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Lesson 1

1.1 The derivative of a function

f ( x + x) f ( x)
Fig. 1.1: The slope of the line PQ is .
x

Let P ( x, y ) be a point on the graph of the function y = f ( x ) (Fig. 1.1).


). If Q ( x + x, y + y )
is another point on the graph,, then
y + y = f ( x + x ) .
From this we subtract y = f ( x ) to obtain
y = f ( x + x ) f ( x ) .
The slope of the line PQ is
y f ( x + x) f ( x)
The slope of PQ = = . (1.1)
(1
x x
As we do not know the form of the function f ( x ) specifically, the division in Eq (1.1)
(1 cannot
be carried out but, this must be performed before the next operation is done. Once this is
achieved, we hold x fixed and let x approach zero. If the slope of the secant approaches a
value that depends only on x , we call this value the slope of the curve at P , or more
specifically, the slope of the tangent line to the curve of P .
lim
Slope of curve at P = slope of PQ
QP
lim y
= (1.2)
(
x 0 x
2

lim f ( x + x) f ( x)
=
x 0 x
The slope of the curve at P is itself a function of x , defined at every value of x at which the
2) exists. We denote this slope function by f and call it the derivative of f
limit of Eq. (1.2)
and it is defined by the rule
lim f ( x + x) f ( x)
f ( x) = .. (1.3)
x 0 x

A function f ( x ) that has a derivative at every point x is said to be differentiable


differentiab at x . A
at is differentiable at every point of its domain,, that is the set of x values at
function f ( x ) that
which f ( x ) is defined, is said to be differentiable.
The most common notations for the derivative of y = f ( x ) , besides of f ( x) , are
dy d f ( x)
y , and .
dx dx
It should be noted that, the derivative is not defined at a point where the graph of a function
has a break (Fig. 1.2(a), a corner (Fig. 1.2(b)) or a sharp peak (Fig. 1.2(c)). The reason being
that, as Q P at a break or a corner, there
there is no single limiting position and as Q P at a
sharp peak, the secants become vertical and the curve has a vertical tangent at P but no
slope.

Fig. 1.2: As the pictures here suggest, the derivative is not defined at a point where the graph
of a function has a break, a corner or a sharp peak. In (a) and (b),
(b) there is no single
limiting position as Q P . In (c), the secants become vertical
ical as Q P ; the
curve has a vertical tangent at P but no slope.

EXAMPLE 1 Show that the derivative of f ( x) = mx + c is the slope of the line

y = mx + c .
3

Solution We calculate the limit in Eq. (1.3) as follows.


f ( x + x) = m ( x + x) + c = m x + m x + c f ( x) = mx + c
lim m x + m x + c (m x + c) lim
f ( x) = = m = m //
x 0 x x 0

This shows that at every value of x , the derivative of f is the slope ( m ) of


the line.

EXAMPLE 2 Show that the function y = x has a derivative at every point of x except

x = 0.

Solution When x is positive, y = x = x . From Example 1 with m = 1 and c = 0 , we

know that the derivative of y = x is y = 1 .

Similarly, when x is negative, y = x = x and from Example 1 with

m = 1 and c = 0 , the derivative of y = x is y = 1 .

1 if x > 0,
Therefore y =
1 if x < 0.

At x = 0 there is no derivative. There are only two secants to the curve

y = x through the point P (0, 0) which are the lines y = x and y = x

(having slopes +1 and 1 ) depending on whether the point Q lies on the


graph to the right of P or to the left of P . As Q approaches P along the
graph, the secants PQ themselves remain stationary. As we know, for the
limit in Eq. (1.3) to exist, the slopes of the right and left hand secants would
have to come together as Q approaches P , which they never do. //

To simplify the difference quotient in Equation (1.3), we sometimes replace x by h . Then


it becomes
lim f ( x + h) f ( x)
f ( x) = .. (1.4)
h0 h

EXAMPLE 3 Find d y d x if y = x and x > 0 . Hence find the slope of the curve

y = x at x = 4
Solution Using Eq. (1.4),
4

dy lim x+h x lim x+h x x+h + x


= =
dx h0 h h0 h x+h + x
lim x+h x lim 1 1
= = = //
h0 h ( x+h + x ) h0 x+h + x 2 x

The slope of the curve at x = 4 is the value of the derivative at x = 4 .

dy 1 1 1
= = = //
dx x=4 2 x x=4 2 4 4

EXAMPLE 4 Find d y d x if y = 1 x .
Solution Using Eq. (1.4),
1 1
dy lim x + h x lim 1 x ( x + h) lim 1 1
= = = = //
dx h0 h h0 h x( x + h) h 0 x ( x + h) x2

1.2 Estimating f ( x ) from a graph of f ( x)


When we record data in a laboratory or in the field, we often record the values of a function
y = f ( x ) , for example, pressure in a gas as a function of volume at a given temperature or
the size of a population as a function of time. To see what the function looks like we usually
plot the data points and fit a curve through them.
Although we may not have any formula for the function y = f ( x ) from which we could
calculate the derivative y = f ( x ) , it is still possible to plot the graph of f ( x ) by estimating
the slopes on the graph of f ( x ) and plotting these slope values as a function of x . When we
draw a smooth curve through the plotted points, we can easily see that, (i) the x values at
which the rate of change of f ( x ) is positive, negative and zero, (ii) the approximate size of
the growth rate at any x and its relation to the size of f ( x ) and (iii) the x values at which
the rate of change itself is increasing or decreasing.

