Department of Mechanical Engineering

LAB MANUAL
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY II
LAB
SEMESTER : Second
Sub Code : NME 553

BUDDHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

GIDA, GORAKHPUR

Subject Code: NME-351 MATERIAL SCIENCE LAB

 Total no. of Experiment: 10

S. No. Name of Experiment

1. To study the crystal structures of materials and Bravais lattices with the help of
model.
2. To perform the tensile strength test on a mild steel specimen and compare the
strength before and after heat treatment.
3. To perform and compare Charpy and Izod Toughness of the specimen before and
after Heat Treatment.
4. To determine the hardness of a given specimen using Rockwell hardness testing
machine.
5. To study the behavior of the given material specimen under reverse stresses on a
fatigue testing machine.
6. To study and perform the various heat treatment processes.

7. To study and perform dye penetration test.

8. To prepare the specimen for the microstructure examination by cutting, grinding,

polishing and etching.
9. To study the micro and macro structure of the welded specimen.

Experiment No: 1
Aim: To study the crystal structures of materials and Bravais lattices with the help of
model.
Apparatus required: Model of BCC FCC and HCP structure
Theory: The solids are either crystalline or non-crystalline. The majority of engineering
materials, many ceramics, most minerals, some plastics and all metals are crystalline is structure.
The type of their crystal structure bears significantly on the physical properties of these
materials. The various defects which arise in the formation of crystals of a material are further
responsible for certain aspects of chemical and physical behavior of these crystalline materials.
Crystal structures/system: - A regular and repetitious pattern in which atoms or groups of
atoms (i.e. molecules) of a crystalline material arrange themselves is known as a crystal
structure. All crystalline solids may be classified into seven crystal systems or structures, which
are as follow.
1. Cubic Structure: - In this crystal arrangement, three equal axes are at right angles.
2. Tetragonal Structure: - In this crystal arrangement, three axes are at right angles two of
these axes are equal while third one is different.
3. Orthorhombic Structures: - In this crystal arrangement, three unequal axes are at right
angles.
4. Rhombohedral Structures: - In this crystal arrangement, three equal axes are equally
included but at an angle other than a right angle.
5. Hexagonal Structure:- In this crystal arrangement, three equal axes are in one plane at
120 to each other, and a fourth axis normal to this plane. The interval along the fourth
axis is unique.
6. Monoclinic Structure: - In this crystal arrangement, there are three unequal axes. One of
the axes is at right angles to the other two axes, but the other two axes are not at right
angles to each other.
7. Triclinic Structure: - In this crystal arrangement, three unequal axes are unequally
inclined and none being at right angles.
Crystal Structures for Metallic Elements: - Generally, the metallic elements crystallize in one
of the following three structures.

1. BCC 2. FCC 3. HCP

1. Body centered cubic structure (B.C.C):- In this type crystal structure, the unit cell has
one atom at each corner of the cube and one at body center of the cube. Two atoms are

BCC structure of a material

associated with each BCC unit cell the equivalent of one atom from the eight corners,
each of which is shared among eight unit cell. The co-ordination number for the bcc
crystal structure is 8 each center atom has as nearest neighbors its eight corner atoms.
Since the co-ordination number is less for BCC than FCC, so also is the atomic packing
factor for BCC lower-0.68 versus 0.74.
Examples- -iron (below 910 C),-iron (1400C to 1539C), W, V, Mo, Cr, Li, Na, K.
2. Face centered cubic structure (F.C.C):- In this type of crystal structure, the unit cell has
an atom at each corner of the cube and in addition has one atom at the center of each face.
Some of the familiar metals having this crystal structure are copper, aluminium, silver,
and gold. For FCC crystal structure each corner atom is shared among eight of each of
the eight corner atom and one half of each of the six atoms, or a total of four whole
atoms, may be assigned to a given unit cell.
Examples- -iron (910C to 1400C) Cu, Ag, Al, Ni, Pb, Pt.

FCC structure of a material

 3. Hexagonal close-packed structure (H.C.P):- In this type of crystal structure, the unit
cell has one atom at each of the twelve corners of the hexagonal prism, one atom at the
center of the two hexagonal faces and three atoms symmetrically arranged in the body of
the cell. Examples- Mg, Zn, Ti, Zr, Cd.

HCP structure of a material

Atomic Radii and crystal structure of some materials
Metal Crystal Atomic Metal Crystal Atomic
Structure Radius (nm) Structure Radius (nm)
Aluminium FCC 0.1431 Zinc HCP 0.1332
Copper FCC 0.1278 Molybdenum BCC 0.1363
Gold FCC 0.1442 Tantalum BCC 0.1430
Cadmium HCP 0.1490 Platinum FCC 0.1387
Cobalt HCP 0.1253 Tungsten BCC 0.1371
Iron BCC 0.1241 Nickel FCC 0.1246
Silver FCC 0.1445 Lead FCC 0.1750
Titanium HCP 0.1445 Chromium BCC 0.1249

Bravais lattice:
When the discrete points are atoms, ions, or polymer strings of solid matter, the Bravais
lattice concept is used to formally define a crystalline arrangement and its (finite) frontiers.
A crystal is made up of a periodic arrangement of one or more atoms (the basis) repeated at each
lattice point. Consequently, the crystal looks the same when viewed from any equivalent lattice
point, namely those separated by the translation of one unit cell. Two Bravais lattices are often
considered equivalent if they have isomorphic symmetry groups. In this sense, there are 14
possible Bravais lattices in three-dimensional space. The 14 possible symmetry groups of
Bravais lattices are 14 of the 230 space groups. These are given below.
VIVA-QUESTIONS:-
1. Define crystal?
2. The co-ordinate number of FCC?
3. Define the inter planer spacing?
4. Define planer density?
5. How many atoms in unit cell of BCC, FCC & HCP?

