no longer be tenable because of their sharp
decline. The remaining net book value of the amount that was paid for their original
acquisition can no longer be regarded as a fixed asset for current and future balance sheet
purposes, and therefore must be written off against the current profits.
The useful life of an asset is the period of its service relevant to the business entity. With regard to
the useful life of the asset, there are a number of problems in dealing with depreciation of fixed
assets:
determining the useful life of the asset
determining the correct way to spread the total cost of the asset over the useful life
physical limitations regarding the useful life
intensity of use of the asset
the actions of the elements
adequacy of maintenance
the simple passage of time (e.g. legal rights or patents)
economic limitations in respect of useful life
technological developments
business growth.
There are three main depreciation methods:
straight line
reducing balance
sum of the digits.
We will consider each of these in detail in Worked Example 3.6. However, the straight line and the
reducing balance methods are the ones that are most frequently used by businesses.
Straight line depreciation is calculated by deducting the residual value from the acquisition cost
and dividing the result by the life of the asset.
The reducing balance method is used to derive the rate required (d) to reduce the cost of the asset,
period by period, to the residual value by the end of its life. This may be expressed as:
life
d # 1 0 residual value/original cost
The sum of the digits method considers the life of the asset, say for example 5 years, and allocates
the total cost of the asset over that period as follows:
For a 5-year life the sum of digits is 5 ! 4 ! 3 ! 2 ! 1 # 15
So each years depreciation is calculated:

1st year 515 " (acquisition cost 0 residual value)
2nd year 415 " (acquisition cost 0 residual value)
3rd year 315 " (acquisition cost 0 residual value)
4th year 215 " (acquisition cost 0 residual value)
5th year 115 " (acquisition cost 0 residual value)
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 76
Worked Example 3.6

Castle Ltd purchases an item of equipment for 16,000 and estimates its residual value, at the end
of its useful economic life of 5 years, at 1,000. At the start of year 1 the net book value (NBV) is
the acquisition cost of the asset 16,000.
Net book values may be derived by using any of the three methods:
straight line
reducing balance
sum of the digits
Straight line divides acquisition cost less residual value by 5 (the number of years economic life).
Reducing balance calculates

5
d # 1 0 1,000/16,000 # 42.5659%
Sum of the digits is (5 ! 4 ! 3 ! 2 ! 1) # 15
Figures in 000
Straight line Reducing balance Sum of the digits
Year Start Depn End Start Depn End Start Depn End
NBV NBV NBV NBV NBV NBV
1 16,000 3,000 13,000 16,000 6,810 9,190 16,000 5,000 11,000
2 13,000 3,000 10,000 9,190 3,912 5,278 11,000 4,000 7,000
3 10,000 3,000 7,000 5,278 2,247 3,031 7,000 3,000 4,000
4 7,000 3,000 4,000 3,031 1,290 1,741 4,000 2,000 2,000
5 4,000 3,000 1,000 1,741 741 1,000 2,000 1,000 1,000
The resultant cost of 1,000 in the balance sheet under the fixed assets category at the end of year
5 is the same using each of the methods. This cost is likely to be offset exactly by the proceeds of
1,000 expected to be received on disposal of the asset.
In addition to the methods already discussed, it should be noted that there are many alternative
methods that may be used to account for depreciation. We will not look at the detailed calculations of
any further methods, but you may consider Worked Example 3.7, which serves only to illustrate the
wide variations in yearly depreciation (and therefore net book values) that may be derived from a
selection of alternative methods, compared with the straight line method.
We have already seen from Worked Example 3.6 that there may be large variations in the amounts
of depreciation charged to the profit and loss account in each year, dependent on which method is
adopted by a company. Worked Example 3.7 further illustrates the wide variation in first year depre-
ciation, from 2,840 to 4,400 on an asset costing 20,000, using six alternative methods of calcula-
tion. The particular depreciation method used by a company, therefore, may result in widely differing
levels of profit reported each year. This sometimes makes it difficult to compare the profit of a
company from one year to the next on a like-for-like basis. Likewise, it may sometimes be difficult to
compare the yearly performance of two or more businesses, which may be similar in every respect
other than the difference in the methods they have used to depreciate their fixed assets.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 77
DEPRECIATION 77
Worked Example 3.7

