What is Electricity?

The fundamental building block of all matter is the atom. An atom has a
nucleus at its centre surrounded by one or more orbiting, electrons. See
Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1. Typical atom.

Atoms are very small. A cubic centimetre of matter contains millions of

atoms. See Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2. Millions of atoms per cc.

Copper wire is made up of millions of atoms. Without going into all the
details of how it happens, some electrons orbiting the nuclei of copper
atoms can be made to move from the orbit of one atom to the orbit of
the next atom in an orderly fashion. As shown in Figure 1.3, electron 1
of atom A moves to atom B. Electron 2 of atom B moves to atom C, and
so on.

Figure 1.3. Electrons can move from one atom to another.

Electricity is produced when electrons are moved in the same direction

in an orderly manner through a conductor, such as copper wire.
Causing electrons to move from one atom to another in a copper wire
is relatively easy because copper wire is a good conductor of electricity.
Other good conductors are aluminium and silver.

Materials such as glass and plastics are not good electrical conductors.
Poor electrical conductors are called insulators.

The action of electricity flowing in a conductor is called . "current flow".

The symbol for current is the capital letter "IIII".

 Figure 1.4. Can compare water flow to electron flow.

A flow meter can be used to measure the quantity of water flowing in a

pipe. See Figure 1.5 Water flow is measured in litres per second.

Current flow through a conductor is measured in amperes and is

symbolised by, a capital letter "A" .

An ammeter can be used to measure current flow in a conductor.

Figure 1.5. Current flow measured in amperes (Amps).

A pump can be used to cause water to flow in a pipe. See Figure 1.6.
The force that makes the water flow is called pressure. Water pressure
is measured in Pascal (Newton per sq. metre). A battery or electrical
generator can be used to cause current to flow in a conductor. The
generator, for example, acts as an electrical" pump making the
electrons flow through the conductor, through the light bulb, and back
to the generator.

This results in an electrical "pressure" called electrical potential or

voltage, which is symbolised by capital letter "E".

Electrical potential (E) is measured in volts (V) with a voltmeter.

 Figure 1.6. Electric voltage causes current to flow.

When water flows in the pipe, its flow is impeded by the size of the
pipe and the work performed, such as turning a lawn sprinkler.
Similarly, current flowing in a conductor is impeded by the size of the
conductor and the work performed, such as turning the shaft of a
connected motor. Anything that impedes or resists current flow in a
conductor is called electrical resistance. See Figure 1.7.

Electrical resistance is identified by capital letter . R. .

Electrical resistance is measured in ohms with an ohmmeter. The

symbol for ohms is the Greek letter omega (W).
 Figure 1.7. Electrical resistance (R) impedes current flow.

Ohm's Law

To review, there are three characteristics of electricity:

current (IIII) measured in amps (A),

voltage (E) measured in volts (V),

and resistance (R R) measured in ohms (W).

THE THREE FACTORS ARE ALWAYS IN BALANCE AS DEFINED BY OHM'S

LAW: VOLTAGE (E) EQUALS CURRENT (IIII) TIMES RESISTANCE (R);

E = I x R.

If any two of the electrical characteristics are known, the equation can
be transposed to calculate the value of the unknown characteristic.

If the unknown factor is voltage, multiply current times resistance: E = I

x R.

If the unknown factor is current, divide the voltage by the resistance: I =

E/R.
If the unknown factor is resistance, divide voltage by the current: R =
E/I.

For example, an electrical circuit in which voltage is 240 volts and the
resistance of a light bulb is 960 ohms, then the current is 0.25 amps as
shown by the calculation in Figure1.8.

Figure 1.8. Example of Ohm's Law.

Using the previous example (except the resistance of the light bulb is
unknown), divide voltage by current to find resistance is 960 ohms as
shown in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9. Ohm's Law used to calculate resistance.

As mentioned previously, there are good and poor conductors of

electricity.
Good conductors include copper, silver, and aluminium.

Poor conductors, including rubber, plastic, cloth and mica, are known as
insulators.

The electrical conductor in the electrical circuit, such as a copper wire,

is covered by an insulation material to prevent any person touching a
bare conductor and receiving a severe shock. See Figure 1.12. Insulation
material is also used to prevent two bare wires from touching each
other and causing a short circuit. Short circuits will be discussed in more
detail later.

Figure 1.12. Electrical conductor covered with insulation.