Experiment No: 2
Aim: To perform the tensile strength test on a mild steel specimen and compare the strength
 before and after heat treatment.

Apparatus required: UTM machine, Test specimen, Vernier caliper, graph paper
Objective
The tensile test measures the resistance of a material to a static or slowly applied force. This
laboratory experiment is designed to demonstrate the procedure used for obtaining mechanical
properties as modulus of elasticity, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), toughness,
uniform elongation, elongation and reduction in area at rupture.
Introduction
In this test the load is applied along only one axis, and the rate of loading is constant. This test is
done on a universal mechanical testing machine which is typically screw-driven or hydraulically
powered. In some cases the machine may be computer controlled. The primary data generated
are load vs. elongation which is to be converted into stress vs. strain data. In modern tensile
testers, load is measured using a load cell, in older or simpler testing machines, a purely
mechanical or hydraulically device may be employed for measuring main parts, the gage section
and the ends. The dimensions of the specimens are standardized (TS, DIN, ASTM etc.) A good
surface finish is required so that surface flaws do not provide stress concentrations to cause
premature failure.
 Ultimate tensile strength test m/c
Procedure
1. Measure all the original gauge length and diameters of the specimen.
2. Set up the UTM machine for conducting tensile test.
3. Fix the specimen ends in the upper and lower jaw of the UTM platen.
4. Bring the indicating pointer on the measuring dial to zero with the help of supporter and
applying the load on the specimen.
5. Gradually apply load and for each equal increment of the load note down the
corresponding dial gauge reading.
6. After taking eight to ten reading, remove the dial gauge.
7. Test is carried out till failure of the specimen.
8. Take the reading at various points very carefully (Till specimen fractured).
9. Note down the new gauge length and diameter of the fractured section.
10. Remove the specimen from the jaw.
11. Measure the fracture length and diameter of the specimen.
12. Repeat the procedure for the specimen after heat treatment.
13. Draw Stress vs Strain graph.
Observation and calculation

Before Heat Treatment

Lo = original gauge length. = mm

Lf = fracture length = ..mm

Do = original diameter of the specimen = mm

Df = diameter at the point of fracture = ..mm

Ao = original cross sectional area = ......mm2

Af = cross sectional area at the = ..mm2

point of Fracture

Lf - Lo
Percentage Elongation % EL = = X 100 =
Lo

Ao - Af
Percentage Reduction in Area % RA = X 100 =
Ao
Observation Table:

S. No. Dial gauge reading

Load (kgf) Stress (kgf/mm2) Strain g / Lo
(g mm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.
 10.

After Heat Treatment

Lo = original gauge length. = .mm

Lf = fracture length = ...mm

Do = original diameter of the specimen = .mm

Df = diameter at the point of fracture = ...mm

Ao = original cross sectional area = ........mm2

Af = cross sectional area at the point = ....mm2

of Fracture Lf - Lo
Percentage Elongation % EL = = X 100 =
Lo

Ao - Af
Percentage Reduction in Area % RA = X 100 =
Ao

S. No. Dial gauge reading

Load (kgf) Stress (kgf/mm2) Strain g / Lo
(g mm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.
 8.

9.

10.

Results:

S. No. Before heat treatment:

1 Ultimate tensile strength = ...
2 Fracture Stress = ...
3 Percentage Elongation = ...
4 Percentage Reduction in Area = ...
S. No. After heat treatment:
1 Ultimate tensile strength = ...
2 Fracture Stress = ...
3 Percentage Elongation = ...
4 Percentage Reduction in Area = ...

Conclusion:

Precautions:
1. All dimensions should be noted carefully.
2. The oil level in the tank must be desire position.
3. All reading should be noted carefully.
4. The specimen should be prepared in uniform cross-sectional area.
5. Load should be applied gradually.
6. The test specimen should be free from stress raisers like scratch marks in the gauge
length portion.
7. The specimen should be fixed firmly in the vise on the UTM.
8. The readings for stress and strain should be taken simultaneously, during the test.
9. The dial indicator should be fixed firmly on the moving arm of the UTM and the
indicator needle should be set to zero before starting the experiment.

VIVA QUESTION
 1. Which modulus did you find from the initial portion of the stress-strain curve?
2. What is the safety precaution need to take care during experiment?
3. How many types of experiments perform on UTM?
4. Differentiate between Engineering Stress/Strain and True Stress/Strain.
5. What is meant by Plastic & Elastic Deformation?
6. Define Upper Yield Point, Lower Yield Point, Ultimate Strength, Fracture Strength?
7. What is meant by Gauge Length?
8. What are the various types of fractures?