Consider a company van, which cost 20,000 to purchase new. Its residual value is considered to
be zero at the end of its useful life of 5 years. The rate of inflation is 10% and the cost of capital
is 15%.
The depreciation for the first year and the net book value (NBV) at the end of year 1 may be
evaluated using six alternative methods, including straight line depreciation.
Depreciation NBV at end
in year 1 of year 1
1. Straight line depreciation over
5 years, i.e. 20% per annum using
a historical cost of 20,000 20,000 at 20% 4,000 16,000
2. Constant purchasing power, which
means allowing for an inflationary
price increase (in this case 10%),
and using straight line depreciation
at 20% per annum 20,000 " 1.10 at 20% 4,400 17,600
3. Replacement value for an identical
one-year-old van based on used van
market value of say 17,000.
Depreciation would be
20,000 0 17,000 # 3,000 3,000 17,000
4. Replacement cost of a new van less
one years depreciation based on an
estimated replacement cost of say 21,600 at 20% 4,320 17,280
5. Net realisable value net proceeds
from a trade auction say
16,000. Depreciation would be
20,000 0 16,000 # 4,000 4,000 16,000
6. Economic value using estimated
net cash flow from using the van
for each year 1: 6,000; 2: 6,000;
3: 6,000; 4: 6,000 present values
of future cash flows, using a cost
of capital of 15% per annum (see the
discounted cash flow technique in Chapter 11)
6,0001.15 ! 6,0001.152 ! 6,0001.153 ! 6,0001.154
Depreciation will be 20,000 0 17,160 2,840 17,160
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 78
Whichever method of depreciation is used, it must be consistent from one accounting period to
another. The depreciation method adopted must be disclosed within the companys accounting poli-
cies that accompany the financial statements and include the depreciation rates applied to each of the
categories of fixed asset.
Progress check 3.6 What are the various methods that may be used to depreciate an asset? Describe
two of the most commonly used methods.
The amount of depreciation calculated for an accounting period is charged as a cost in the profit
and loss account, the depreciation charge. A corresponding amount is also reflected in an account in
the balance sheet, the cumulative depreciation provision account, the effect of which is to reduce the
original cost of the fixed assets at the end of each accounting period.
The difference between depreciation cost and other costs such as wages is that it is not a cash
expense, that is it will generate no cash inflow or outflow. The only cash outflow relating to depreci-
ation took place when the asset was originally purchased. The depreciation is really only the
memory of that earlier cash outflow.
Progress check 3.7 Why are assets depreciated and what factors influence the decision as to how they
may be depreciated?
Cost of sales
As we saw in Chapter 2, stocks of raw materials, work in progress, finished product, and consum-
able stores, pose problems in their valuation for three main reasons:
raw materials may be purchased from a variety of geographical locations, and additional costs
such as duty, freight, and insurance may be incurred the costs of stocks should comprise the
expenditure that has been incurred in the normal course of business in bringing the product or
service to its present location and condition
packaging and other consumable items, in addition to raw materials, are used during the pro-
duction processes to manufacture work in progress, partly finished product and fully finished
product, and such costs must be correctly apportioned to give a true cost stocks are disclosed
as a main heading in the balance sheet and comprise raw materials and consumables, work in
progress, finished goods, and long-term contracts
homogeneous items within various stock categories are purchased continuously and consumed
continuously in the manufacturing processes and the purchase prices of these homogeneous
items may vary considerably stocks must be valued at the lower of purchase cost (or produc-
tion cost) and their net realisable value.
There are many alternative methods that may be used to determine the cost of closing stocks. The
four methods that are most commonly used by businesses are:
first in first out (FIFO)
last in first out (LIFO)
average cost
market value.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 79
COST OF SALES 79
The choice of method adopted by individual companies depends largely on their particular
requirements and will be influenced by a number of factors:
ease of use
volumes of stocks
costs of stocks
management information requirements.
The FIFO method of stock valuation is by far the most popular. FIFO (first in first out, where the
oldest items of stock, or their costs, are assumed to be the first to be used) assumes that costs are
matched with the physical flow of stock (although this may not actually be true).
LIFO (last in first out, where the most recently acquired items of stock, or their costs, are assumed
to be the first to be used) matches current costs with current revenues. LIFO is not permitted in the
UK by the accounting standard for SSAP 9, Stocks and Long-term Contracts, and is not acceptable for
taxation purposes.
The average cost method smoothes income and stock values and assumes that individual units
cannot be tracked through the system. The use of market values begs the questions as to which
market value is most appropriate and should replacement or realisable values be used.
Progress check 3.8 What factors must be considered regarding the valuation of stocks?
The following worked example looks at the four main methods of valuation of stocks to enable us to
provide a comparison in numerical terms and represent this graphically.
Worked Example 3.8

A retailing company at 1 January 2005 has 400 units in stock of a product that cost 3 each, and
therefore a total cost of 1,200. The companys purchases over January and February are:
Units Price Value
January 600 4.00 2,400
800 5.00 4,000 Total 6,400
February 200 6.00 1,200
1,000 4.00 4,000 Total 5,200
and its sales over the same periods are