1.2.1 Velocity and other rates of change


Consider a heavy object falling from rest under negligibly small air resistance and no changes
in acceleration of gravity. In this simplified motion called free fall, the distance s fallen as a
5

function of the time t can be found by applying the relationship s = ut + 12 gt 2 , with the

initial velocity u = 0 .

s = 1
2
gt 2

Here g is the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth and it has the value

g = 9.8 m s2 .

s = 1 9.8 t 2
2
= 4.9t 2 m (1.5)

During the first two seconds, the object falls


s = 19.6 m
As shown in Eq. (1.5), suppose we know the equation of motion of a body along a line to be
s = f (t )
and we want to find the velocity of the body at some instant t . To find this instantaneous
velocity of the body let us consider that, in the time interval from time t to time t + t , the
body moves from position s = f (t ) to
s + s = f (t + t ) ,
for a net change in position (displacement) of
s = f (t + t ) f (t )
Then, the average velocity of the body moving along a line
s f (t + t ) f (t )
vav = =
t t
To obtain the instantaneous velocity (or simply the velocity) v of a moving body whose
position at time t is s = f (t ) , we take the limit of the average velocity
lim lim s lim f (t + t ) f (t )
v = vav = =
t 0 t 0 t t 0 t
Thus, the instantaneous velocity of a body moving along a line is the derivative of its position
at s = f (t ) with respect to time t :
ds
v = = f (t )
dt

EXAMPLE 5 A body falls freely with s = 12 gt 2 . Find the instantaneous velocity as a

function of t and then the rate at which the body is falling 2 seconds after
release.
6

Solution The instantaneous velocity is the derivative of s = 12 gt 2 with respect to t .

lim s lim (1 2) g (t + t )2 (1 2) gt 2
v = =
t 0 t t 0 t
lim 1
= g (2t + t ) = gt //
t 0 2
Two seconds after release the velocity is v = gt = 9.8 2 = 19.6 m s 1 //

When we plot the graph s = f (t ) as a function of t for a moving object, the average
velocity for the time interval from t1 to t2 is the slope of the secant line and the
instantaneous velocity at time t1 is the slope of the tangent at the point ( t1, f (t1) ) .

Suppose the quantity of water Q (litres) in a reservoir at time t (sec) is a function of t . As


the water flows into or out of the reservoir, suppose the Q changes by an amount Q from
time t to time t + t . Then, the average and instantaneous rates of changes of Q with
respect to t are
Q 1 dQ lim Q 1
Average rate: ls Instantaneous rate: = ls
t dt t 0 t
The above rates indicate that there is no need to be restrictive to think rates of change in
terms of motion and time. It is possible to define the average rate of change for any function
y = f ( x) over any interval of its domain and define the instantaneous rate of change as a
limit of average rate of change whenever the limit exists.

Now we know that the slope of a curve is defined as a limit of secant slopes which is called
the derivative and how it enabled us to define the concept of tangent and instantaneous rate of
change precisely in a workable manner. However, the definition of the derivative
dy lim y lim f ( x + x) f ( x)
f ( x) = = = of a function y = f ( x ) is
dx x 0 x x 0 x
workable (if this limit exists and is finite, we say that f ( x ) is differentiable at x ) only if we
can work it out rather quickly. So, next we are going to learn how to calculate the derivatives
in a short time possible.
A single term of the form cx n , where c is a constant and n is zero or a positive integer, is a
nominal in x . The sum of a finite number of nominals is a polynomial in x . Our approach is
to find a formula for differentiating nominals and then use it to find a rule for constructing the
derivative of a polynomial.
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1.3 Limits
We know that we need to calculate limits to find derivatives. In this section we are going to
find out how we can calculate them without doing a lot of work. We do this by presenting
some proven results and a few worked examples.
lim
(i) t= c
t c
lim 2 lim
(ii) t = (t )(t ) = (c)(c) = c 2
t c t c

(iii) If f (t ) = an t n + an 1 t n 1 + . . . . . . . + a0 is any polynomial function, then


lim
f (t ) = f (c ) = an c n + an 1 c n 1 + . . . . . . . . . + a0 .
tc
lim f (t ) f (c )
(iv) If f (t ) and g (t ) are polynomials, then = provided g (c ) 0 .
t c g (t ) g (c )

EXAMPLE 6 Find the slope of the curve f ( x ) = x 3 3 x + 3 by evaluating the limit with
the use of Result (iii).
lim f ( x + x) f ( x) ( x + x)3 3( x + x) + 3 ( x3 3 x + 3)
Solution f ( x) = =
x 0 x x

lim
f ( x ) = 3 x 2 3 x x + ( x ) 2 3
x 0

With x fixed, we can treat 3 x 2 3 x x + (x) 2 3 as a polynomial

function of x . The limit is the value of the polynomial at x = 0

f ( x) = 3 x 2 3 .

The slope of the curve is f ( x) = 3 x 2 3 //

limt 2 + 3t + 6
EXAMPLE 7 Find .
t3 t+3

Solution As t + 3 is not zero at t = 3 , using Result (iv)

lim t 2 + 3 t + 6 (3) 2 + 3(3) + 6 24


= = = 4 //
t 3 t +3 3+3 6
8

lim t2 8
EXAMPLE 8 Find .
t 2 t2 4

Solution As t 2 4 is zero at t = 2 , we cannot calculate the limit by direct substitution


in Result (iv). However, by factorizing both numerator and denominator, we
lim t2 8 (t 2)(t 2 + 2t + 4) (t 2 + 2t + 4)
get = = for all values of
t 2 t2 4 (t 2)(t + 2) (t + 2)

t 2.
Using Result (iv), we have
lim t2 8 t 2 + 2t + 4 (2) 2 + 2(2) + 4 12
= = = = 3 //
t 2 t2 4 (t + 2) 2+2 4
Example 8 shows that the limit of a function f (t ) as t c never depend on
what happens to it when t = c . The limit (if it exists) is entirely determined by
the values that f (t ) has when t c .