Experiment No: 3

Aim: To perform and compare Charpy and Izod Toughness of the specimen before and after

Heat Treatment.

Equipment Required: Impact testing m/c, Standard Izod/Charpy V-Notched test specimens,
Muffle furnace.
Theory:
Notched-bar impact test of metals provides information on failure mode under high velocity
loading conditions leading sudden fracture where a sharp stress raiser (notch) is present. The
energy absorbed at fracture is generally related to the area under the stress-strain curve which is
termed as toughness in some references. Brittle materials have a small area under the stress-
strain curve (due to its limited toughness) and as a result, little energy is absorbed during impact
failure. As plastic deformation capability of the materials (ductility) increases, the area under the
curve also increases and absorbed energy and respectively toughness increase. Similar
characteristics can be seen on the fracture surfaces of broken specimens. The fracture surfaces
for low energy impact failures, indicating brittle behavior, are relatively smooth and have
crystalline appearance in the metals. On the contrary, those for high energy fractures have
regions of shear where the fracture surface is inclined about 45 to the tensile stress, and have
rougher and more highly deformed appearance, called fibrous fracture. Although two
standardized tests, the Charpy and Izod, were designed and used extensively to measure the
impact energy, Charpy v-notched impact tests are more common in practice. The load is applied
as an impact blow from a weighted pendulum hammer that is released from a position at a fixed
height h. The specimen is positioned at the base and with the release of pendulum, which has a
knife edge, strikes and fractures the specimen at the notch (position of the Izod test specimen in
a vertical while in charpy the material placed horizontally). The pendulum continues its
swing, rising a maximum height h which should be lower than h naturally. The energy
absorbed at fracture E can be obtained by simply calculating the difference in potential energy of
the pendulum before and after the test such as,
E = m.g.(h-h ')
where m is the mass of pendulum and g is the gravitational acceleration. Izod and Charpy test
specimen is given in Figure-2. If the dimensions of specimens are maintained as indicated in
standards, notched-bar impact test results are affected by the lattice type of materials, testing
temperature, thermo-mechanical history, chemical composition of materials, degree of strain
hardening, etc.

Izod Charpy test

Specification of machine & specimen detail:
 Impact capacity = 300 joule

Least count of capacity (dial) scale = 2 joule

Weight of striking hammer = 18.7

Swing diameter of hammer = 1600

Angle of the hammer before striking = Izod- 1200 -900 Charpy- 1400

Distance between supports = 40

Striking velocity of hammer = 5.6 m/sec

Specimen size = 551010 mm / 63.512.73.2mm

ASTM 370 Charpy/Izod ASTM D256
Type of notch = V-notch

Depth of the notch = 2mm

Procedure:
1. Check the zero calibration of the impact tester.
2. First, test a specimen at room temperature.
3. Based on the room temperature result, decide whether to concentrate on higher or lower
temperature.
4. Lift the hammer to an appropriate knife edge position and notch the energy stored in the
hammer.
5. Locate the test specimen on the machine supports.
6. Release the hammer, hammer will strike the work piece and break the piece and shoot up
the other side of the specimen.
7. Note the residual energy indicated on the scale the hammer.
8. Impact strength of the test specimen is the difference of the initial energy stored in
hammer and the residual energy.
9. Test specimens over a selected range of temperatures, attempting to establish a fully
ductile test, a fully (or nearly) brittle test, and as many temperatures in between as
possible.

Observation Table: Izod/Charpy

Type of heat treatment done = ..
Before heat treatment

UI = Energy loss
Specimen Energy Us (H-h) Nett energy Mean Energy
(H-h) without
No. with Specimen Un = ( Us-Ui) Joules
specimen
1
2
3

After heat treatment

UI = Energy loss
Specimen Energy Us (H-h) Nett energy Mean Energy
(H-h) without
No. with Specimen Un = ( Us-Ui) Joules
specimen
1
2
3

Modulus of rupture= Rupture/Effective volume of specimen

Notch impact strength = Absorb energy/Effective cross section area

Result:
Izod toughness before heat treatment
Izod toughness after heat treatment ......
Charpy toughness before heat treatment ...
Charpy toughness after heat treatment ..

Conclusion:

Precautions:
1. Nobody should stand within the range of swing of the pendulum.
2. Release the pendulum lever carefully.
3. Specimen should be placed carefully, considering the correct position of the V-notch.
4. Pendulum brakes should not be applied while the pendulum is returning.
5. Adjust the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after setting the pendulum.

VIVA QUESTIONS
 1. What are the main uses of the Charpy test?
2. What is the difference between Charpy and Izod test?
3. What are precautions needs to take care during test?
4. What is meant by toughness?
5. What is the purpose of V-notch in impact testing and what is its dimension?
6. What is resilience?

