The African American Story Part 5

"Knowledge is the prime need of

the hour."

"There can be no divided

democracy, no class government,
no half-free county, under the
constitution. Therefore, there
can be no discrimination, no
segregation, no separation of
some citizens from the rights
which belong to all.... We are on
our way. But these are frontiers
which we must conquer.... We
must gain full equality in
education ...in the franchise... in
economic opportunity, and full
equality in the abundance of
life."

-Words from Sister Mary

McLeod Bethune

This work is dedicated to the heroes who fought fascism overseas

during World War II and for the heroes who fought racial oppression
domestically in America. This work will show information about
many unsung black men and black women who made a difference
not only in our community. They inspire us today in the year of 2017.
 During World War II, it was a national
and international affair. Nations formed
alliances to fight for the power of the
Earth's resources during World War II.
Black Americans were in the middle of
the global conflict. Many of our people
were drafted into that war. That is why
many of our grandparents and great-
grandparents participated in World War
II. Segregated units would fight in the
battles. Black people fought fascism
overseas and against racism at home. So,
These women are twenty-four of first contingents of black WWII signified battling multiple battles
nurses assigned to the European Theater of Operations as domestically and outside America. Over
they landed in England on August 21, 1944. The person on 2.5 million black men registered for the
the second row, first on the left, is Arlayne Hall of Los draft and many served as draftees or
Angeles. Black nurses were not allowed to treat white volunteers in all of the branches of the
soldiers and white nurses were not allowed to treat black Armed Forces during the war. Black men
soldiers. Black nurses had to fight for the right to and Black women fought with distinction.
participate in World War II. We honor their heroic In fact, more than 12,000 black men, who
sacrifices.
served in the 92nd Division, received
citations and were decorated for their effort. The all-black 761st Tank Battalion received the
Presidential Unit Citation for “extraordinary heroism.” Also, black women were involved in WWII
too. Many black women were in the military including nurses. Their heroism will be
mentioned here as well. Many African American G.I.s were in concentration camps and many
black people were victims of the evil Holocaust (which was about the Nazis' evil action of the
extermination of millions of human beings).

Many labor strikes existed (among workers of diverse colors) to fight for workers' rights during this
time period. There was a class struggle for economic justice back then. Racial riots happened
nationwide during the 1940's from Detroit to Chicago. Hollywood grew. Jazz grew and the Second
Great Migration flourished during this time period as well. The Tuskegee Airmen helped to defeat
the Axis Powers and numerous World War II (including Korean War) veterans would go onward to
be part of the Civil Rights movement. WWII and its aftermath ironically propelled a new inspiration
to make the Civil Rights movement to achieve more successes. World War II was a long, very
bloody war. It was destructive and took more human lives than any other war in human history.
War shouldn't be sugarcoated. We honor the sacrifice of heroes who defeated fascism. We are
motivated to fight for justice in our time during the 21st century.
Still, we rise.
The Beginning and Black Units

From the beginning, African Americans (both black men and black women) fought in every
American war. African Americans back then knew of the contradiction of fighting for freedom
overseas while being unjustly denied freedom at home in the United States of America. In this
situation, African Americans have shown courage and strength. Before World War II, black
Americans fought against the Fascists in Ethiopia and against the Fascists plus the Nazis in Spain
during the 1930’s. The U.S. government didn’t fight Italy or fascists invading Ethiopia, but African
Americans did so independently in order for them to defend freedom. Back during October 4,
1935, fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia. Ethiopia was the only non-colonized African country at that
time other than Liberia. So, African Americans were inspired to defend Ethiopia. This was personal
for us. Black people raised money for medical supplies and many volunteered to fight for the
nation. Ethiopia at first was overpowered by the Italian forces using mustard gas and other
advanced weaponry. Yet, Ethiopia soon defeated the Italians years later. Many years later, Haile
Selassie I would comment on the efforts of black Americans:

"We can never forget the help Ethiopia received from Negro Americans during the
crisis. ... It moved me to know that Americans
Americans of African descent did not abandon
their embattled brothers, but stood by us.”