Units Price Value
January 1,400 12.00 16,800
February 1,400 12.00 16,800
The market value of a unit of each product is

Price
January 6.00
February 3.00
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 80
FIFO first in first out, matching costs with physical stock flows
Units Units
January opening stock 400 1,200 Sales 1,400 16,800
Purchases 1,400 6,400
1,800 7,600
January closing stock 400 2,000
Cost of goods sold 1,400 5,600
Gross profit 11,200
16,800 16,800
February opening stock 400 2,000 Sales 1,400 16,800

16,00 7,200
February closing stock 200 800
Gross profit 10,400
16,800 16,800
Note that purchases are always valued at their actual cost regardless of which stock valuation
method is used.
There were 400 units in stock at the beginning of January that cost 3 each and then 600 units
were purchased at 4 each and then 800 purchased at 5 each. On a FIFO basis it is assumed that
the 1,400 units sold in January first used the 400 opening stock and then the 600 units first pur-
chased and then 400 of the 800 units next purchased. The cost of these units was
(400 " 3) ! (600 " 4) ! (400 " 5) # 5,600. The 400 units of stock remaining at the end of
January (which becomes the opening stock at the beginning of February) are the 400 units left
from the purchase of 800 units at 5 each and so are valued at 2,000. Using the same basis, the
cost of the 1,400 units sold in February was (400 " 5) ! (200 " 6) ! (800 " 4) # 6,400. The
200 units of stock remaining at the end of February are the 200 units left from the purchase of
1,000 units at 4 each and so are valued at 800.
The result is a gross profit of 11,200 for January and 10,400 for February.
LIFO last in first out, matching current costs with current revenues
Units Units
1,800 7,600
Gross profit 10,400
16,800 16,800
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 81
COST OF SALES 81

1,600 6,400
Gross profit 11,000
16,800 16,800
There were 400 units in stock at the beginning of January that cost 3 each and then 600 units
were purchased at 4 each and then 800 purchased at 5 each. On a LIFO basis it is assumed that
the 1,400 units sold in January used the 800 last purchased at 5 each and then the 600 units
purchased at 4 each. The cost of these units was (800 " 5) ! (600 " 4) # 6,400. The 400
units of stock remaining at the end of January (which becomes the opening stock at the beginning
of February) are the 400 units left from opening stock at 3 each and so are valued at 1,200.
Using the same basis, the cost of the 1,400 units sold in February was
(1,000 " 4) ! (200 " 6) ! (200 " 3) # 5,800. The 200 units of stock remaining at the end of
February are the 200 units left from the opening stock of 400 units at 3 each and so are valued at
600.
Average cost smoothing of revenues and stock values, assuming that individual units
purchased cannot be followed through to actual sales so total purchases combined to calculate
an average cost per unit
Units Units
1,800 7,600
Gross profit 10,889
16,800 16,800
(1,200 + 6,400) 7,600

Average cost per unit for January # = = 4.222
(400 + 1,400) 1,800
7,600
January closing stock # 400 = 1,689
1,800
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 82
Units Units

1,600 6,889
Gross profit 10,772
16,800 16,800
(1,689 + 5,200) 6,889

Average cost per unit for February # = = 4.305
(400 + 1,200) 1,600
6,889
February closing stock # 200 = 861
1,600
The result is a gross profit of 10,889 for January and 10,772 for February
The lower of FIFO or market value
Units Units
1,800 7,600
Gross profit 11,200
16,800 16,800

1,600 7,200
Gross profit 10,200
16,800 16,800
January closing stock using FIFO is 2,000. Using market value, January closing stock is 400
units at 6 per unit 0 2,400. Using the lower value, stock at the end of January is 2,000.
February closing stock using FIFO is 800. Using market value, February closing stock is 200
units at 3 per unit 0 600. Using the lower value, stock at the end of February is 600.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 83
COST OF SALES 83
Summary of stock valuation methods
FIFO LIFO Average cost Lower of cost

or market value

Profit
January 11,200 10,400 10,889 11,200
February 10,400 11,000 10,772 10,200
Stock valuation
January 2,000 1,200 1,689 2,000
February 800 600 861 600
Graphical representations of the summary of stock valuation methods used in Worked