Experiment No-4

Aim: To determine the hardness of a given specimen using Rockwell hardness testing
machine.
Equipment Required: Rockwell testing machine, test specimen etc.
Introduction:
Hardness is generally considered as resistance to penetration. The harder the materials, the
greater the resistance to penetration. Hardness is directly related to the mechanical properties of
the material. Factors influencing hardness include microstructure, grain size, strain hardening,
etc. Generally as hardness increases so does yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (UTS),
thus specifications often require the results of hardness tests rather than tensile tests. The most
popular methods are Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell hardness tests for metals and alloys.

Brinell Test:
In a standard Brinell test 10 mm diameter hardened steel ball is forced to penetrate the material
by 3000 kgf for steels and cast irons. The load and ball diameter selection is important depending
on the hardness of materials and 500 kgf is used for softer materials with the same ball diameter.
Keeping the ratio of load P to the square of diameter D2 constant (30 for steels and cast irons and
5 for soft metals and alloys), different load and ball diameter combinations can be selected and
used in Brinell hardness testing. The Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is obtained by dividing
the applied force P, in kgf; by the curved surface area of the indentation, which is actually a
segment of sphere. The geometry of indentation is given in Figure-1, and the hardness is
determined according to the relationship
2P
BHN = -------------------------
D ( D - (D - d ))

Where, P = Load applied

D = Diameter of the ball
d = Diameter of the indentation or impression.

Figure-1: Geometry of deformation Figure-2: Vickers hardness indentation

under a Brinell hardness indenter

Vickers Test:
The Vickers hardness test is based on the same principle as the Brinell test, except the indenter is
a diamond pyramid with square base. The angle between the faces of pyramid is 136 as shown in
0

Figure-2. The Vickers Hardness Number (VHN) of materials is obtained by dividing the applied
force P, in kgf, by the surface of the pyramidal depression yielding the relationship

Where d is the average length of diagonals in mm. Due to the shape and hardness of indenter the
method is applicable to metals and alloys with wide variety of hardness. Test load is selected
between 1 and 120 kgf depending on the hardness of materials. It is also possible to apply micro
hardness testing by keeping the force between 5 grf and 2 kgf in Vickers scale.

Rockwell Test:
In the Rockwell test, a diamond cone or a hard steel ball is employed as the indenter depending
on the hardness of materials. Diamond cone or Brale indenter with cone angle of 1200 is used to
test hard materials and the balls of sizes between 1.6 mm (1/16") and 12.7 mm (1/2") are used in
testing softer materials. Rockwell tests differ from other indentation hardness tests in that the
depth of indentation determines the hardness rather than the indentation size (see Figure- 3).
Therefore, surface condition of specimens is very important in Rockwell testing because of its
high dependency on the accuracy in indentation depth measurements. In order to establish a
reference position a minor load of 10 kgf. Is first applied, and the major load is then applied.
Additional penetration due to major load is measured and readings are obtained from a calibrated
scale (dial) directly, which has a maximum value of 100, depending on the depth of penetration.
Most commonly used Rockwell hardness scales are given in Table-l with typical applications.
The hardness numbers are designated HRX, where X indicates the scale used (i.e. 50 HRC for 50
points on the C scale of dial). It should be noted that a Rockwell hardness number is meaningless
unless the scale is not specified.
HR = E-e
 Rockwell Hardness Machine

Since the deformations caused by an indenter are of similar magnitude to those occurring at the
ultimate tensile strength in a tension test, some empirical relationships have been established
between hardness and engineering ultimate tensile strength of metals and alloys. For example,
for steels UTS can be roughly estimated from Brinell hardness as follows:
UTS (in MPa) = 3.45 x BHN
Procedure:
Adjust the load selector for desired load.
Place desired penetrator like diamond cone or steel ball in the indentor holder.
Place the specimen securely on testing table or anvil.(according to the shape of specimen)
Turn the wheel clockwise so that the specimen starts touching the penetrator.
Apply minor load of 10kg till the small needle comes over in the set position of dial
gauge. This is for specimen to avoid the imperfections.
Rotate the dial in such way that the main pointer comes in the set marking i.e. at 0 at
black scale and at 30 on red scale. If tilt is noticed the same way may be adjusted by
rotating the outer ring of the dial.
Turn the level from position N-B slowly so that load is brought into action without any
jerk. Major load of 100 kg is applied of scale B with steel ball penetrator and 150 kg for
scale C with diamond cone penetrator.
When the long pointer of dial gauge reaches a steady position take back the lever from
position B-A.
Note down the reading of scales. The reading on C scales employing diamond cone
penetrator.
Turn back the hand wheel and remove the specimen.
Repeat the same for further specimen or at different points in specimen.

Observation Table:

Type of heat treatment done:-

2P
BHN = -------------------------
D ( D - (D - d ))

Where, P = Load applied

D = Diameter of the ball
d = Diameter of the indentation or impression.

Before Heat Treatment:

Load applied (kg.) Dia. of the Ball Dia. of the indentation BHN
S. No. (mm) ( mm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

After Heat Treatment:

Dia. of the Ball Dia. of the indentation
S. No. Load applied (kg.) (mm) ( mm)
BHN

1.

2.

3.

4.

Result:
BHN before heat treatment:

BHN after heat treatment: ..