The Spanish Civil War was about the fascist Franco and his forces fighting against the pro-
Republican forces of the secular Spanish Republic. Many African Americans volunteered to fight
for the Republican Spain. Many black Americans had Communist ideals while serving in the
Abraham Lincoln Brigade. Many black people like Vaughn Love had rightfully said that fascism is
the enemy of all “black aspirations.” Oliver Law was an African American activist and World War I
veteran who also fought in the Abraham Lincoln Brigade during the Spanish Civil War too. He is
believed to be the first African American officer to command an integrated unit of soldiers. James
Peck fought against the fascists in Spain. He was a black man. He was a pilot in the Spanish
Republican Air Force. He shot down fascist airplanes. A black woman named Salaria Kea was a
young African American nurse from Harlem Hospital who served during the Spanish Civil War too.
She was one of the two only African American female volunteers in the midst of the war-torn
Spanish Republican areas. When Salaria came back from Spain she wrote the pamphlet "A Negro
Nurse in Spain" and tried to raise funds for the beleaguered Spanish Republic. We honor the
bravery and sacrifice of these heroic black men and black women. Now, we focus on World War
II.

After World War I, the League of Nations existed. It failed, because of many reasons. Many nations
refused to abide by its rules and regulations. Its rules were weakly enforced. There was the rise of
Hitler and Stalin who advanced authoritarian regimes. Japan also used imperialist aggression against
China and other Asian countries. By 1939, Hitler invaded Poland unjustly and illegally, which
started World War II. WWII was the bloodiest and most deadly war in human history. More people
died during WWII than any other war in human history. Hitler was an evil racist, a liar, and a
murderer. He and his Nazis used imperialism for the sake of stealing mineral resources, to promote
genocide, to advance racism, and to form an evil worldwide empire. Hitler, Franco, Mussolini, and
Tojo united into the nefarious Axis Powers. They spread their evil worldwide. In America, most
Americans back then were isolationists. Most Americans didn’t want to be involved in another war,
because of the destructiveness of WWI and their view of promoting solely focusing on American
affairs. Recent research has found that some Americans knew of the Holocaust and still was
hesitant in condemning the Holocaust (which is disgraceful). Pearl Harbor changed everything.
Japan attacked American military forces on December 7, 1941.
Many Americans died. There were many heroes during that deadly day. One hero was a black man
named Doris Miller. He was a Navy mess attendant. He had voluntarily manned an anti-aircraft gun
and fired at the Japanese anti-aircraft, despite of him having no prior training in the weapons’ use.
He saved many lives. Later, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz pinned the Navy Cross on Doris Miller at a
ceremony on board a warship in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This happened on May 27, 1942. He was the
first black American to receive the Navy Cross because of his actions during the Pearl Harbor
attack. Immediately, America declared war against Nazi Germany. The world soon changed and
Franklin Delano Roosevelt overnight was overly involved in WWII (previously, he was covertly
involved via the Lend Lease program where American forces would send money and supplies to
Allied forces like those of the UK). By this time, the war was in the beginning. After the Pearl
Harbor incident, the majority of Americans supported American involvement in World War II.
Many black Americans hoped that defeating fascism overseas would defeat fascism and racism at
home in America. Many black people opposed the draft, went to jail for rejecting the draft, etc. The
journey of World War II for African Americans would change the world forever.
Discrimination

Over 1.9 million black Americans served in uniform during World War II. They served in
segregated units. About 75 percent of the soldiers who served in the European theater of the war as
truckers for the Red Ball Express and kept Allied supply lines open were African Americans. 708
African Americans were killed in combat during World War II. By June of 1940, the Navy had
4,007 African American personnel. That represented 2.3 percent of its total strength of nearly
170,000. One month after Pearl Harbor, African Americans being in the Navy were 5,026. Back
then, many were restricted to work as steward’s mates. This changed slowly. The destroyer escort
Mason was the only Navy vessel during World War II with a totally black crew who were not cooks
or waiters. In 1995, 11 surviving crew members were all given belated recognition and letters of
commendation from Navy Secretary John Dalton for having braved harsh weather and quickly
welding the cracks in their ship so they could continue escorting support ships to England. The
draft existed and there was a high enlistment rate in the U.S. Army for African Americans.

African Americans also served in all branches of the American military. There was still massive
discrimination and racism in the military. During the early part of the war, most African Americans
never saw combat and most were not in the position that was high up in the military. Black women
and Black men, who were in the military, were segregated at church services, in transportation and
canteens, in barracks, and even in parades. Black men suffered such bad treatment in many cases
that African American soldiers in many cases were treated worse than German prisoners of war.

That is a disgrace. Black women were given separate training, bad living quarters, and rations. Black
nurses suffered both racism and sexism. They still cared for wounded soldiers and served
magnificently. Soldiers of color including black soldiers served their country with distinction during
World War II. About 125,000 African Americans were overseas in World War II. There were many
segregated units. Many of them included the Tuskegee Airmen, the 761st Tank Battalion, and the
452nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalion. They performed greatly in combat situations. Native
Americans and Asian Americans suffered racism and discrimination in the military too. Asian
Americans were integrated with European American soldiers. The first Chinese American USMC
(or Marine) officer was Wilbur Carl Sze. He was commissioned as second lieutenant in December
of 1943. Native Americans in many cases served as code talkers to pass coded messages throughout
the military during World War II. This story is shown in a movie I saw back in 2002 called
“Windtalkers.” Black people were not accepted into the Marines until 1942.