1.3.1 Infinity as a limit

Sometimes it is useful to know how some functions behave when their domains or ranges
exceed all bounds. For this we have to look for the value of a function f ( x ) in the limit of x
approaching infinity, keeping in mind that there is no real number as infinity.
Consider the function y = 1 x . When we try to plot the graph of this function over the entire
range of x values, we can see that
(a) As x approaches 0 from the right, 1 x tends to .
(b) As x approaches 0 from the left, 1 x tends to .
(c) As x tends to , 1 x approaches 0.
(d) As x tends to , 1 x approaches 0.

Some important results and theorems that are useful in finding the limits of combinations of
functions, as x tends to and , can be given as follows.

1 lim 1 lim 1
If f ( x ) = =0 and =0
x x x x x
lim lim
If f ( x ) = k (constant) f ( x) = k and f ( x) = k
x x
lim lim
If f ( x ) = L1 and g ( x ) = L2 , where L1 and L2 are (finite)
x x
real numbers, then
9

lim lim
(i) [ f ( x) + g ( x ) ] = L1 + L2 (ii) [ f ( x) g ( x ) ] = L1 L2
x x
lim lim f ( x ) L
(iii) f ( x ) g ( x ) = L1L2 (iv) = 1 if L2 0
x x g ( x) L2
lim
(v) k f ( x ) = k L1 (any number k )
x
lim x lim 1 lim 1 1
EXAMPLE 9 Find = = = //
x 2x + 3 x 2 + (3 x ) x 2+0 2

lim 1 lim 1 1 lim


EXAMPLE 10 Find = = 0 0 = 0 // (using (iii))
x x 2 x x x x

lim 2 x 2 3x + 5 lim 2 (3 x ) + (5 x 2 ) 2 0+0 2


EXAMPLE 11 Find = = = //
x 3x + 4
2 x 3 + (4 x ) 2 3+ 0 3

lim 3x + 5 lim (3 x ) + (5 x 2 ) 0+0


EXAMPLE 12 Find = = = 0 //
x 3x 1
2 x 3 (1 x )2 3 0

lim sin x lim lim sin x


EXAMPLE 13 Find 2 + = 2 + = 2 + 0 = 2 //
x x x x x

1.4 Derivatives

In the previous work we saw how the slope of a curve is defined as a limit of secant slopes
and how this limit, called a derivative enabled us to formulate workable definitions of the
concept of tangent and instantaneous rate of change. However, the definition given by
dy lim f ( x + x) f ( x)
Equation (1.3), = f ( x) = , has proved to be workable only if
dx x 0 x
we can work it out with enough time. Since we know now enough to be able to calculate the
derivative, we will next learn about the ways to calculate derivatives quickly. For this we are
going to derive a set of rules which will enable us to calculate the derivative of combinations
of functions such as sums, products, quotients, and of functions raised to integer and
fractional powers etc, without consuming much time.

1.4.1 Polynomial functions and their derivatives


Rule 1: The derivative of a constant is zero.
Consider y = f ( x ) = c , where c is a constant (i.e. a nominal cx n with n = 0 ). Its
derivative is then
10

dy lim f ( x + x) f ( x ) lim c c lim


f ( x) = = = = 0=0
d x x 0 x x 0 x x 0
dy d
= ( c) = 0 The derivative of a constant is zero.
dx dx

dy
Rule 2: When y = f ( x) = x n , the derivative of y , = nx n 1 .
dx
Consider y = f ( x) = x n (i.e. a nominal cx n with c = 1 ). Its derivative is then
dy lim f ( x + x) f ( x) lim ( x + x)n x n
f ( x) = = =
d x x 0 x x 0 x
Since n is a positive integer, we can apply the algebraic formula
a n b n = (a b)(a n 1 + a n 2b + a n 3b 2 . . . . . . . + abn 2 + bn 1 )
with a = x + x , b = x and a b = x to the expression of f ( x )
dy lim ( x + x)n x n
f ( x) = =
dx x 0 x
lim ( x)[( x + x) n 1 + ( x + x)n 2 x . . . . . + ( x + x) x n 2 + x n 1 ]
=
x 0 x
lim
= [( x + x ) n 1 + ( x + x ) n 2 x . . . . . . . + ( x + x ) x n 2 + x n 1 ]
x 0
= [ x n 1 + x n 1 . . . . . . . + x n 1 + x n 1 ] (contains n terms)
= n x n 1
dy d n
When y = x n , = x = nx n 1 .
dx dx

Rule 3: When y = cu , where u = f ( x ) is any differentiable function of x and c is any


d du
constant, then, the derivative of y = cu , (cu ) = c .
dx dx
Consider y = cu . Its derivative is then
df d lim cf ( x + x) cf ( x) lim f ( x + x) f ( x ) du
= (cu ) = = c = c
dx dx x 0 x x 0 x dx

When y = cx n , where c is a constant and n is a positive integer, by combining


d
Rules 2 and 3, we obtain (cx n ) = c nx n 1 .
dx

EXAMPLE 14 The line y = 2 x + b is tangent to the curve y = 3 x 2 . Find b and the point of
tangency.
11

Solution The slope of the line y = 2 x + b is 2. The slope of the curve at any point

P( x, y ) is d y d x = 6 x . If P is also the point of tangency, the slope of the


curve at P is equal to the slope of the line. Hence 6 x = 2 or x = 1 3 . The y -

coordinate of P must then be y = 3(1 3) = 1 3 .


2

The point of tangency is therefore (1 3, 1 3) //

Since the line y = 2 x + b passes through the point (1 3, 1 3) ,

1 1 1
= 2 + b b = //
3 3 3

Rule 4: If u and v are differentiable functions of x then their sum u + v is a differentiable


d du dv
function of x and (u + v) = +
dx dx dx
Let y = u + v . If u and v are the changes in u and v that result from changing
x by an amount x , the resulting change in y is
y = u + v
y u v
Hence = +
x x x

dy lim y lim u v lim u lim v du dv


= = + = + = +
dx x 0 x x 0 x x x 0 x x 0 x dx dx

d (u + v) du dv
Therefore, = +
dx dx dx
The above rule can be shown to be valid for any number of differentiable functions of
x.

