Engineering Fracture Mechanics Vol. 50, No. I, pp.

1-9, 1995
ElsevierScienceLtd
Pergamon 0013-7944(94)00143-X Printed in Great Britain
0013-7944/95 $9.50+0.00

AN EXPERIMENTAL A N D COMPUTATIONAL
INVESTIGATION OF CRACK GROWTH INITIATION IN
THREE-POINT BEND FRACTURE SPECIMENS
V. G. DEGIORGI and P. MATIC
Mechanics of Materials Branch (Code 6380), Naval Research Laboratory,
Washington, DC 20375-5000, U.S.A.
I. BAR-ON
Mechanical Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA 01609, U.S.A.
G. M. C. LEE
Mining and Metallurgy Department, Technical University of Nova Scotia, Halifax,
Nova Scotia B3J 2X4, Canada

Abstract--An experimental and computational study of HY-100 steel three-point bend fracture specimens
was performed. Two specimens were considered in the experimental portion of the study, differing with
respect to thickness and the presence of side grooves. Plane stress and plane strain finite element analyses
of the specimens were conducted to assess the relative role of constraint on load vs crack opening
displacement response and crack growth initiation. A critical value of the strain energy density associated
with local material fracture was used to predict the onset of crack growth. The experimental responses
were bounded by the predicted plane stress and plane strain load vs crack mouth opening responses. These
results also provided an indication of the extent to which the side grooves in the thinner specimenprovided
more constraint than the thickness of the specimen without side grooves. A comparison with a previous
investigation on an HY-100 compact fracture specimen suggests similarities concerning the interaction
between material nonlinearity and specimen response nonlinearity.

INTRODUCTION
THE TECHNICAL literature and standard test methods cite a number of different cracked specimen
geometries to evaluate fracture toughness and crack growth in terms of crack tip parameters such
as stress intensity factors and contour integrals. These cracked geometries include the compact
specimens [l, 2, 3], three-point bend specimens [1, 2], center cracked panels [3] and semi-elliptical
surface flaw specimens [4]. Each specimen has advantages and disadvantages relative to the
sophistication required for physical testing, specimen symmetry, relative three-dimensional (3D)
character of the stress, strain and energy fields in the specimen, and general applicability of the
specimen response to structural prediction.
The increasing capabilities of nonlinear computational simulation techniques have produced
a number of detailed investigations of the c o m m o n specimen geometries. Crack tip plasticity,
nonlinearity o f specimen response, crack growth initiation and stable crack growth behavior have
received considerable attention. Some recent examples of three-point bend specimen studies are
briefly reviewed.
Lamain [5] conducted both 2D and 3D finite element simulations of 316H steel three-point
bend specimens. Experimentally observed load vs displacement responses and crack growth rates
were used to govern the crack growth increments. N o d e release was used to generate crack
extension in 2D analysis. Element shifting was used in 3D. In both cases, J-integral behavior of
the specimen was calculated and compared to experiment.
Miyazaki and W a t a n a b e [6] performed 2D finite element analyses of A533B steel three-point
bend specimens. Virtual crack extension and line integral methods were employed to calculate
J-integral values.
Nallathambi and Karihaloo [7] computationally investigated stress intensity factors and
energy release rates for linear elastic three-point bend specimens using 2D finite element analysis.
Special attention was given to the complex states of stress in the vicinity of the crack tip with and
2 v.G. DEGIORGI et al.