Example 3.8 are shown in Fig. 3.7 and Fig. 3.8.
It can be seen from the summary of results in Worked Example 3.8 that wide variations in profit
may be reported from period to period. However, over the long run the total result will eventually be
the same, as all stocks become used up. It is important to stress that a method may not be chosen to
give, for example, a required result for one period. There must be consistency in the use of stock val-
uation method from one period to the next.
11,500 January
February
11,000
10,500
10,000
9,500
FIFO LIFO average lower of cost
cost or market
value
Figure 3.7 Profit comparison from the use of various stock valuation methods
Progress check 3.9 Why does stock valuation cause such problems and why is it so very important?
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 84
January
2,000 February
1,500
1,000
500
0
FIFO LIFO average lower of cost
cost or market value
Figure 3.8 Stock value comparison from the use of various stock valuation methods
Bad and doubtful debts

The term provision often means very much the same thing as accrued expenses. The difference is
that a provision is normally an amount charged against profit to provide for an expected liability or
loss even though the amount or date of the liability or loss is uncertain. However, the word provision
is sometimes used in a different context, most commonly the depreciation provision relating to a
fixed asset. It is also used in dealing with debtors at the end of an accounting period.
When goods or services are sold to a customer on credit, an invoice is issued to record the transac-
tion and to obtain settlement. The sale is reflected in the profit and loss account within the turnover
of the business for the relevant period. The other side of the entry is debited to the sales ledger,
appearing as an account receivable from the customer in line with the agreed payment terms. Most
customers pay in accordance with their agreed terms, whether it is for example within 10 days, 1
month, or 2 months of invoice date. Unfortunately, there may sometimes be slow payers; there may
be customers, for a variety of reasons, from whom payment will never be received. In the event of an
invoice not being settled at all, as soon as this is known with certainty, the debt is deemed to be a bad
debt and must be written off. The effect of this on the profit and loss account is not to reduce sales. It
is a cost charged to the bad debt account. The double-entry is to the debtor account to cancel the
appropriate account receivable.
At the end of each accounting period debtors who have still not paid, falling outside their normal
credit terms, must be reviewed as to the likelihood of their not paying in full or at all. If non-payment is
certain then the debt must be written off. If there is uncertainty as to whether or not a debt will be settled
then a provision for doubtful debts may be made on a specific basis, based on knowledge of particular
customers, or on a general basis, say as a percentage of total debtors, based on past trading experience.
An amount in respect of estimated doubtful debts that is charged to an account in the profit and
loss account, the bad and doubtful debt account, is also reflected as a credit to an account in the
balance sheet, the doubtful debt provision. The effect of the provision for doubtful debts is to reduce
the value of the debtors in the balance sheet but without permanently eliminating any accounts
receivable. Debtors that are deemed to be bad debts are actually written off (charged as a cost to the
profit and loss account) and the debts are permanently eliminated from accounts receivable.
Progress check 3.10 What are bad debts and doubtful debts and how are they reflected in the profit
and loss account and balance sheet of a business?
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 85
BAD AND DOUBTFUL DEBTS 85
Worked Example 3.9

Trade debtors on the books of Sportswear Wholesalers Ltd at 31 January 2005 were 429,378:
current month 230,684, month 2 93,812, 3 to 6 months 64,567, over 6 months 40,315. On
18 January 2005 one of Sportswears customers, Road Runner Ltd, had gone into liquidation
owing Sportswear 15,342, which had been invoiced over 6 months previously. Sportswears
policy was to provide for doubtful debts on the basis of 3 to 6 months debts 5%, and over 6
months debts 10%.
Lets consider what entries would appear in Sportwears cumulative profit and loss account to
January 2005 and its balance sheet at 31 January 2005 in respect of bad and doubtful debts. We
may assume that no other debts have been written off during the year to date.
Road Runner Ltd has gone into liquidation owing Sportswear 15,342, of which it is assumed
there is no chance of any recovery, therefore it must be written off as a bad debt in the profit and
loss account in January 2005.
The effect of the bad debt write off is to reduce trade debtors by 15,342, and the debts over 6
months old will reduce down to 24,973 [40,315 0 15,342].
The doubtful debt provision at 31 January in line with Sportswears policy is
5% " 64,567 # 3,228
10% " 24,973 # 2,497
Total # 5,725 (assuming no opening doubtful debt provision at 1 January 2005)
Profit and loss account for the year to 31 January 2005:

Bad and doubtful debts
Road Runner Ltd write off 310105 15,342
Doubtful debt provision at 310105 5,725
Balance at 31 January 2005 21,067
Balance sheet as at 31 January 2005:
Trade debtors:
Balance per accounts receivable at 310105 429,378
Road Runner Ltd write off 310105 15,342
Doubtful debt provision:
Doubtful debt provision at 310105 5,725
Trade debtors in Sportswears balance sheet as at 31 January 2005 would be 408,311