EXAMPLE 15 Find d y dx if y = x3 + 5 x 2 3x + 2 .
Solution Using Rule 4,

dy d ( x3 ) d (5 x 2 ) d (3x) d (2)
= + + = 3x 2 + 10 x 3 x0 + 0
dx dx dx dx dx

= 3x 2 + 10 x 3 //
12

1.4.2 Second Derivative

dy
The derivative y = is the first derivative of y with respect to x . The first derivative is
dx
itself a function of x and may be differentiable. Then, its derivaltive

d y d dy
y = =
dx d x dx

is called the second derivative of y with respect to x .


d2 y
The second derivative of of y with respect to x can also be written as .
d x2
If a function y = f ( x ) is differentiated n times, it is denoted by y ( n ) , f ( n) ( x) or d n y dx n
.

1.4.3 Velocity and Acceleration

Consider a body moving along a line whose position s = f (t ) is a twice-differentiable


function of time. Then, the velocity of the body that describes how fast the position is
changing with time is given by the first derivative ds dt . The acceleration of the body that

describes how fast the velocity is changing with time is given by the first derivative dv dt or

equivalently by the second derivative d 2 s dt 2 .

EXAMPLE 16 The position of a moving body is given by the equation s = 49t 4.9t 2 with
s in meters and t in seconds. Find the bodys velocity and acceleration at
time t .

Solution The velocity is

v =
ds
dt
=
d
dt
( )
49t 4.9t 2 = 49 9.8t m s 1 //

The acceleration is
dv d
a = = ( 49 9.8t ) = 9.8 m s2 //
dt dt
13

1.5 Products, Powers and Quotients


1.5.1 Products

Rule 5: If u and v are differentiable functions of x then their product u v is a

d dv du
differentiable function of x and (u v) = u +v
dx dx dx
Let y = u v . If u and v are the changes in u and v that result from changing x
by an amount x , the resulting change in y is
y = (u + u)(v + v) u v = u v + u v + vu + u v u v = u v + vu + u v

y u v vu u v
= + +
x x x x
When x approaches zero, so will u , because

u u du
lim u = lim x = lim lim x = 0 = 0
x x d x
Therefore, when x approaches zero

y u v vu u v v u v
lim = lim + + = lim u + lim v + lim u
x x x x x x x
y v u v
lim = lim u lim + lim v lim + lim u lim
x x x x
dy dv du dv
=u +v + 0
dx dx dx dx

d dv du
(u v ) = u +v
dx dx dx

The above product rule can be extended for any number of differentiable functions of
x in y and, for the simple case that there are only three such functions in y as given
by y = u vw ,

d dw du dv
(u vw) = uv + vw + wu
dx dx dx dx

EXAMPLE 17 Find the derivative of y = ( x 2 + 2)( x3 + 3) .

Solution From the product rule with u = x 2 + 2 and v = x3 + 3


14

dy
= ( x 2 + 2)(3 x 2 ) + ( x 3 + 3)(2 x ) = 3 x 4 + 6 x 2 + 2 x 4 + 6 x //
dx

The same answer for d y dx can be obtained by multiplying out the original
expressions in y and differentiating the resulting polynomial.

1.5.2 Positive integer powers of a differentiable function


Rule 6: If u is a differentiable function of x and n is a positive integer, then u n is a

d n du
differentiable function of x and (u ) = nu n1
dx dx
Rule 6 can be proven using mathematical induction. Let us consider the result when
d du du
n =1. (u) = u0 = which is certainly true if u 0 .
dx dx dx
For n = 2 , we apply the product rule to the function y = u u to obtain
d 2 d du du du
(u ) = (u u) = u +u = 2u of which the R.H.S. is the same as that
dx dx dx dx dx
is yielded by the given rule (with n = 2 ).
Suppose that the rule has been established for some positive integer k , so that
d k du
(u ) = k u k 1 .
dx dx
We may then show that the rule holds for the next integer, k + 1 . For this we take

y = u k +1 and rewrite y as a product y = u uk and apply the product rule.

dy d d du du du du
= (u u k ) = u (u k ) + uk = u kuk 1 + uk = (k + 1)u k
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx

We have shown that Rule 6 holds for the integer, k + 1 if it holds for the integer k . As
Rule 6 has already been established for n = 1 and n = 2 , the mathematical induction
principle ensures it for every positive integer n .

EXAMPLE 18 Find the derivative of y = ( x 2 3 x + 2)5 .

Solution From the Power Rule with u = x 2 2 x + 3 , we get


15

dy d 2 d 2
= ( x 3 x + 2)5 = 5( x 2 3 x + 2) 4 ( x 3 x + 2)
dx dx dx

d 2
= 5( x 2 3 x + 2) 4 ( x 3 x + 2) = 5( x 2 3 x + 2) 4 (2 x 3) //
dx

1.5.3 The quotient Rule


Rule 7: If u and v are two polynomials of x and are differentiable functions of x , then, at a
point where v 0 , the quotient y = u v (usually not a polynomial) is differentiable
and
du dv
v u
d u dx dx
= .
dxv v2

At a point x where v 0 and where both u and v are differentiable, let x be given
an increment x and let y , u and v be the corresponding increments in y , u
and v . Then, as x 0 ,
lim (v + v) = lim v + lim v
v dv
lim v = lim x = 0 = 0
x dx
lim (v + v) = lim v + lim v = v + 0 = v
Therefore, the value of v + v is close to the value of v when x is near zero. Since
v 0 at x , it follows that v + v 0 when x is near zero. Then v + v 0 , and
u + u
y + y =
v + v