without a kink in the crack geometry. Compliance functions were generated which accounted for
the interaction between the notch, span and depth of the specimen geometry.
Jenkins et al. [8] utilized 3D finite element analysis to examine chevron notched three-point
bend specimens. Relations between load point displacement and crack mouth opening displacement
compliances were developed and compared for different crack lengths. Work-of-fracture, fracture
toughness and crack growth resistance curves were determined for A2Y6 and Hexoloy SA ceramic
materials.
Dodds et al. [9] performed 3D elastic-plastic finite element analysis of an A36 steel three-point
bend specimen. Load vs crack mouth opening displacement response and 3D J-integral calculations
to delineate a pointwise description of the fracture driving force along the crack front were
obtained. These results were compared with experiment.
Shivakumar and Newman [10] performed 2D elastic-plastic finite element analysis of a
HY-130 steel three-point bend specimen. A crack tip opening displacement criterion was used to
model stable crack growth. Different crack length to width ratios were considered. The J-integral
was investigated as an initiation and a stable crack growth parameter. In the latter case, the crack
growth resistance curves for small cracks was found to be different from those developed for larger
cracks.
In each of these analyses, the emphasis was placed on global energy balances, global
compliance or crack tip parameters for describing fracture. Increasing interest in local descriptions
of fracture suggest that a complementary study consider the deformation and fracture initiation
of the three-point bend specimen geometry using a local fracture criterion.
The use of a local fracture toughness parameter to predict initiation and the classical crack
tip fracture toughness parameters was discussed by DeGiorgi et al. [11] for HY-100 steel in a
compact fracture specimen geometry. The critical stress intensity factor Kc and the critical
J-integral value Jc were predicted using an accurate large strain characterization of the HY-100
steel elastic-plastic response and the absorbed energy density associated with fracture in a triaxial
stress state. The analysis of a three-point bend specimen would assess this approach in the context
of a different geometry featuring different bending vs tension responses and differing constraint.
In this investigation, the three-point bend specimen is analyzed using HY-100 steel elas-
tic-plastic material parameters in 2D finite element analyses. A local fracture toughness parameter
was used to predict crack growth initiation. The computational results are analyzed and compared
against two separate experiments on HY-100 three-point bend specimens which differ in specimen
thickness and the presence of side grooves.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Experimental results for HY-100 three-point bend specimens (Fig. 1) were provided from two
experiments, the first conducted at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) and the second
conducted at Technical University of Nova Scotia (TUNS).
The WPI experiment was performed on specimens having a length L of 22.86 cm, span S of
20.32 cm, width W of 5.08 cm and thickness T of 1.14 cm. The specimen notch was machined to
a length of 2.64 cm. Fatigue precracking of the notch, followed by introduction of the side grooves
and additional fatigue precracking generated a total crack length a of 3.15 cm for testing. This
represented an a / W ratio of 0.62. The side grooves reduced the net cross-section by 20% to T*
of 0.91 cm. The experiment was performed in a 250 kN servohydraulic Instron testing system under
computer control using software developed by Instron. Crack length was measured by unloading
compliance using a crack mouth opening displacement gauge. The first unloading was initiated at
a crack mouth opening of 0.89 mm and repeated every 0.076 mm thereafter. The final crack length
was compared with an optical crack length measurement and showed very good agreement.
The TUNS data was obtained for a specimen length L of 26.20 cm, span S of 20,32 cm, width
W of 5.08 cm and thickness T of 2.50 cm. The specimen notch was machined to a length of 3.05 cm
and fatigue precracked for a total crack length a of 3.19 cm for testing. This represented and a~ W
ratio of 0.63. The TUNS specimen was not side grooved. The experiment was also carried out in
a 250 kN servohydraulic Instron testing system under computer control using Instron software.
 Three-point bend fracture specimens

P
7 r0.91 cm

lit
1

t~
I
uffwf
~1~ 10.16 cm
q
~~ '~3.15 cm

,,kl,
_- j]5.08 cm

11.43 cm 1.14 cm
22.86 cm

(a)

III
III
III
III
III
III

T
5.08 cm

~ lO.16cm -~3.1 9 cm
r i
[o]
L~J

r~ ~ 13.10 cm
26.20 cm v
2.50 cm

(b)
Fig. 1. Three-point bend specimendimensionsfor (a) WPI experimentand (b) TUNS experiment.

Crack length was measured by unloading compliance using a crack opening displacement gage.
Unloading was initiated at a crack mouth opening of 0.62 mm. The results were analyzed according
to the ASTM E813-81 standard. With this standard the R-curve is fitted using a linear regression
analysis. The initiation point followed from the intersection between the R-curve and the blunting
line.
The support spans were identical for both specimens while they differed only slightly in initial
crack length. The TUNS specimen was without side grooves but more than double the thickness
of the side grooved WPI specimen.
The experimental load vs displacement responses are shown in Fig. 2. Since both experiments
were conducted as single specimen J resistance curve tests, the intermittent partial unloading on
the load vs displacement responses is evident. Crack growth initiation for the TUNS specimen was
determined to occur at a crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) of 1.4 mm on the basis of
changes observed in specimen compliance data recorded during the test. A precise determination
of crack growth initiation for the WPI specimen was not available. The overall similarity between
the TUNS and WPI specimen geometries, aside from their thickness and the presence of side
grooves, suggested that the CMOD at fracture initiation for both would be comparable.
4 V . G . DEGIORGI et al.