[414,036 0 5,725]
Such bad and doubtful debt entries would not be individually apparent from inspection of
Sportswear Wholesalers Ltds financial statements. Bad and doubtful debt charges are normally
included under the profit and loss account heading Distribution Costs, and the corresponding
balance sheet entries are reflected within the total Trade Debtors heading.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 86
Profit and loss and cash flow

During the last decade of the twentieth century there was a great deal of activity in the birth and
growth of so-called dot.com companies. Their aim was to exploit the use of the Internet to provide
opportunities to sell products and services in wider markets and on an increasingly global basis. The
apparent success of the majority of these businesses was initially based on growth of potential in both
market share and profitability reflected in the numbers of subscribers attracted to their websites.
Actual and potential profitability do not necessarily inevitably result in a healthy cash position. Such
companies invariably required large amounts of cash for them to continue operating for extended
periods prior to achieving profitability and to generate their own cash flows. Many dot.com busi-
nesses from that era failed to survive and flourish, but there were also many successes, for example,
Amazon.com, Sportingbet.com, and Lastminute.com.
In Chapter 2 we discussed how profit and cash flow do not mean the same thing. In fact, the profit
earned and the net cash generated during an accounting period are usually very different, and often
significantly different. How often do we see cases reported of businesses in serious financial difficul-
ties because of severe cash shortages, even though they may appear to be trading profitably?
However, it is invariably the reported profits, or more usually estimated profits, that are closely
monitored by investors and financial analysts. It is these numbers on which analysts base their busi-
ness forecasts, and which influence investor confidence in a business, and therefore its share price.
June 2004 saw a severe profits warning from the budget airline Easyjet (see the Accountancy Age extract
below). easyJets chief executive actually gave a full year profit forecast for 2004 that indicated that it was
likely to be 50% worse than analysts had expected. This had a huge impact on the share price, which
fell by 19%.
Nevertheless, cash flow is very important. There is a relationship between cash and profit, and it is
possible to identify and quantify the factors within this relationship. The profit or loss made by a
business during an accounting period differs from the net cash inflows and outflows during the
period because of:
cash expected to be paid or received relating to transactions during a period may in fact not be
paid or received until the following or subsequent periods
Profits warning the writing

on the wall
Last week EasyJet warned that rising fuel
hris Walton, the finance director of trou-
C bled budget airline EasyJet, has come
under pressure from shareholders to step
down
prices and fare cuts could hurt fiscal 2004
ings sendi ng the share price tumb ling by
earn-
19%
d
com- the companys share price has almost halve
over the manner in which the company
t profit warn ings. in value since the beginning of May.
municated its recen r
al EasyJet founder and its biggest shareholde
The Independent reported that institution oann ou, who has a 41% stake in
raised the issue with the Stelios Haji-I
shareholders have er
Sir the airline, has also been critical of the mann
airlines non-executive directors although the warn ings have been hand led
chair man of EasyJ et, has in which
Colin Chandler,
not saying there was room for improvement.
backed his FD, saying the company was
contemplating any board chang es at the Easyjet FD under threat
moment. Accountancy Age, 14 June 2004
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 87
PROFIT AND LOSS AND CASH FLOW 87
cash may have been paid or received in advance of goods or services being received or provided
and invoices being received or issued
cash may have been paid or received relating to non-manufacturing, non-trading, or non-profit
items for example, cash received for shares in the business, and cash paid out on capital
expenditure
profit will have been calculated to include the impact of non-cash items such as depreciation.
When we look at the cash flow statement in the next chapter we shall see that one of the schedules
that is required to be prepared in support of the cash flow statement is in fact a reconciliation of oper-
ating profit to net cash flow.
Prior to that, we can consider the following example, which is not in strict compliance with the
cash flow reconciliation schedule requirement, but will serve to illustrate how profit and cash flow
are linked and how the links may be identified.
Worked Example 3.10 shows that despite making a profit of 10,000 during an accounting period
the company in fact had a shortfall of cash of 45,000 for the same period. After adjusting profit for
the non-cash item of depreciation and adding the increase in share capital it effectively had an
increase in funds during the month of 25,000. It then had to finance the purchase of fixed assets of
20,000 and finance an increase in its working capital requirement of 50,000 (stocks 34,000 plus
debtors 18,000 less creditors 2,000). This resulted in its cash deficit for the month of 45,000. The
company therefore went from having a positive cash balance of 6,000 at the start of the month to an
overdraft of 39,000 at the end of the month.
Worked Example 3.10