By subtracting y = u v from this, we obtain


u + u u v(u + u) u(v + v) vu uv
y = = = .
v + v v v(v + v) v(v + v)

u v
v u
y x x
Dividing the above result by x , we have =
x v(v + v)
When x approaches zero,
16

u v u v
lim v u v lim u lim
lim
y
= x x
=
x x
x lim v(v + v) lim v lim(v + v)

du dv
v u
dy dx dx
=
dx v2

x2 1
EXAMPLE 19 Find the derivative of y = .
x2 + 1

Solution From the Quotient Rule with u = x 2 1 and v = x 2 + 1 , we get

dy ( x 2 + 1) 2 x ( x 2 1) 2 x 4x
= = 2 //
dx ( x + 1)
2 2
( x + 1) 2

1.5.4 Negative integer powers of a differentiable function


Rule 8: At a point where u is a differentiable function of x and not zero, the derivative of
d n du
y = u n , where n is a negative integer is given by (u ) = nu n1 .
dx dx

1
Let y = u m = m , where n = m is a positive integer. Then, the derivative of y
u
can be obtained by using Rule 7.

1 d (1) du m du du
d m um 1 mu m 1 nu n1
= u =
dy dx dx dx dx du
m 2
= 2 m
= 2 n
= nu n 1 //
dx dx (u ) u u dx

EXAMPLE 20 Find the derivative of y = x 2 + x 2 .

Solution By writing y = x 2 + x 2 and using Rules 6 and 8, we get

dy dx dx
= 2 x 21 + ( 2) x 21 = 2 x 2 x 3 //
dx dx dx

1.5.5 The power rule for fractional exponents


17

Rule 9: If u is a differentiable function of x , and p and q are integers with q > 0 , then the

d p du
derivative of y = u p q is given by (u p q) = u ( p q)1 provided u 0 if
dx q dx

p q < 1.
This can be understood as an extension of Rule 8 for case in which n = p q is any
rational number.
When an equation in x and y defines y as a differentiable function of x , we can use
rules of differentiations to calculate dy dx even when the given equation cannot be
solved for y . This method of treating y as a differentiable but unknown function of
x and differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x to obtain dy dx is
called implicit differentiation. See the examples given below.

EXAMPLE 21 Find the dy dx , when y 2 = x which represents a parabola (symmetric about


the x-axis).

Solution In this problem, the equation y 2 = x can be solved for y and, it defines two

differentiable function of x , as y = x and y = x . The derivative of each

of these can be found (using Rule 9) as dy dx = 1 (2 x ) = 1 2 y and

dy dx = 1 (2 x ) = 1 2 y .

We can obtain the same answer if we simply treat y in equation y 2 = x is


defined as a differentiable function of x and differentiate both sides of the
equation.
dy dy 1
y2 = x 2y =1 = //
dx dx 2y
So, we see that the derivative dy dx obtained from both methods agree with

each other. Actually, the two derivatives dy dx = 1 (2 x ) and

dy dx = 1 (2 x ) represent the slope of the parabola at the points on the


curve directly above and below.

EXAMPLE 22 Find the dy dx , when x3 + 4 xy 2 y 3 = 5 .


18

Solution In this problem, the given equation cannot be solved for y and is therefore
suitable to apply implicit differentiation method. We assume that y is defined
as one or more differentiable functions of x by the given equation and then,
differentiate both sides of it with respect to x .
d 3 d d 3 d
(x ) + (4 xy 2 ) (y ) = (5)
dx dx dx dx

d ( y2 ) dx dy
3x2 + 4 x + y2 3 y2 = 0
dx dx dx

dy dy dy 3x2 + 4 y 2
3 x 2 + 4 2 xy + y2 3y2 = 0 = //
dx dx dx 3 y 2 8 xy
2
EXAMPLE 23 Find the y = d 2 y dx , when 2 x 2 3 y 2 = 5 .
Solution We differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x to find
y = dy dx .
2x
4 x 6 y y = 0 y =
3y

By differentiating y with respect to x using quotient rule, we get
d 2 x 3 y (2) (2 x )(3 y ) 2 y 2 xy 2 y 2 x (2 x 3 y ) 2 4 x2
y = = = = =
dx 3 y (3 y ) 2 3y2 3 y2 3 y 9 y3
As we have seen in the above examples, implicit differentiation expresses dy dx in terms of
both x and y . If we have to calculate the slope of the curve represented by the equation at a

known point ( x1, y1) we must substitute both x1 and y1 in the final expression for dy dx .

We define the line normal to a differentiable curve at a point ( x1, y1) to be the line
perpendicular to the tangent to the curve at that point.

EXAMPLE 24 Find the slope of the curve x 2 + xy + y 2 = 7 at the point (1, 2) .


Solution Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x , we get
d 2
dx
(
x + xy + y 2 =
d
dx
(7) ) 2x + y + x
dy
dx
+ 2y
dy
dx
= 0

dy 2x + y
dx = x + 2 y

The slope of the curve at the point (1, 2) ,


dy 4
= //
dx (1, 2) 5
19

Here it should be noted that. at points where 2 x + y = 0 , the slope of the


tangent is zero and the line is horizontal. At points where x + 2 y = 0 the slope
of the tangent is infinite and the line is vertical.