An electrical circuit can be arranged in one of three circuit designs:

series, parallel, and series- parallel.

With a series circuit, the current has only one path to follow from the
source, through the load (lamp), and back to she power source. See
Figure 1.13A.

With a parallel circuit, current divides at one or more points and follows
different paths back to the power source. See Figure 1.13B.
A series-parallel circuit is a combination of the other two. See Figure
1.13C.

These circuit arrangements permit the flexible use of electricity for

houses and commercial industrial buildings.

Figure 1.13. Three types of electrical circuit.

To review, there must be a complete circuit for current to flow. A

complete circuit can be arranged as a series, parallel, or series-parallel
circuit.
Types of Electricity

There are two types of electricity used for power applications: direct
current (DC) and alternating current (AC). Direct current power sources
include batteries and direct current generators. Electrons in the
conductor flow continuously in one direction as long as the circuit is
complete. See Figure 1.14. Most common sources of direct current are
batteries used for torches, watches and cars.

Figure 1.14. Direct current.

With alternating current, electrons in the conductor change direction

regularly and frequently. Alternating current is produced by an
alternating current generator. It is the method by which the

Alternating current is the more common type of electricity as

permanent supply to commercial and industrial buildings and domestic
premises.
Figure 1.15. Alternating current.

Figure 1.16 is a graphical representation of alternating current called a

sine wave. Note the two axes. The vertical axis represents the
direction and magnitude of the current; the horizontal axis represents
time.

When the wave form is above the time axis, current is flowing in what is
called the positive (+) direction. When the wave for is below the time
axis, the current is flowing in the opposite, or what is called the
negative (-) direction.
In period 1, current starts at zero magnitude, increases to a maximum
magnitude, and diminishes back to zero.

Figure 1.16. Alternating current sine wave. In period 2 shown in

Figure 1.17, current flow reverses direction and immediately
begins to increase in the negative direction. When current flow
reaches maximum magnitude, it diminishes until it reaches zero again.

The pattern of alternating current flowing first in the positive direction

(period 1) and then in the negative direction (period 2), is called one
cycle (periods 1 + 2).
 Figure 1.17. Alternating current cycle.

Normal alternating current goes through many cycles each second. See
Figure 1.18. The number of cycles per second is measured in Hertz (Hz).

In Europe and many other parts of the world, alternating current is

generated at 50 Hz, or 50 cycles per second.

In United States, alternating current is typically generated at 60 Hz, or

60 cycles per second.

Figure 1.18. Alternating current frequency.

Voltage in a AC circuit is also represented by a sine wave. In Figure 1.19,
the current and voltage sine waves are superimposed on the same time
axis. Note the two wave forms rise and fall simultaneously.

Figure 1.19. Single phase alternating current.

Single-phase and Three-Phase Alternating Current

There are two types of alternating current: single-phase and three-

phase. The symbol for phase is the Greek letter "phi" (). Figure 1.19
shows single phase AC as a series of single AC cycles. There are one
current and one voltage wave form. Single-phase AC power is produced
by a single- phase generator or by using one phase of the three-phase
supply. Single-phase power is used for domestic premises and small
commercial installations.

Three-phase AC power is a series of overlapping single-phase AC cycles

as shown in Figure 1.20. Each phase is offset by 1/3 of a cycle. Three-
phase power is provided as the main incoming supply in large
commercial buildings and most industrial plants.
 Figure 1.20. Three-phase alternating current.

Work and Power For electricity to be useful, it must do work, such as

produce light or turn the shaft of a motor. There is useful work and
wasted work.

Light radiated by a lamp is considered useful work since it provides a

useful function.

Heat produced by the same lamp is considered wasted work since it

performs no useful function in aiding vision.

The sum of the two types of work is called the total work. The term
power is used to describe the rate at which work is done by a load
(lamp or motor) during some standard period of time regardless of
whether the work is useful or wasted. Practically all electricity used is
generated by companies who sell electricity. They must have some to
measure how much electricity is consumed by each of their customers.
The simplest way is to measure the amount of electricity used is to
measure the work done (power) over a period of time. Power is
measured in watts.

To determine power (P) in watts, multiply voltage (V) of the

circuit by the current (IIII):P P = E x I.
For example, if a lamp circuit has a voltage of 240 volts and a current of
0.25 amps, the lamp is performing work at the rate of 240 x 0.25 = 60
watts.