In Worked Example 3.4 we saw that Ronly Bonly Jones Ltd made a profit of 10,000 during the
month of January 2005. A summary of its balance sheet at 1 January 2005, and the 31 January
2005 balance sheet that we derived, are as follows:
1 January 2005 31 January 2005

000 000
Fixed assets at cost 130 150
Depreciation provision (20) (25)
Stocks 45 79
Debtors 64 82
Cash and bank 6
225 286
Creditors (87) (89)
Bank overdraft (39)
Share capital (50) (60)
Profit and loss account (88) (98)
(225) (286)
We can provide a reconciliation of Ronly Bonly Jones Ltds profit for the month of January with
the cash flow for the same period.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 88
January 2005
000
Profit for the month 10
Add back non-cash item
Depreciation for month 5
15
Cash gained from
Increase in creditors 2
Additional share capital 10
27
Cash reduced by
Purchase of fixed assets (20)
Increase in stocks (34)
Increase in debtors (18)
(72)
Cash outflow for month (45)
Cash and bank 1 January 2005 6
Cash outflow for month (45)
Cash and bank 31 January 2005 (39)
Both the company and its bankers would obviously need to monitor RBJ Ltds performance very
closely over future months! A company will normally continuously review its cash, overdraft, accounts
payable, and accounts receivable position. The bank manager will regularly review a companys
balances and require advance notice of potential breaches of its overdraft limits.
Progress check 3.11 In what ways does the profit earned by a business during an accounting period
differ from the cash generated during the same period? In what ways are profit and cash affected by
the settlement (or not) of their accounts by the customers of the business?
Summary of key points

Profit and loss account and income statement are two terms usually used to mean the same
thing.
The profit (or loss) of an entity may be considered from two perspectives: by considering the
change in wealth between the start and end of an accounting period; by deducting total
costs from total revenues (sales) generated during the accounting period.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 89
QUESTIONS 89
Categories within the profit and loss account are classified into turnover, cost of sales, other
operating costs, other operating income, net interest, taxation, and dividends.
There are four alternative profit and loss account formats permitted by the Companies Act
19851989, and in line with the provisions of FRS 3; format 1 is the most widely used by the
majority of limited companies.
The profit and loss account is closely linked with the balance sheet in two ways: they both
reflect the change in wealth of the business; most transactions are reflected once in the
profit and loss account and once in the balance sheet.
Valuation of the various items within the balance sheet in accordance with the Companies
Act 19851989, accounting concepts and standards, has a significant impact on the level of
profit (or loss) earned by a business during an accounting period.
The profit (or loss) earned during an accounting period is not the same as the cash flow
generated during the period, but the links between the two measures may be quantified and
reconciled.
There are limitations to the profit and loss account, which like the balance sheet is an his-
torical document, primarily due to the impact on costs of the employment of alternative
methods of valuation of assets and liabilities.
Questions
Q3.1 Consider two ways of looking at the profit of a business: an increase in the wealth of the
company; and the net result of the companys trading operations (sales less expenses).
What do these terms mean, and is the result different using the two approaches?
Q3.2 How would you define the profit (or loss) earned by a business during an accounting
period?
Q3.3 Outline a profit and loss account showing each of the main category headings.
Q3.4 (i) What are the requirements that determine the format of the profit and loss account
of a limited company?
(ii) Which accounting standard contains provisions relating to the format of the profit
and loss account?
(iii) What are the main requirements relevant to the formats?
Q3.5 The profit and loss account and the balance sheet report on different aspects of a
companys financial status. What are these different aspects and how are they related?
Q3.6 (i) Why are the methods used for the valuation of the various types of assets so
important?
(ii) Describe the three main categories of asset that are most relevant.
Q3.7 What is depreciation and what are the problems encountered in dealing with the
depreciation of fixed assets?
Q3.8 Describe the three most commonly used methods of accounting for depreciation.
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 90
Q3.9 Describe the four most commonly used methods of valuing stocks.
Q3.10 How does the valuation of trade debtors impact on the profit and loss account of a
business?
Q3.11 Profit does not equal cash, but how can the one be reconciled with the other for a specific
accounting period?
Discussion points
D3.1 My profit for the year is the total of my pile of sales invoices less the cash I have paid out during
the year. Discuss.
D3.2 The reason why companies make a provision for depreciation on their fixed assets is to save up
enough money to buy new ones when the old assets reach the end of their lives. Discuss.
D3.3 Why is judgement so important in considering the most appropriate method to use for valuing
stocks? What are the factors that should be borne in mind and what are the pros and cons of the alter-
native methods?
Exercises
Solutions are provided in Appendix 3 to all exercise numbers highlighted in colour.
Level I
E3.1 Time allowed 30 minutes
Mr Kumars chemist shop derives income from both retail sales and from prescription charges made
to the NHS and to customers. For the last 2 years to 31 December 2003 and 31 December 2004 his
results were as follows:
2003 2004