EXAMPLE 25 Find the lines tangent and normal to the curve y 2 4 x 2 + 3 y + 6 = 0 at the
point (1, 2) .
Solution Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x and solving for
dy dx we get

dy dy dy 8x dy
2y 8x + 3 = 0 = = 8
dx dx dx 2y + 3 dx (1, 2)

The tangent to the curve at point (1, 2) ,


y ( 2)
8 = y + 8 x 6 = 0 //
x 1
If the slope of the normal is m , then m (8) = 1 m= 1 8
The normal to the curve at point (1, 2) ,
1 y ( 2)
= 8 y x + 17 = 0 //
8 x 1

1.6 The chain rule


This rule used when we have to calculate the derivative of the composite of two differentiable
functions. According to this rule, the derivative of their composite is equal to the product of
their derivatives. In its short form, the chain rule can be given as follows.
If y is a differentiable function of x , and x is a differentiable function of t , then y is a
differentiable function of t and it can be proven (the proof is not necessary to be given here)
that
dy d y dx
= .
dt dx dt

EXAMPLE 26 Express dy dt in terms of t if y = 2 x3 3 and x = t 2 4 .


dy d y dx
Solution The chain rule gives = = 6 x 2 2t = 12t (t 2 4) 2 //
dt d x dt
20

EXAMPLE 27 In a gear train, the ratios of the radii of gear wheels A, B and C are 3:1:2. If A
turns t times, then B turns x = 3t times and C turns y = x 2 = (3 2)t times.
Verify that the chain rule is satisfied by the gear train.
Solution In terms of derivatives,
dx dy 1 dy 3
=3 , = and = .
dt dx 2 dt 2
3 1 dy d y dx
As = 3 , The chain rule = is being satisfied by the gear
2 2 dt dx dt
train.

EXAMPLE 28 How long does it take a snow ball to melt?


Solution We use a mathematical model according to which the snow ball is assumed
approximately to be a sphere of radius r . We also assume that the volume of
the snow ball decreases at a rate that is proportional to the surface area.
dV 4
= k (4 r 2 ) , where V = r 3 and k is the proportionality
dt 3

constant that depends on physical parameters, such as relative humidity,


temperature of air etc. Now, let us assume that the volume of the snow ball at
t = 0 is V0 and it melted n percent of its volume in h hours. i.e., at t = h hrs ,

100 n
V = V0 .
100

By applying the chain rule to differentiate V = (4 3) r 3 with respect to t


dV dV d r 4 dr dr
= = (3 r 2 ) = 4 r 2 .
dt dr dt 3 dt dt

dr dr
We set this equal to the given rate, 4 r = k (4 r 2 ) = k
2
dt dt

As the radius is decreasing at the constant rate, in h hours, the radius will be
kh i.e., if the radius started at r0 , then h hours later it would be r2 = r0 hk .

From this we get a value for k = ( r0 r2 ) h .

As d r = k dt , the melting time is the value of t that makes r = 0 , or kt = r0

r0 hr0 h
tmelt = = =
k r0 r2 1 (r2 r0 )
21

13 13
3 100 n
V2 13 100 V0 13
4 100 n
But, 2 =
r V2
1 3
= = =
r0 3 V0 V0 100
V0
4
h h
Therefore, tmelt = = //
1 (r2 r0 ) 100 n
13
1
100
If we are given that 25% of the show ball melts in 2 hrs, by setting n = 25

and h = 2 hrs in the above result, tmelt can be shown to be equal to nearly

20 hrs. i.e. if 1/4 of the snow ball melts in 2 hrs, it takes nearly 20 hrs for the
rest of 3/4 to melt.

1.7 Derivatives of trigonometric functions


Next, we can use our knowledge on definitions of derivative to find the derivatives of
trigonometric functions. First consider y = sin x . Then, by definition

dy lim sin( x + h) sin x lim sin x cos h + cos x sin h sin x


= =
dx h0 h h0 h

dy lim cos h 1 lim sin h


= sin x + h0 cos x
dx h0 h h

dy lim cos h 1 lim sin h


= sin x + cos x .. (A)
dx h0 h h0 h

cos h 1
lim lim sin h
In relationship (A), the evaluation of and , have to be done
h0 h h0 h
separately as follows.
22

Fig. 1.3: Area OAP < area sector OAP < area OAT .
Consider the angle subtended by the arc length AP at the centre of the circle of radius of
one unit. Then the radian measure of the angle is given by = s r = s (as the radius
r = 1 unit ). When we draw a perpendicular through point P on to the x-axis,
axis, the foot of the
perpendicular is Q and the lengths of legs of the right triangle APQ are: QP = sin and
AQ = 1 cos
From the Pythagorean theorem and the fact that AP < s , we get

sin 2 + (1 cos ) 2 = ( AP)2 < 2

Since both terms of the above equation are positive, each is smaller than their sum 2 .

sin 2 < 2 < sin <

(1 cos ) 2 < 2 < 1 cos <


Now, to find the limits of the inequalities < sin < and < 1 cos < as 0 ,
we use a well known theorem called the Sandwich Theorem. According to this theorem, if the
inequality f (t ) g (t ) h(t ) holds for all t c in some interval about c and, f (t ) and h(t )
lim
approach the same limit L as t approaches c , then g (t ) = L .
tc
lim lim
Since = 0 and = 0 we have,
0 0
lim lim
0 sin 0 sin = 0
0 0
23

lim lim lim


0 (1 cos ) 0 (1 cos ) = 0 cos = 1
0 0 0
lim sin sin
To establish , we show that the left- and right-hand limits of at 0 are both
0
equal to 1, To show that the right-hand limit is equal to 1, we assume that is positive and
is between 0 and 2 . We see from Fig. 1.3 that,
Area OAP < Area sector OAP < Area OAT
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 sin < 1 1 < 1 tan sin < < tan
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
Dividing throughout by the positive value sin and then by taking the reciprocal
2
1 sin
1< < cos < <1
sin cos
Since cos approaches 1 as approaches 0, the Sandwich theorem tells us that
lim sin
= 1.
0+