If the 60W lamp burns for ten hours, total work done is 60 x 1 0 = 600
watt hours. Since the watt hour is a relatively small unit compared to
the amount of power consumed in a typical application, the kilowatt
hour (kWh) is used, being 1000 times greater.

If the 60W lamp burns for 1 000 hours, the work done is 60,000 watt
hours, or 60 kWh ( which is a much easier number to manage).

The electric supply company uses a kilowatt-hour meter to measure the

amount of electricity used by domestic and small commercial /
industrial customers.

For larger users the voltage and current is measured separately so the
customer is charged for volt-amps, commonly quoted as kV (kilovolt
amps). In this way the large users pay for all the electricity they
consume including the non-productive component (see Power Factor).
Transformers

Power delivered from the electric supply company is at a very high

voltage. Before it reaches the consumer there is a transformer which
reduces several thousand volts to a few hundred. The reason for this is
because it is much more efficient to transport electricity over long
distances at as high a voltage as possible. However, for the user a much
lower voltage is safer and more convenient to control.

Electrical devices for which the electricity is used could require other
voltages. For example, voltage in the UK is 240V AC, but many lamps for
display lighting only require 12V. A transformer is used to change
electric power from one voltage to another.

A basic single-phase transformer consists of two coils. See Figure 1.21.

The incoming power is connected to the primary coil, and the
secondary coil supplies the output circuit. The two coils are not
connected physically. Power is transferred from the primary coil to the
secondary coil by a phenomenon called induction. This is described in
more detail in a later lesson.

Figure 1.21. Basic single-phase transformer.

If both coils have the same number of turns, the voltage of the output
circuit is the same as the input voltage.

If, however, the number of turns in the secondary coil is LESS than the
number of turns in the primary coil, the voltage of the output circuit is
LOWER than the input voltage. This is called a step-down transformer.

On the other hand, if the number of turns in the secondary coil is

GREATER than the number of turns in the primary coil, the voltage of
the output circuit is HIGHER than the input voltage. This is called a step-
up transformer.

Conductor Current-carrying Capacity

Conductors used to transmit electricity vary in size from about 0.5 to

12mm in diameter. This is the dimension of bare wire without
insulation. See Figure 1.22.

Figure 1.22. Typical conductor sizes (Not to scale).

As conductors vary in size, the current-carrying capacity varies; the
larger the diameter, the greater the current-carrying capacity. This can
be compared to water pipes; the larger the pipe, the greater the
amount of water that can flow through it.

Current-carrying capacity of conductors also varies with the type of

insulation protecting the conductor. Figure 1.23 shows three examples
of single conductors located in free air.

Figure 1.23. Current-carrying capacity of single conductor in free

air.

Where a number of cables are contained in a common enclosure the

current-carrying capacity will be reduced, due to the risk of the
conductors overheating. Sizes and current-carrying capacities ofall
standard electrical conductors, both bare and with various types of
insulation, are listed in BS7671 (Wiring Regulations 16th edition).

Overcurrents

Conductors are selected and installed based upon the maximum

current they can be expected to carry. Unforeseen events can occur
that raise the actual current above a conductor's maximum rating.
When this happens, the conductor can be damaged and other
catastrophic events can develop if circuit protection is not
incorporated.

One of the most common causes of excessive current is an overloaded

circuit. This is because the greater the load on a circuit, the greater the
current flow.

Typical example is a domestic power socket with too many appliances

operating at the same time.

Another type of excessive current is the short circuit current. A short

circuit is commonly caused by two current carrying bare conductors
accidentally touching each other. Normal resistance (load) of the circuit
is by-passed, and a very large current flows. A magnitude of 10 or 20
times normal current is not unusual.

Figure 1.24 shows an example of a circuit whose resistance is 24 ohms

and voltage is 240 volts. Using Ohm's Law, current flow is found to be
10 amps. A short circuit develops and the resistance of the circuit drops
to 24 ten thousandths of an ohm. (There is always a slight resistance in
a short circuited circuit.) The short circuit current flow skyrockets to
100,000 amps.

Figure 1.24. Current flow increases with short circuit.

Fuses and Circuit Breakers

These are current sensitive devices incorporated to protect the

electrical system from overload and short circuit conditions. If there is
an increase in current above a safe limit the device will switch off the
circuit or a fuse will fail and thus make the circuit incomplete.

When a fuse fails the reason should be investigated by a qualified

person before the circuit is reinstated.