80-

60-
x
a

,-I
40-

20-

I I I I
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
CRACK MOUTH OPENING DISPLACEMENT (cm)
(a)

80

60

,-I
40

20

I I I I
0.0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
CRACK MOUTH OPENING DISPLACEMENT (cm)

(b)
Fig. 2. Load vs CMOD experiment results for (a) WPI experiment and (b) TUNS experiment.

FINITE ELEMENT MESH

Computational modeling of the three-point bend specimens was performed at NRL using
Version 4.8 of the ABAQUS finite element code [12]. One-half of the three-point bend specimen
was modeled. The finite element mesh, shown in Fig. 3, was composed of 2981 elements. Plane
stress and plane strain models were analyzed.
In the plane strain model, 1570 CPE8 eight-noded displacement based quadrilateral elements
and 1411 CPE8H hybrid displacement and pressure based eight-noded quadrilateral elements were
used. In the plane stress model, 2981 CPS8 eight-noded quadrilateral elements were used in the
plane stress model. Significant mesh refinement was provided in the vicinity of the crack tip and
at the point of load application in order to facilitate anticipated plastic deformation. No singular
elements were used at the crack tip due to the ductile nature of the HY-100 material response.
The load was applied to the model through a uniform pressure load at the center of the upper
 Three-point bend fracture specimens 5

__L.t-L.I-$.... ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!

IIIII III1!!! iiiii

ii ii i ii ii i
i: l1 l 1l l1 l 1l 1 1
;i iJ l ll ll l

IIIII !11 . . . . . . . . .
I l l l | 1 1 1 1
I l l l l i l l : : : l : : : : :

I!!!! iiiiii iiiii

IIIII I!!!ii i!!ii
iiiii iii!!! iiii!
::::: iiiiii iiiii
i: :i :i :i :i i: i: i: i: i: i; i: :i :i :i :i
iiiii
. . . . . i~ii iiiii

iiiii: iiilii iliii

, l : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

t*

Fig. 3. Finiteelementmesh ~rthree-point ~ndspecimen.

surface of the model. The specimen supports were accounted for by zero vertical displacement
boundary conditions on the bottom of the model at the support locations. This was a reasonable
model of the contact stresses and sufficiently distributed the reaction forces such that only a
moderate mesh density was required away from the crack tip.

MATERIAL MODEL
An incremental rate independent plasticity theory available in the ABAQUS finite element
program [13] was used for the material constitutive model. This standard model for plasticity is
summarized here for completeness. The total multiaxial strain state eij, expressed in terms of elastic
and plastic components, was

The total logarithmic uniaxial strain, e, consistent with the integration of the rate of deformation
tensor for a multiaxial strain state, is decomposed as
=Ee-~-E p.

The yield function f is related to uniaxial tension by

f(*o) = "c(EP),
where ~u and ~ are the multiaxial Kirchoff (or Treffetz) and uniaxial stress states, respectively. The
associated flow rule, dissipation equivalence condition and a consistency condition govern plastic
strain increments.
The specific form o f f is the von Mises yield function
f (*u) = (~(s~sO))'a'
where the deviatoric component of stress is s,j.
The Kirchoff stress and logarithmic strain measures are employed because of advantages
gained in computational implementation. The Kirchoff stress tensor, %., is approximately equal to
the more physically motivated Cauchy stress tensor, %., for deformations involving only small
changes in volume. This condition is implicit in the current elastic-plastic analysis. The uniaxial
Cauchy stress-logarithmic strain constitutive response of the material are formally input, in
multilinear form, as Cauchy stress and logarithmic plastic strain pairs for the ABAQUS program.
These constitutive parameters, for the HY-100 steel considered here, were obtained in a
previous investigation by Matic et al. [14] as the solution to an iterative procedure utilizing
experimental data and computational simulation for four different tensile specimen geometries,
each with a different gage length-diameter aspect ratio. The HY-100 solution constitutive
6 V . G . DEGIORGI et al.

1.1
I I t I t I
1,0 r-! 1:3 13 m

0.9
13
o.I! 3 - u

i 0.7 ~ - m

x
0.5 J

~ 0.4 ~ N

0.3 - -

0.2 - - I

0.1 ~

O.Ot 1 1 , I 1 I I t
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
STRAIN
Fig. 4. HY-100 steel constitutive parameters.

parameters are shown in Fig. 4. These parameters, when used in computational simulations of the
four specimen geometries, reproduced the experimentally observed load vs displacement responses
and deformation profiles of the four tensile specimens. Accuracy at large deformations up to the
point of fracture initiation was demonstrated.
Local fracture initiation in the plane stress and plane strain three-point bend specimens will
be associated with critical absorbed energy density values obtained from the constitutive parameter
investigation. These values were constructed at the point of fracture from the stress and strain
histories of the tensile specimen analysis, using the expression
(cq)c
wc = t
do
a Ud % ,

where wc is the critical absorbed strain energy density value for a given stress-strain history. A
critical energy density value of 8.89 x 108 N-m/m 3 was used in this investigation. This wc value
reflects a tensile specimen multiaxial stress state most closely associated with the multiaxial stress
state ahead of a crack tip subjected to mode I loading. The value of wc is generally path dependent,
although a representative value may be practical for engineering applications.