During World War II, like in previous eras, racial tensions were extremely high. Many black people
excelled in jazz and other economic endeavors, but the system of oppression still existed in
America. Racial riots and racial violence existed in Detroit, Mobile (Alabama), Chicago,
Philadelphia, and other places nationwide during the 1940’s. During World War II, a lot of African
Americans worked in industrial jobs. Many racists falsely accused black people of stealing jobs and
placed black people as scapegoats for labor and economic issues. There were many immigrants in
Northern and Midwestern plus Western cities who had such jobs too. Many resources were scarce
and competition for resources intensified. Racial riots were the harshest during this era in Detroit
during 1943. In June 20, 1943, black people and white people were found in the Belle Isle Park to
escape the summer heat. Later, fights between black people and white people existed. It spread into
widespread riots over false rumors of rape and murder. Later, white people with the aid of the
police came into Detroit African American neighborhoods to attack black people at random. Mobs
surrounded streetcars in Detroit to beat up innocent black people. 2 days later, 25 black people and
9 white people were killed. In June 15, rioting happened in Beaumont, Texas. A white woman
accused a black man of raping her. Then, white racists destroyed homes, restaurants, and other
buildings in black neighborhoods.

Over 100 homes were destroyed. The mayor caused the city to be under martial law with the help
of the Texas National Guard. In Harlem in 1943, there was a rebellion of black people who were
tired of racism, police brutality, and discrimination. This was after a white police officer in NYC
injured an African American whom he arrested. In May 23, 1946, black workers in Mobile, Alabama
were assaulted by white racists. These black workers just wanted to work in the Alabama Dry Dock
and Shipbuilding Company in Mobile, Alabama. The FEPC wanted the plant to desegregate the
workforce in Alabama. There were the rioting in Los Angeles (during the 1940’s) where racists
assaulted Latino Americans with zoot suits especially, black people, Filipinos, and others (which was
called the Zoot Suit Riots). This happened in June of 1943 in Los Angeles, California. The riot
appeared to trigger similar attacks that year by whites against Latinos in Chicago, San Diego,
Oakland, Evansville (in Indiana), Philadelphia, and New York City. In 1946, police and other
authorities shot at windows and destroyed the property of innocent black people in Columbia,
Tennessee.

There were blue discharges during World War II as well. This was another form of discrimination
against African American soldiers. Blue discharges were discharges from the military without honor.
It wasn’t honorable. It wasn’t dishonorable. It was equivalent to being fired from the military. Black
troops disproportionately experienced blue discharges during WWII. They were created in 1916.
48,603 blue discharges were issued by the Army from December 1, 1941 to June 30, 1945. 10,806
were issued to African Americans. This accounts for 22.2% of all blue discharges, when African
Americans made up 6.5% of the Army in that time frame. Blue discharge recipients had faced many
difficulties obtaining employment. They were routinely denied the benefits of the G.I. Bill by the
Veterans Administration (VA). By October 1945, Black-interest newspaper The Pittsburgh Courier
launched a crusade against the discharge and its abuses. Calling the discharge "a vicious instrument
that should not be perpetrated against the American Soldier", the Courier rebuked the Army for
"allowing prejudiced officers to use it as a means of punishing Negro soldiers who do not like
specifically unbearable conditions.” The Courier printed instructions on how to appeal a blue
discharge and warned its readers not to quickly accept a blue ticket out of the service because of the
negative effect it would likely have on their lives. The House Committee on Military Affairs held
hearings in response to the press crusade, issuing a report in 1946 that sharply criticized its use and
the VA for discriminating against blue discharge holders. Congress discontinued the blue discharge
in 1947, but the VA continued its practice of denying G. I. Bill benefits to blue-tickets.