Under no circumstances should higher rated fuses be fitted as this will

compromise the electrical safety of the complete installation which
could lead to damaged equipment or personal injury. The risk of fatality
from electrical shock depends upon several factors, but the higher the
voltage the greater the risk. 240 VOLTS ARE LETHAL.

Circuit Protection
There are three methods of circuit protection in common use, which
are:

This device is designed to open the circuit by breaking the current flow
when it exceeds a given value for a sufficient time. The fuse element is
designed to melt when the excessive current exists.

2. Circuit breaker

This term can be applied to a switch, but for circuit protection the
device is designed to operate automatically when abnormal currents
such as short-circuits occur. Most work electromechanically. Lighting
circuits usually carry relatively low currents and thus the components
used are often referred to as Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs).

3. Residual Current Device (RCD)

An electro mechanical switching device automatically operated when

the residual current rises. It is normally used where a reduction to the
risk of electrical shock is important, such as portable equipment, where
the connecting leads could be accidentally damaged, such as electric
hand tools.

Opposition to Current Flow

As discussed, opposition to current flow is called resistance. Another

opposition to AC current flow is called reactance. This opposition to
current flow is caused by such devices as inductors (motors), ballasts
for fluorescent lamps, and capacitors. Like resistance, reactance is
measured in ohms.

Although resistance and reactance both oppose current flow, they do

so in different ways and in different amounts.

It is not necessary to understand exactly how inductors and capacitors

impede current flow. It is important, however, to know that the net
effect of all resistance and reactance in a circuit is called impedance
which is given the symbol "Z".

Circuit Losses

Every part of the electrical circuit has some resistance and this
consumes electricity in a non- productive way. To limit the amount of
current flowing through a circuit a resistance can be used, but with the
normal AC supply a ballast will do the job more efficiently. For example
it is possible to run a 40W fluorescent tube in series with a 60W
filament lamp, where the resistance of the lamp controls the current in
the circuit.

With an inductive ballast in place of the filament lamp, the same

current limiting takes place because of the reactance, and the ballast
will consume less than 10W. When considering a complete commercial
or industrial installation the saving can be substantial.
Power Factor

Most electrical systems have two power components: productive and

non-productive power. The power needed to magnetise the coils and
iron core of a motor, for example, is one type of non- productive
power. Total power is the sum of the two components.

The relationship between the ideas of productive, non-productive and

total power can be more easily understood from the analogy of a horse
pulling a barge along a canal. See Figure 1.25.

The total power is applied by the horse to the rope. The productive
power pulls the barge along the canal.

The non-productive power pulls the barge toward the bank and must
be countered by the rudder.
Figure 1.25. Productive power.

Power factor is known as cosine (phi) where is the angle shown on

the vector diagram of Figure 1.25 above, but it is more usually
expressed as the ratio of useful power to total power. For example, if a
system needs 100,000W of productive power and the non-productive
power is 10,000W, then the total power is 110,000W

Power factor is 100,000/110,000 = 0.909.

Note the power factor will always be less than unity (1).

The non-productive power component is of no value to the user but

still must be generated and paid for. The objective of any electrical
system, therefore, is to reduce the non-productive component as much
as possible.

As the non-productive power component is reduced the power factor

increases. If the non- productive power component of the above
example is reduced to 1,000W, the power factor increases to 0.99
(100,000 / 101,000). Now only 101,000W of power must be paid for.
The power factor of any electrical system can be improved by the
addition of special electrical devices.

From a purely technical standpoint, productive power is measured in

watts, non-productive power is measured in VAr (volt-ampere reactive)
and total power is measured in VA (Volt Amps). For large users the
electrical supply company either sets a minimum requirement for
power factor, say 0.9, or charges for total power.

Voltage Drop

Voltage drop is the measure of energy that electrons lose as they travel
through a circuit. Energy is dropped proportionately to all energy
consuming components in the circuit so that the total voltage drop
always equals the source voltage.

Figure 1.26 shows the voltage drop in two series circuits. Note that
both circuits have the same 20V source.
Using Ohm's Law (E = I/R), in circuit A voltage drop across resistance
No. 1 is 5 x 4 = 20V.

In circuit B, voltage drop across resistance No. 1 is 2 x 4 = 8V.

For resistance No. 2 it is 4V and for resistance No. 3 it is 8v.

Adding the three voltage drops of circuit B together equals 20V, the
same as the source battery.

Figure 1.26. Voltage drop examples.