RESULTS
The plane stress and plane strain computational solutions obtained at NRL are plotted with
the WPI experimental data and TUNS experimental data in Fig. 5. Each of the computational
solutions is plotted twice, normalized once with respect to the WPI data and once with respect to
the TUNS data on the basis of net specimen cross sectional area on the plane defined by the crack.
The TUNS experimental data is seen to lie closer to the plane stress computational result, while
the WPI data lies somewhat closer to the plain strain result. The greater thickness of the TUNS
specimen compared to the WPI specimen, by more than a factor of two, is unable to produce the
same constraint effects as that produced by the 20% side grooves in the thinner geometry.
Crack growth initiation was predicted according to the absorbed energy criterion discussed
 Three-point bend fracture specimens 7

x PLANE STRAIN COMPUTATIONAL SOLUTION

80
A PLANE STRESS COMPUTATIONAL SOLUTION

v WPI DATA

80
vx

.J
40

20

/'__ 0.10
,
0.20
,
0.30
,
0.40 0.50
CRACK MOUTH OPENING DISPLACEMENT (cm)
(a)

+ PLANE STRAIN COMPUTATIONAL SOLUTION

[] PLANE STRESS COMPUTATIONAL SOLUTION
O TUNS DATA
A
z
60- 4-
x
4-
4-
O O O O
+ 0 o <>

F
-J
40-

[]

20- 4-=
13
la

I I I I
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
CRACK MOUTH OPENING DISPLACEMENT (cm)

(b)
Fig. 5. Load vs CMOD from (a) WPI experiment and NRL computational simulations and (b) TUNS
experiment and NRL computational simulations.

earlier. Table 1 compares the load and CMOD at crack growth initiation from the TUNS
experimental data and the predicted values from the plane stress and plane strain computations.
The percentages in parentheses following the plane stress and plane strain computational results
refer to the difference between the computed values taken with respect to the experimental results.
The predicted plane strain fracture load from the finite element analysis was 1.35 times the

Table 1. Comparison of load and crack mouth opening displacement at fracture from TUNS experimental
data and plane stress and plane strain computations
TUNS Plane stress Plane strain Plane stain divided
experiment computation computation by plane stress
Load (kN) 47.8 43.12 (-9.8%) 58.07 (+21.5%) 1.35
CMOD (ram) 1.40 1.04 (-25.7%) 1.10 (-21.4%) 1.05
8 V . G . DEGIORGI et al.

predicted plane stress fracture load. The predicted plain strain CMOD at fracture was 1.05 times
the predicted plane stress CMOD. These predicted CMOD values at initiation were 25.7% and
21,4% less, for the plane stress and plane strain cases, respectively, than the TUNS experiment
CMOD value at fracture. As noted previously, the WPI initiation point was expected to be similar
to that of the TUNS data. This implies that a similar comparison exists between the predictions
and the WPI CMOD at fracture initiation. Clearly, the finite element results for plane stress and
plane strain conditions bracket the TUNS experimental results for the fracture initiation load. The
finite element results, however, underpredict the CMOD at fracture initiation.
The 2D finite element CMOD underprediction is consistent with the results of a similar
computational simulations of an ASTM compact tension specimen [11] fabricated of the same
material as the three-point bend specimens analyzed in this investigation. It was demonstrated in
subsequent 3D finite element analysis of the compact tension specimen geometry that the added
constraint implicit in a 2D finite element approximation was the cause of the CMOD underpredic-
tion. In the case of the compact tension specimen, out of plane displacements produce an
observable dimpling in the crack tip region. The approximations introduced by the 2D finite
element model did not account for this non-uniform out of plane displacement field. With the
expansion of the finite element model in 3D, the computationally predicted out of plane
displacements were in accordance with the experimentally observed dimpling and the computation-
ally predicted CMOD increased to match the experimentally observed value. The dimpling
phenomenon was observed in the thick sectioned TUNS experiments. This indicates that out of
plane displacement, and therefore 3D modeling, would be required for an accurate prediction of
deformation at fracture.
Departure of the observed experimental loads from the corresponding plane strain predictions
occurs at approximately 70% of the observed crack growth initiation load for both the WPI and
TUNS experiments. It is interesting to note that a nearly identical trend was observed for the
HY-100 compact specimen geometry experiments and predictions [11]. Together, these results
indicate a consistency in the loss of plane strain conditions for both compact and three-point bend
specimen geometries made of ductile materials such as HY-100 steel.