Conclusion:

Precautions:
1. Apply the minor load carefully.
2. Release the lever gently while applying the major load.
3. Observation should be made at a sufficient distance from previous indentation.
4. Handle the Brinell microscope carefully.
5. Care must be taken to set the anvil and indenter firmly.

VIVA QUESTION:

1. What is meant by heat treatment?

2. What are the different types of heat treatment?
 3. Enumerate the need for heat treatment of steel?
4. List different types of hardness testing methods?
5. What is meant by BHN?
6. Differentiate between hardenability and hardness?
7. What are the different types of indenters used in hardness testing?
8. What are the factors which effect the hardness of steels?
9. Why is the minor load applied before applying the major load?
10. How the Rockwell hardness test work?
11. What the various precaution need to take care during experiment.
12. What is the limitation for thickness of test specimen?
13. What surface condition for various hardness tests.

Experiment No. 5

Aim: To study the behavior of the given material specimen under reverse stresses on a
fatigue testing machine.
Equipment required: Specimen with the correct design, Vernier calipers, Dead weight as load
Wrench for tightening the bolt of specimen holder, Fatigue testing machine.

Introduction: Fatigue failure accounts for the majority of mechanical failure of metallic
materials subjected to cyclic loads. Fatigue failures result from repeated applications of stress
which is usually well below the static yield stress. Fatigue cycles are often completely reversed
state of stress, i.e. tension and compression in a rotating beam but can also be tension-tension. In
all cases the number of cycles to produce failure increases with the lowering of the stress leve1.
There are different types of fatigue testing machines. The modem fatigue test frames are servo-
controlled electro-hydraulic or electro-mechanical devices, Rotary bending fatigue testing
machines are simple and low-cost practical machines which are used since 1850.
Each point on the surface of the rotating specimen will go through the points 1, 2, 3, etc. and will
be subjected to a dynamic stress. The stress - time curve is a sinusoidal curve with the amplitude.
The load F can be adjusted by positioning the sliding piece with the weight G. The number of
rotations is determined by a counter and the machine is stopped at failure. The "stress amplitude
- number of cycles" curve can be determined by repeating the test at different stress levels.

Fatigue testing machine

There are two general types of fatigue tests conducted. One test focuses on the nominal
stress required to cause a fatigue failure in some number of cycles. This test results in
data presented as a plot of stress (S) against the number of cycles to failure (N), which is
known as an S-N curve. A log scale is almost always used for N.
The data is obtained by cycling smooth or notched specimens until failure.
The usual procedure is to test the first specimen at a high peak stress where failure is
expected in a fairly short number of cycles.
The test stress is decreased for each succeeding specimen until one or two specimens do
not fail in the specified numbers of cycles, which is usually at least 10 7cycles. The
highest stress at which a run out (non-failure) occurs is taken as the fatigue threshold. Not
all materials have a fatigue threshold (most nonferrous metallic alloys do not) and for
these materials the test is usually terminated after about 108 or 5x108 cycles.
Since the amplitude of the cyclic loading has a major effect on the fatigue performance,
the S-N relationship is determined for one specific loading amplitude. The amplitude is
express as the R ratio value, which is the minimum peak stress divided by the maximum
peak stress. (R= min/ max).
 A variation to the cyclic stress controlled fatigue test is the cyclic strain controlled test. In
this test, the strain amplitude is held constant during cycling. Strain controlled cyclic
loading is more representative of the loading found in thermal cycling, where a
component expands and contracts in response to fluctuations in the operating
temperature.
It should be noted that there are several short comings of S-N fatigue data. First, the
conditions of the test specimens do not always represent actual service conditions. For
example, components with surface conditions, such as pitting from corrosion, which
differs from the condition of the test specimens will have significantly different fatigue
performance. Furthermore, there is often a considerable amount of scatter in fatigue data
even when carefully machined standard specimens out of the same lot of material are
used.

Observation Table:
S. No. Load (kg) No. of cycle

. Kg is the load at which number of cycles are 107 is called endurance limit or fatigue
strength.

Results

1. Plot all the available results on a S-N curve. Note the scatter.
2. Estimate the fatigue limit for this steel.

VIVA QUESTION:

1. What is distinctive about the surface appearance of a fatigue fracture?

2. What information can be obtained observing the fracture surface?
 3. What are the stages in a fatigue fracture?
4. Where do most fatigue cracks start? Why?