Sales and prescription charges to customers 196,500 210,400
Prescription charges to the NHS 48,200 66,200
Purchases of stocks 170,100 180,600
Opening stock at the start of the year 21,720 30,490
Closing stock at the end of the year 30,490 25,300
Wages 25,800 27,300
Mr Kumar drawings* 20,500 19,700
Rent and rates 9,400 13,200
Insurance 1,380 1,620
Motor vehicle expenses 2,200 2,410
Other overheads 14,900 15,300
* Note that Mr Kumars drawings are the amounts of money that he has periodically taken out of the
business for his own use and should be shown as a deduction from the profits earned by the business
rather than an expense in the profit and loss account.
Rent for the year 2003 includes 2,400 paid in advance for the half year to 31 March 2004, and for
2004 includes 3,600 paid in advance for the half year to 31 March 2005. Other overheads for 2003 do
not include the electricity invoice for 430 for the final quarter (included in 2004 other overheads).
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 91
EXERCISES 91
There is a similar electricity invoice for 510 for 2004. Depreciation may be ignored.
(i) Prepare a profit and loss account for the two years to 31 December.
(ii) Why do you think that there is a difference in the gross profit to sales % between the two
years?
(iii) Using Mr Kumars business as an example, explain the accruals accounting concept and
examine whether it has been complied with.
Discuss the concepts that may apply and practical problems that may be encountered when
accounting for:
(i) the acquisition of desktop personal computers, and
(ii) popular brands of products supplied by retailers
with specific comments regarding their depreciation charged to the profit and loss account and their
net book values shown in the balance sheet.
A friend of yours owns a shop selling CDs and posters for the 1214-year-old market. From the fol-
lowing information advise him on the potential problems that may be encountered in the valuation
of such items for balance sheet purposes:
(i) greatest hits compilation CDs have sold consistently over the months and cost 5,000 with
a retail value of 7,000
(ii) sales of specific group CDs, which ceased recording in the previous year, have now dropped
off to zero and cost 500 with a total retail value of 700
(iii) specific group CDs, which are still constantly recording and selling in the shop every week,
cost 1,000 with a total retail value of 1,400
(iv) specific artist posters are currently not selling at all (although CDs are), and cost 50 with a
retail value of 100.
The Partex company began trading in 2002, and all sales are made to customers on credit. The
company is in a sector that suffers from a high level of bad debts, and a provision for doubtful debts
of 4% of outstanding debtors is made at each year end.
Information relating to 2002, 2003 and 2004 was as follows:
Year to 31 December
2002 2003 2004
Outstanding debtors at 31 December* 88,000 110,000 94,000
Bad debts to be written off during year 4,000 5,000 4,000
* before bad debts have been written off
You are required to state the amount that will appear:

(i) in the balance sheet for debtors, and
(ii) in the profit and loss account for bad debts.
Tartantrips Ltd, a company in Scotland, operates several ferries and has a policy of holding several in
reserve, due to the weather patterns and conditions of various contracts with local authorities. A ferry
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 92
costs 5 million and has an estimated useful life of 10 years, at which time its realisable value is
expected to be 1 million.
Calculate and discuss three methods of depreciation available to the company:
(i) sum of the digits
(ii) straight line
(iii) reducing balance.
From the following profit and loss information that has been provided by Lazydays Ltd, for the year
ended 31 March 2005 (and the corresponding figures for the year to 31 March 2004), construct a
profit and loss account, using the format adopted by the majority of UK plcs, including comparative
figures.
2005 2004

Administrative expenses 22,000 20,000
Depreciation 5,000 5,000
Closing stock 17,000 15,000
Distribution costs 33,000 30,000
Dividends paid 32,000 30,000
Dividends received from non-related companies 5,000 5,000
Interest paid 10,000 10,000
Interest received 3,000 3,000
Opening stock 15,000 10,000
Purchases 99,000 90,000
Redundancy costs 5,000
Sales 230,000 200,000
Taxation 25,000 24,000
(a) Depreciation is to be included in the administrative expenses

(b) Redundancy costs are to be regarded as an exceptional item
Level II
Llareggyb Ltd started business on 1 January 2005 and its year ended 31 December 2005. Llareggyb
entered into the following transactions during the year.
Received funds for share capital of 25,000