SUMMARY
Load vs CMOD response and crack growth initiation in HY-100 three point bend specimens
was examined experimentally and computationally. Two three-point bend experiments, with
specimens differing in thickness and the presence of side grooves, were performed. The nonlinear
responses of plane stress and plane strain specimens were predicted using the ABAQUS finite
element code. Elastic-plastic constitutive parameters for an incremental plasticity description and
a critical absorbed strain energy density value of the HY-100 steel were taken from an earlier
investigation.
The finite element predictions were compared to both experimental load vs displacement
responses. The experimentally observed load vs CMOD responses were within the bounds of the
plane stress and plane strain responses predicted by the finite element analyses.
The CMOD values at crack initiation were somewhat underpredicted as compared to the
experimentally observed CMOD values at crack initiation. This underprediction was similar,
however, to the underpredietion observed for 2D analysis of a compact fracture specimen.
The role of the side grooves and the specimen thickness in the experiments suggests that the
20% side grooves more than compensated for the reduced thickness in the WPI specimens. Plane
strain dominated behavior was maintained to a higher degree as compared to the thicker TUNS
specimen without side grooves.
Comparison of the three-point bend results with a prior study of an HY-100 compact tension
specimen results suggests that the divergence from the plane strain solution occurs at approximately
the same percentage of initiation load in each case. This implies that the 3D aspects of the specimen
deformations become appreciable at equivalent points in the three-point bend and compact
specimen load histories.
 Three-point bend fracture specimens 9

REFERENCES
[1] Standard test method for plane strain fracture toughness of metallic materials, E399-83. Annual Book of A S T M
Standards, Section 3, pp. 519-554 (1984).
[2] Standard test method for J~c, a measure of fracture toughness, E813-81. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Section
3, pp. 763-781 (1984).
[3] Standard practice for R-curve determination, E561-81. Annual Book o f A S T M Standards, Section 3, pp. 612-631
(1984).
[4] Standard practice for fracture testing with surface crack tension specimens, E740-80. Annual Book o f A S T M Standards,
Section 3, pp. 741-751 (1984).
[5] L. G. Lamain, An EPFM crack growth analysis of a 3PB specimen in 2D and 3D. Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Fracture.
Advances in Fracture Research (Fracture 84), (Edited by S. R. Valluri et al.) (1984).
[6] N. Miyazaki, T. Watanabe and G. Yagawa, The virtual crack extension method for evaluation of J- and ]-integrals.
Engng Fracture Mech. 22, 975-987 (1985).
[7] P. Nallathambi and B. L. Karihaloo, Stress intensity factor and energy release rate for three-point bend specimens.
Engng Fracture Mech. 25, 315-321 (1986).
[8] M. G. Jenkins, A. S. Kobayashi, K. W. White and R. C. Bradt, A 3-D finite element analysis of a chevron-notched,
three-point bend fracture specimen for ceramic materials. Int. J. Fracture 34, 281-295 (1987).
[9] R. H. Dodds, W. C. Carpenter and W. A. Sorem, Numerical evaluation of a 3-D J-integral and comparison with
experimental results for a 3-point bend specimen. Engng Fracture Mech. 29, 275-285 (1988).
[10] K. N. Shivakumar and J. C. Newman, Jr., Numerical simulation of bend specimens using a CTOD criterion. Engng
Fracture Mech. 32, 203-210 (1989).
[11] V. G. DeGiorgi, G. C. Kirby, III and M. I. Jolles, Prediction of classical fracture initiation toughness. Engng Fracture
Mech. 33, 773-785 (1989).
[12] ABAQUS User's Manual. Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc., Providence (1990).
[13] ABAQUS Theory Manual. Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc., Providence (1990).
[14] P. Matic, G. C. Kirby, III and M. I. Jolles, The relation of tensile specimen size and geometry effects to unique
constitutive parameters for ductile materials. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A. 417, 309-333 (1988).

(Received 2 December 1993)