Next we consider the limit of sin as approaches 0 from the left. For this, take =
and is positive.
sin sin( ) sin
= =

lim sin lim sin

= +
=1
0 0
lim sin lim
sin h
From the two results, we have =1 or equivalently =1
0 h0 h
1 cos 2 sin 2
From trigonometry, we know that = .
2
lim 1 cos 2 lim sin 2 lim sin lim sin lim
= = sin = sin = 1 0 = 0
0 2 0 0 0 0
lim 1 cos
Using the substitution = 2 , = 0 or equivalently
0
lim 1 cos h
= 0
h0 h
lim
sin h lim 1 cos h
Using the results, = 1 and = 0 , in the relationship (A)
h0 h h0 h
24

dy lim cos h 1 lim sin h


= sin x + cos x = sin x 0 + cos x 1 = cos x
dx h0 h h0 h

d
sin x = cos x
dx

lim
sin h
Here a fact to be remembered is that = 1 , only if h is measured in radians.
h0 h
Therefore, in calculus, the derivative of the sine is the cosine, only if the angle is measured in
radians.

To find the derivative of y = cos x , we use the identities



cos u = sin u and sin u = cos u
2 2

d d d du du
cos u = sin u = cos u u = sin u = sin u
dx dx 2 2 dx 2 dx dx

d dx d
Taking u = x , we get cos x = sin x cos x = sin x
dx dx dx

sin x
To obtain the derivative of y = tan x , we express y = tan x = and treat it as a
cos x
derivative of a quotient.
d d sin x cos x ( d dx ) sin x sin x ( d dx ) cos x
tan x = =
dx dx cos x cos 2 x
d cos x cos x sin x( sin x) 1
tan x = =
dx cos 2 x cos 2 x
d
tan x = sec 2 x
dx

d d 1
Similarly, it can be verified that sec x = = tan x sec x ,
dx dx cos x

d d 1 d d cos x
cosec x = = cot x cosec x cot x = = cosec x
2
dx dx sin x dx dx sin x
25

EXAMPLE 29 Find dy dx if y = tan 5 x .

Solution Take u = 5 x y = tan u

dy d y du 1 5 sec 2 5 x
The chain rule gives = = sec 2 u (5 x ) 1 2 5 = //
dx du dx 2 2 x

EXAMPLE 30 Find dy dx if y = sec2 3x .

Solution Take u = 3x y = sec2 u


The chain rule gives
dy d y du
= = 2sec u tan u sec u 3 = 6sec 2 u tan u = 6sec 2 3 x tan 3 x //
dx du d x

EXAMPLE 31 Find dy dx by implicit differentiation if xy + cos y = 0 .


Solution We differentiate both sides of the equation, treating y as a differentiable
function of x .
dy dy dy y
x + y sin y =0 = //
dx dx dx x sin y

1.8 The derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions


A function is a rule that assigns a number in its range to each number in its domain. Some

functions, like y = sin x , y = x 2 and y = 3 , can give the same output for different inputs.

But, other functions like y = x , y = x 3 and y = 4 x 4 , always give different outputs for
different inputs and such functions are called one-to-one functions. Since each output of a
one-to-one function comes from just one input, any one-to-one function can be reversed to
turn the outputs back into the inputs from which they came. The function defined by

reversing a one-to-one function f is called the inverse of f and is denoted by f 1 .


Consider the function y = sin x which is not one-to-one, because it runs through its full

range of values from 1 to +1 twice on every interval of length 2 . However, if we restrict


the domain of the sine to the interval from 2 to + 2 , we find that the restricted

function y = sin x with 2 < x < 2 , is one-to-one and that function has an inverse as

denoted by y = sin 1 x or y = arc sin x . The geometric interpretation for the arcsine can be
26

given as follows. Consider y = sin 1 x with y is positive. Suppose we draw a circle having a
unit radius in the x-y plane and having its centre O at the origin. If we have a point P on the
circle so that the radius OP makes an angle y with respect to the y-axis, then the x-coordinate
of the point P is given by x = 1 sin y = sin y and the length of the arc from P to the point at
which the circle cuts the y-axis is by 1 y = y . We also see that for every value of x in the

interval [ 1, + 1] , y = sin 1 x is the number in the interval [ 2, 2] whose sine is x.

To obtain the graph of y = sin 1 x we use the fact that, x = sin y plot this curve for different
values of the angle y. Which will then be a curve having the same form as that was obtained
for y = sin x but, lying along the y-axis.

We know that the function x = sin y is differentiable in the open interval 2 < y < 2
and that its derivative is positive there. It can also be shown that the inverse function

y = sin 1 x is differentiable throughout the interval 1 < x < 1 . To calculate the derivative

of y = sin 1 x , we differentiate both sides of the equation x = sin y with respect to x.


d dy
sin y = x sin y = 1 cos y =1
dx dx

dy 1 1 1
We get, = = = ( cos y > 0 for 2 < y < 2 )
dx cos y 1 sin 2 y 1 x2

d 1
sin 1 x = 1 < x < 1
dx 1 x 2

dy d y du
If y = sin 1 u and u is a differentiable function of x, we apply the chain rule =
dx du d x

d 1 du
to get sin 1 u = .
dx 1 u 2 dx

d 1
Similarly it can be shown that cos 1 x = 1 < x < 1
dx 1 x2

d 1
tan 1 x = and so on.
dx 1 + x2

To calculate the derivative of y = sec1 x , we differentiate both sides of the equation


sec y = x . By following the same procedure given above
27

1 x x2 1 if x > 1
d 1
sec1 x =
dy 1
= =
dx sec y tan y dx x x2 1
1 x x2 1 if x < 1

Similarly, the derivatives of cot 1 x and cos ec1x can be obtained.

d 1 d 2 2x
EXAMPLE 32 sin 1 x 2 = (x ) =
dx 2 2 dx
1 (x ) 1 x4

1.9 The derivative of the exponential function e x

In mathematics, the function e x is called the exponential function with base e and exponent

x , where e is the number 2.718281828. . . . .. The graph of y = e x is upward-sloping, and

increases faster as x increases. The exponential function e x can be characterized in a variety


of equivalent ways. In particular it may be defined by the following power series.


xn x2 x3 x4
e =
x
n!
=1+ x +
2!
+
3!
+
4!
+ .........
n =0

The number e has been defined as, e = ln 1 1 and hence, by taking the logarithm on both
sides, we have ln e = 1 .