Experiment No: 6
Aim: To study and perform the various heat treatment processes.
Equipments Required: Electrically heated temperature controlled oven (Muffle Furnace), Job
holding tong, specimen.
Theory: Properties of metals and alloys can be changed by heating followed by cooling under
definite conditions to make them suitable for specific applications. Accordingly steel can be
hardened to resist cutting action and prevent abrasion. The rate of cooling and the manner of
cooling are the controlling factors in heat treatment processes. Heat treatment not only increases
the hardness but also increases the tensile strength and toughness. Different heat treatment
processes are carried-out in temperature controlled furnaces and ovens.
Annealing: The term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an
elevated temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled. Ordinarily, annealing
is carried out to relieve stresses, increase softness, ductility, and toughness and/or produce a
specific microstructure. Annealing process consists of three stages heating to the desired
temperature, holding or soaking at that temperature, and cooling, usually to room temperature.
Time is an important parameter in these procedures. During heating and cooling, there exist
temperature gradients between the outside and interior portions of the piece; their magnitudes
depend on the size and geometry of the piece.
Normalizing:
Steels that have been plastically deformed by, for example, a rolling operation, consists of grains
of pearlite, which are irregularly shaped and relatively large, but very substantially in size. An
annealing heat treatment called normalizing is used to refine the grains and produce more refine
and desirable size distribution fine grained pearlitic steels are tougher than coarse grained. It
accomplished at a temperature 8300c - 9500c above the critical temperature which is dependent
upon the composition of material. After sufficient time turning to austenite the process term
austenitizing the treatment is terminated by air cooling.
Carburizing:
Carburizing is a case-harden- ing process by which carbon is added to the surface of low-carbon
steel. This results in a carburized steel that has a high-carbon surface and a low-carbon interior.
When the carburized steel is heat-treated, the case be- comes hardened and the core remains
soft and tough. Two methods are used for carburizing steel. One method consists of heating the
steel in a furnace containing a carbon monoxide atmosphere. The other method has the steel
placed in a container packed with charcoal or some other carbon-rich material and then heated
in a furnace. To cool the parts, you can leave the container in the furnace to cool or remove it and
let it air cool. In both cases, the parts become annealed during the slow cooling. The depth of the
carbon penetration depends on the length of the soaking period. With to- days methods,
carburizing is almost exclusively done by gas atmospheres.
Cyaniding:
This process is a type of case hardening that is fast and efficient. Preheated steel is dipped into a
heated cyanide bath and allowed to soak. Upon removal, it is quenched and then rinsed to
remove any residual cyanide. This process produces a thin, hard shell that is harder than the one
produced by carburizing and can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes vice several hours. The major
drawback is that cyanide salts are a deadly poison.
Nitriding:
This case-hardening method produces the hardest surface of any of the hardening processes. It
differs from the other methods in that the individual parts have been heat-treated and tempered
before nitriding. The parts are then heated in a furnace that has an ammonia gas atmosphere. No
quenching is required so there is no worry about warping or other types of distortion. This
process is used to case harden items, such as gears, cylinder sleeves, camshafts and other engine
parts, that need to be wear resistant and operate in high-heat areas.
Spheroidizing:
Medium- and high-carbon steels having a microstructure containing even coarse pearlite may
still be too hard to conveniently machine or plastically deform. These steels, and in fact any steel,
may be heat treated or annealed to develop the Spheroidized structure. Spheroidized steels have a
maximum softness and ductility and are easily machined or deformed. The Spheroidizing heat
treatment, during which there is a coalescence of the Fe 3C to form the spheroid particles, can
take place by several methods, as follows:
Heating the alloy at a temperature just below the eutectoid [line A1 in or at about] in the
region of the phase diagram.
If the precursor microstructure contains pearlite, Spheroidizing times will ordinarily
range between 15 and 25 h.
Heating to a temperature just above the eutectoid temperature, and then either cooling
very slowly in the furnace, or holding at a temperature just below the eutectoid
temperature.
Hardening:
Hardness is a function of the Carbon content of the steel. Hardening of a steel requires a change
in structure from the body-centered cubic structure found at room temperature to the face
centered cubic structure found in the Austenitic region. The steel is heated to Austenitic region.
When suddenly quenched, the Martensite is formed. This is a very strong and brittle structure.
When slowly quenched it would form Austenite and Pearlite which is a partly hard and partly
soft structure. When the cooling rate is extremely slow then it would be mostly Pearlite which is
extremely soft.

Procedure:
Heat the specimen according to various heat treatment process .
Maintain it at this temperature for about 10 minutes.
Now take it out of the oven after austenitizing treatment is terminated by air cooling or
quenching.

Precautions: -
The oven is electrically heated. Therefore take care to avoid burning from heat of the furnace
and shock due to electricity.
Do not hold the hot specimen by hand always use tongs to hold it.
The handle of tong should be plastic insulated. Do not use it bared.
VIVA-QUESTIONS:-

1. What is heat treatment?

2. What are the needs of performing annealing and normalizing on metals (steels)?
3. What are the melting points of steel and C.I.?

Experiment No- 7

Aim: To study and perform dye penetration test.

Apparatus Required: Liquid penetrant, developers, wiping cloth

Introduction:
Liquid penetrant or Dye penetrant testing is one of the oldest and simplest NDT methods where
their earliest version (using kerosene and oil mixture) dates back to the 19th century. This
method is used to reveal surface discontinuities by bleed out of a colored or fluorescent dye from
the flaw. The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface
discontinuity by capillary action. After a period of time called the "dwell time", excess surface
penetrant is removed and a developer applied. This acts as a blotter that draws the penetrant from
the discontinuity to reveal its presence.

The advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection offers over an unaided visual inspection is that
it makes defects easier to see for the inspector where that is done in two ways:

It produces a flaw indication that is much larger and easier for the eye to detect than the flaw
itself. Many flaws are so small or narrow that they are undetectable by the unaided eye (a person
with a perfect vision cannot resolve features smaller than 0.08 mm).

It improves the detectability of a flaw due to the high level of contrast between the indication
and the background which helps to make the indication more easily seen (such as a red
indication on a white background for visable penetrant or a penetrant that glows under
ultraviolate light for fluorescent penetrant).

Liquid penetrant testing is one of the most widely used NDT methods. Its popularity can be
attributed to two main factors: its relative ease of use and its flexibility. It can be used to inspect
almost any material provided that its surface is not extremely rough or porous. Materials that are
commonly inspected using this method include; metals, glass, many ceramic materials, rubber
and plastics.

However, liquid penetrant testing can only be used to inspect for flaws that break the surface of
the sample (such as surface cracks, porosity, laps, seams, lack of fusion, etc.).

Steps of Liquid Penetrant Testing

The exact procedure for liquid penetrant testing can vary from case to case depending on several
factors such as the penetrant system being used, the size and material of the component being
inspected, the type of discontinuities being expected in the component and the condition and
environment under which the inspection is performed. However, the general steps can be
summarized as follows:

1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant testing is the surface
preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may
prevent penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if mechanical
operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting have been performed. These and other
mechanical operations can smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent the penetrant from
entering.
2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the
penetrant material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in a penetrant bath.

3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as much
penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total
time that the penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended
by the penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The times vary
depending on the application, penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the material
being inspected, and the type of discontinuity being inspected for. Minimum dwell times
typically range from five to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer penetrant
dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often determined
by experimentation and may be very specific to a particular application.

4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate part of the inspection procedure because
the excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little
penetrant as possible from defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may
involve cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treating the part with an
emulsifier and then rinsing with water.

5. Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw
penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in a
variety of forms that may be applied by dusting (dry powders), dipping, or spraying (wet
developers).

6. Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of
time sufficient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This
development time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes. Significantly longer times may be
necessary for tight cracks.

7. Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications from
any flaws which may be present.

8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to remove
the developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable.

Advantages

High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).

Few material limitations (metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic, and
conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected).
Rapid inspection of large areas and volumes.
Suitable for parts with complex shapes.
Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans)
Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)

Disadvantages
 Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed.
The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.

Precaution:
Keep the area clean remove residual liquid agent spread on the surface.
Proper attention required while performing experiment.
Do not touch the chemicals direct by hand.
Protect eye from the chemicals.

VIVA-QUESTION:

1. What are the various types of penetrant use for the test?
2. How the dye penetrant work for locating the defects.
3. What are the various precaution need to be take care during test
4. What do you understand by developer?

Experiment No: 8
Aim: - To prepare the specimen for the microstructure examination by cutting, grinding,
polishing and etching.
Equipment required: - Cutting saw/hand saw, grinding machine, polishing machine, dry belt
grinder, aluminium or any other metallic/alloy specimen, etchant, liquid soap.
Theory: -
Grain boundaries are not visible in an ordinary piece of metal machine, dry belt grinder
or cored surface. Their removal is essential for preparation of the specimen to be viewed under a
microscope. Therefore, grinding (rough and fine), polishing and etching are done on them. Fine
grinding is done by abrasive papers of finer grades viz. 400, 600 grits and 33, 23, 17 micron
particle size. Emery papers of grades 100, 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000,1200 are also used. Polishing
is done by polishing compound (Al2O3 powder) of 0.05 micron, placed on a cloth that covers the
wheel. Water is used as lubricant. Etching is done to make the grain boundaries visible.
Test set-up and specifications of m/c: - The experiment is carried out on a series of machines is
given below:
1. Cut-off machine: - This is an open type abrasive cut-off machine capable of cutting up to
60mm, 80mm,100mm round bar and square.
2. Belt-grinder: - This is used for initial rough grinding of specimen. It is mounted with hp,
200V, 1-phase motor, endless belt of 100mm width and 915mm length on dynamically well
balanced rollers.
3. Hand Polishing Stand: - It consists of 4-surface plates to fix 3 x 11 (75mm x 275mm.) size
of different kinds of water-emery papers. It also facilitates swift polishing of specimen with
various grades of emery.
4. Grinding/Polishing Machine: - It is a variable speed double disc machine for fine grinding
and super polishing (lapping). It is mounted with a hp or 1hp motor having continuous step
less variable speed up to 1400 rpm, digit rpm indicator, and discs of 200mm/250mm dia.
Procedure: - The experiment is conducted in the following sequential steps.
Cut a cylindrical or square piece of metal/alloy of any size between 10 mm to 25 mm
diameter side as specimen.
Do its grinding on grinding machine.
Do its fine grinding on dry belt grinder. Continue grinding till the scratches disappear.
Do rough polishing by using emery paper of fine grade. Use liquid soap as lubricant.
Perform fine polishing on polishing machine to get scratch free surface.
Now etch the specimen by immerging it in an etchant. Etchant for aluminium is a blend
of 1% hydrofluoric acid + 1.5% hydrochloric acid + 2.5% nitric acid + distilled water.
Etching should be done for 15 to 30 seconds.
The specimen is ready for microscopic study.
Observation: - Note down the grades and sizes of emery papers and polishing compound,
composition of etchant and etching time. Know the specifications of machines used. Learn the
names of etchants their composition, concentration, and etching time for iron and steel, Cu and
its alloys, and other metals and alloys. Following observations taken in a test are presented for a
ready reference.
 Grade and size of
(i) Particles 320 420 600 800 1200grits
(ii) Emery paper 33 23 17 microns
Polishing compound for
1. Rough polishing: Diamond powder in oil lubricant
2. Fine polishing: Aluminium powder in oil lubricant
Composition of etchant
1. 1% HF + 1.5% HCl + 2.5%HNO3 + distilled water
Etching time
i) 15 to 30 seconds
Precaution: -
Work carefully on grinding machine, polishing machine, and with the etchant.
The etchant is acidic in nature, so avoid excessive and unnecessary contact.
Do not touch eyes and other body parts until the hands are washed properly.
VIVA-QUESTIONS:-
1. What are the specifications of grinding and polishing machines?
2. What is lapping? which degree of accuracy can be achieved in metals, by polishing?
3. Why is grinding performed before polishing?
4. What is the need of polishing on four grades of emery paper?
5. Why is the specimen rotated by 90, while changing from one grade of emery paper to
another?
6. Why is dry polishing done before wet polishing?