Paid suppliers of materials 44,000
Purchased 11,000 units of materials at 8 per unit, one of which was required in one unit of finished
goods
Heating and lighting costs paid for cash 16,000
Further heating and lighting costs 2,400 were incurred within the year, but still unpaid at 31
December 2005
Mr D Thomas loaned the company 80,000 on 1 January 2005 at 8% per annum
Loan interest was paid to Mr Thomas for January to June 2005
10_1458MH_CH03.qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 93
EXERCISES 93
8,000 finished goods units were sold to customers at 40 each

Customers paid 280,000 to Llareggyb for sales of finished goods
Rent on the premises 60,000 was paid for 18 months from 1 January 2005, and business rates for the
same period of 9,000 were also paid
Salaries and wages were paid for January to November amounting to 132,000 but the December
payroll cost of 15,000 had not yet been paid
A lorry was purchased for 45,000 on 1 January 2005 and was expected to last for 5 years after which
it could be sold for 8,000
The company uses the straight line method of depreciation
Prepare a profit and loss account for Llareggyb Ltd for the year ended 31 December 2005.
From the trial balance of Retepmal Ltd at 31 March 2004 prepare a profit and loss account for the
year to 31 March 2004 and a balance sheet as at 31 March 2004 using the vertical formats used by
most UK companies.

Premises (net book value) 95,000
Trade debtors 75,000
Purchases of stocks 150,000
Retained earnings at 31 March 2003 130,000
Stocks at 31 March 2003 15,000
Furniture and fixtures 30,000
Sales 266,000
Distribution costs and administrative expenses 90,000
Trade creditors 54,000
Motor vehicles (net book value) 40,000
Cash and bank 35,000
Share capital 80,000
Additional information:
(a) Stocks at 31 March 2004 were 25,000.
(b) Dividend proposed for 2004 was 7,000.
(c) An accrual for expenses of 3,000 was required at 31 March 2004.
(d) A prepayment of expenses of 5,000 was required at 31 March 2004.
(e) Corporation tax estimated to be payable on 20032004 profits was 19,000.
(f) Annual depreciation charges on premises and motor vehicles for the year to 31 March
2004 are included in administrative expenses and distribution costs respectively, and in the
cumulative depreciation provisions used to calculate the net book values of 95,000 and
40,000, shown in the trial balance at 31 March 2004.
The furniture and fixtures balance of 30,000 relates to purchases of assets during the year to 31
March 2004. The depreciation charge to administrative expenses and the corresponding depreciation
provision are not included in the trial balance at 31 March 2004. They are required to be calculated for
a full year to 31 March 2004, based on a useful economic life of eight years and an estimated residual
value of 6,000.

Sample Chapter PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Sample Chapter PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

10_1458MH_CH03.

qxd 29/11/05 2:10 pm Page 56

56 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

WHAT DOES THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT TELL US? 57

What does the profit and loss account tell us?

58 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

profit and loss

60 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Worked Example 3.1

Opening balance sheet 1 March 2005

Shareholders funds 100,000

Shareholders funds [100,000 ! 20,000 ! 20,000] 140,000

Worked Example 3.2

Sales 1,200,000 [1,300,000 less 100,000]

62 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Structure of the profit and loss account

STRUCTURE OF THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT 63

profit after gross margin

profit before profit before

Figure 3.3 A profit and loss account format

64 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Figure 3.4 Elements of the profit and loss account

Cost of sales (COS)

Gross margin (or gross profit)

Other operating expenses: distribution costs and administrative

STRUCTURE OF THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT 65

Other operating income

Operating profit (OP)

Income from other fixed asset investments

66 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Profit before interest and tax (PBIT)

Profit before tax (PBT)

Tax on profit on ordinary activities

Profit after tax (PAT)

STRUCTURE OF THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT 67

Retained profit for the financial year

Figure 3.5 Reconciliation of movement in shareholders funds

interest received accountancy fees

68 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Profit and loss account formats

3. Earnings per share

4. Reconciliation of the movement in shareholders funds

PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT FORMATS 69

Distribution costs (300)

Worked Example 3.3

70 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Costs of purchasing and logistics department 77

PROFIT AND LOSS AND THE BALANCE SHEET 71

Profit and loss and the balance sheet

Worked Example 3.4

Profit and loss account for January 2005 000

72 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Balance sheet as at 1 January 2005 000

Ronly Bonly Jones Ltd

1 January 2005 31 January 2005

PROFIT AND LOSS AND THE BALANCE SHEET 73

Creditors (87) (89)

74 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Worked Example 3.5

For a 5-year life the sum of digits is 5 ! 4 ! 3 ! 2 ! 1 # 15

So each years depreciation is calculated:

76 CHAPTER 3 THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Worked Example 3.6