As y = e x , by taking the logarithm on both sides we get

ln y = ln e x = x ln e = x 1 = x

ln e x = x e x = ln 1 x
It should be noted that,
lim lim
ex = 0 and that ex =
x x

Since y = e x and y = ln x are inverses of one another,


eln x = x for all x > 0
and
ln e x = x for all x
28

To find the derivative of y = e x we may use the definition of e x as a power series and the
rules of differentiation such as Rule 4 and Rule 6 we have learnt before.

d x 2x 3x 2 4 x3 x x2 3x3
e =0+1+ + + + ....... =1+ + + + . . . . . . . = ex
dx 2! 3! 4! 1! 2! 3!
d x
e = ex
dx

To find the derivative of y = ln x , we use the fact that e y = x . Then, by differentiating


with respect to y, we get
d y d dx dx dy 1
e = x ey = x= =
dy dy dy dy dx x

d 1
ln x =
dx x

If y = ln u and u is a differentiable function of x , then the chain rule gives the more
general formula
d 1 du
ln u =
dx u dx

EXAMPLE 33 Find dy dx if y = ln (2 x 2 + 5) .

dy 1 d (2 x 2 + 5) 4x
Solution Using the above result, = = //
dx 2x + 5
2 dx 2x + 5
2

Problems - Set 1
In Problems 1 10, use Eq. (1.4) to find the derivative f ( x ) of the function f ( x ) . Then,
find the slope of the curve y = f ( x ) at x = 4 and write an equation for the tangent line.
1. f ( x) = x 2 2. f ( x) = 2 x + 3 3. f ( x) = 1 + x

4. f ( x) = 1 x 2 5. f ( x ) = 1 ( 2 x + 1) 6. f ( x ) = x 2 12 x + 11

7.
f ( x) = x (x + 1)
8. f ( x ) = x (1 x ) 9. f ( x) = 2x + 3

10. f ( x ) = x2 + 1

Problems - Set 2
29

1. If a, b, c are constants and f (t ) = at 2 + b t + c ,


lim f (t + t ) f (t )
show that f (t ) = = 2at + b .
t 0 t
For the each of the following cases in which the position s = f (t ) of a moving body as a
function of t, with s measured in meters and t in seconds, is given as

(a) s = 4.9 t 2 (b) s = 2 t 2 + 5t 3 (c) s = 4 2t t 2 ,


answer the followings.
(a) Find the displacement and average velocity for the time interval from t = 0 to t = 2
seconds.
(b) Use the formula f (t ) = 2at + b to express the velocity v = d s d t as a function of
t, by inspection.
(c) Use the formula obtained in Part (b) to find the bodys velocity at t = 2 seconds.

2. When a bactericide was added to a nutrient broth in which bacteria was growing, the
bacterium population continued to grow for a while, but then stopped and began to
decline. The size of the population at time t (hours) was b (t ) = 106 10 4 t 103 t 2 . Use
the result of Problem 1 to find the growth rates at (a) t = 0 , (b) t = 5 , and (c) t = 10
hours.

3. The number of gallons of water in a tank t minutes after the tank has started to drain is
Q (t ) = 200(30 t ) 2 . How fast is the water running out at the end of 10 minutes? What is
the average rate at which the water flows out during the first 10 minutes?

4. Find the limits in Problems (i), (ii), (xv).

lim lim lim t + 3


(i) x2 2 x + 1 (ii) x (2 x 1) (iii)
x0 x 1 x2 t +2
lim lim x3 lim x4
(iv) 3(2 x 1)( x + 1) 2 (v) (vi)
x2 x 5 x 25
2 x 4 x 5x + 4
2

lim t 2 3 t + 2 lim x3 a 3 lim 1 + sin x


(vii) (vii) (ix)
t 3 t2 1 x a x4 a4 x 0 cos x
lim sin 5 x lim
sin 2 x lim sin 2 x
(x) (xi) (xii)
x 0 sin 3 x x0 x x 0 2x2 + x
lim 3 x 6 x lim t 2 3t + 2 lim x x2
(xiii) (xiv) (xv)
x 4x 8 t 2t 2 + 5 t 3 x x + 1 5 + x 2
30

Problems - Set 3
In Problems 1 - 7, find d y d x .

1. y = sin( x + 1) 2. y = cos 5 x 3. y = x sin x 4. y = cos2 5 x

5. y = cos 2 x + 2 6. y = sec 2 x tan 2 x 7. y = sin 2 x 2

Assume that each of the equations in Problems 8 11 defines y as a differentiable function of


x. Find d y d x by implicit differentiation.

8. x = tan y 9. y 2 = sin 4 2 x + cos 4 2 x 10. x + sin y = xy


11. x + tan( xy ) = 0

Find the limits in Problems 12 16.


lim 1 1 lim sin x lim sin(a + h ) sin a
12. sin 13. 14.
x0 x 2 x 4 cos x h0 h

lim cos( a + h ) + cos a lim


15. 16. (sec x + tan x )
h0 h x0

Problems - Set 4
In Problems 1 5, find d y d x .

1. y = ( ln x ) 3. y = tan 1 (ln x)
3
2. y = ln (sec x + tan x)

4 y = ln ( x 2 + 4) tan 1 x 5. y = x [sin (ln x) + cos (ln x)]

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