Experiment No: 9
Aim: - To study the micro and macro structure of the welded specimen.
Equipments Required:-
Welded components of different types viz. arc welded, lap welded, butt welded etc.
Welded sheets, wires, rods of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys.
Heat affected zone (HAZ) of some metals and alloys.
Metallurgical microscope.
Theory: - Various techniques are adopted to manufacture varieties of products. Welding is one
important technique among them. It refers to intimate joining of metals and alloys by heating to
suitable temperature with or without the use of pressure or/and filler material. Welded
components are made by several methods.
These are-
Electric arc welding: Shielded metal arc welding, Metal inert gas (MIG) etc.
Butt welding, lap welding, fillet welding or corner/edge welding.
U, V, J or bevel type and single or double type welding
Welding all around, flush contour, convex contour or other types
Flat welded; upward, downward, overhead, leftward or rightward.
The microstructures of welded components made by different methods vary widely due to
different chemical compositions and other manufacturing parameters. Their macro and micro
structures are also quite different.
Procedure: - Study different welded components one by one first from macro view point and
then from micro view point.
In macro examination:-
Check the type of weld whether arc welded, gas welded or else.
Check the size and throat of the weld.
See whether the weld is butt type, lap type, or any other type.
If butt welding, see whether its edge preparation is of U-type (single or double), V-type
(single or double) or any other type.
Check whether the welding has any defect such as cracks, pores, blow-holes, slag, inclusions,
undercuts incomplete penetration etc.
Examine the contour of weld and the welding method by which the component has been made.
Perform the macro-crack test, weld tensile test, and impact test also.
In micro-examination:-
View the components under microscope by adopting the procedure as outlined
1. Cut-off machine: - This is an open type abrasive cut-off machine capable of cutting up to
60mm, 80mm, 100mm round bar and square.
2. Belt-grinder: - This is used for initial rough grinding of specimen. It is mounted with hp,
200V, 1-phase motor, endless belt of 100mm width and 915mm length on dynamically well
balanced rollers.
3. Hand Polishing Stand: - It consists of 4-surface plates to fix 3 x 11 (75mm x 275mm.) size
 of different kinds of water-emery papers. It also facilitates swift polishing of specimen with
various grades of emery.
4. Grinding/Polishing Machine: - It is a variable speed double disc machine for fine grinding
and super polishing (lapping). It is mounted with a hp or 1hp motor having continuous step
less variable speed up to 1400 rpm, digit rpm indicator, and discs of 200mm/250mm dia.
Perform different non-destructive tests.

Various region of the HAZ

Study of HAZ (Heat Affected Zone):-
The region of base metal which has undergone a metallurgical change as a result of exposure to
welding heat (during welding process ) is called HAZ. The mechanical properties of metal in this
zone is also affected considerably. The heating and cooling through a wide range of temp. brings
changes in metallic structure also. While welding mild steel, this change may vary from
overheated area near the weld to under-annealed structure away from the weld. However,
complex structural changes take place within HAZ in alloy steels due to rapid rate of cooling. In
case of welding of non-ferrous metals and alloys, the grain growth may occur in HAZ.
Visualization of carbon steel, alloy steel, non-ferrous metals and alloys under HAZ through
microscope will show different structures. In some of these metals and alloys, the structure may
be dendritic.

RESULT/CONCLUSION:-

VIVA-QUESTIONS:-
1. Where does the maximum and minimum shearing stress occur in the cross-section of a
beam?
2. Where does the maximum and minimum bending stress occur in the cross-section of a
beam?
3. Microstructures of metals are different from each other-why?
4. What are the effects of microstructure of steel and C.I. on their mechanical properties?