The Tuskegee Airmen

Courage and sacrifice define the Tuskegee Airmen. They were a group of military pilots who fought
during World War II. They were active in the military throughout the 1940's. The Tuskegee
program officially started on June 1941 with the 99th Pursuit Squadron at Tuskegee University. It
had a unit of 47 officials and 429 enlisted men. One leader of the Tuskegee Airmen was Captain
Benjamin O. Davis Jr. (who was the commander of the Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group. He
flew his P-47 Thunderbolt in Sicily). These men experienced racism and oppression, but they
performed magnificently during the war. Mary McLeod Bethune and so many unsung heroes
advanced the program to cause the Tuskegee Airmen to exist. Walter White of the NAACP, A.
Philip Randolph, and Judge William H. Hastie wanted black men to be military aviators. So, in 1939,
the federal government sent money to fund civilian flight schools to train African Americans. The
Civilian Pilot Training Program allowed African Americans from colleges and universities to join
the Tuskegee Airmen movement. The Tuskegee Institute allowed many members to fly as well. The
first class of black pilot prepared to do so in July 19, 1941. They were trained rigorously. They
studied flying, navigation and meteorology.
The first African Americans to get their silver wings
and graduate was on the date of March 7, 1942. The
Tuskegee Army Base was segregated and had many
black pilots. The Tuskegee Airmen were in 9
different squadrons like the 332nd Fighter Group,
the 99th, 100th, 301th, 302nd Fighter Squadrons,
and the 616th, 617th, 618th, and 619th
Bombardment Squadrons (they flew medium two
engine bombers). When the pilots of the 332nd
Fighter Group painted the tails of their P-47s and
later, P-51s, red, the nickname "Red Tails" was
coined. The red markings that distinguished the
Tuskegee Airmen included red bands on the noses
of P-51s as well as a red rudder; the P-51B and D He was Lt. Charles Bailey, Sr. was the last of the
Mustangs flew with similar color schemes, with red line. He was the last of Punta Gorda, Fla.’s
propeller spinners, yellow wing bands and all-red tail “Fighting Bailey Brothers.” The last of a family of
surfaces. Many of them were navigators, seven sons and two daughters who
bombardiers, mechanics, instructors, crew chiefs, distinguished themselves in war and in life
nurses, cooks, and other supporters of pilots. All during World War II, Korea and much of the
black military pilots trained near Tuskegee Alabama 20th Century. He was the first native of Florida
at Moton Field in the Tuskegee Army Air Field. Jim to fly for the Tuskegee Airmen. He shot down
Crow existed, so they were segregated. German planes once in a P-40 Warhawk
nicknamed Josephine after his mother and a P-
51 Mustang plane he nicknamed “My Buddy”
after his father. Bailey flew 133 missions across
Europe and North Africa, earning an Air Medal
and a Distinguished Flying Cross. He had a wife
(her name is Bessie L. Fitch from his
hometown) and 2 sons. He lived to the year of
2001.
The Tuskegee program was a successful endeavor and even First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt flew with
the African American chief civilian instructor C. Alfred “Chief” Anderson on March of 1941.
Anderson flew since 1929. Eleanor Roosevelt gave a loan to help build Moton Field. The loan was
of $175,000. The 99th Squadron was involved in combat in April of 1943. They attacked an island
on the Mediterranean Sea to clear lanes for the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943. By June 2, the
combat mission was flown by the 99th. They moved into Sicily. They received a Distinguished Unit
Citation for its actions in combat. Many of the Tuskegee Airmen were used as convoys to protect
aircraft. Many of them shot down many Nazi aircraft including jets throughout Europe from France
to Italy. The 332nd flew missions in Sicily, Anzio, Normandy, the Rhineland, the Po Valley and
Rome-Arno and other places. Pilots of the 99th once set a record for destroying five enemy aircraft
in less than four minutes. The Tuskegee Airmen shot down three German jets in a single day. In all,
992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1941-46. 355 were deployed overseas, and 84 lost their
lives in accidents or combat.

On March 24, 1945, the 332nd were involved in the longest bomber escort mission of the war.
They shot down three of the new German ME-262 jet fighters and damaged 5 others without losing
any of their own bombers or planes. The Tuskegee Airmen included some of the best pilots of the
war. After the war in 1949, the 332nd Fighter Wing took first place in a shooting competition. It
took place in Las Vegas, Nevada. The pilots were Capt. Alva Temple, Lts. Harry Stewart, James
Harvey III and Herbert Alexander. Lt. Harvey said, "We had a perfect score. Three missions, two
bombs per plane. We didn't guess at anything, we were good." They received congratulations from
the Governor of Ohio, and Air Force commanders across the nation. Many famous Tuskegee
Airmen included Edward C. Gleed of Lawrence, Kansas, Robert W. Williams, William H.
Holloman, Ronald W. Reeves, Christopher W. Newman, Edward A. Gibbs, General Daniel
“Chappie” James Jr., Marion Rodgers, and Walter M. Downs. Many of them would later work in
NORAD, NASA, etc. The Tuskegee Airmen’s actions definitely contributed to the ending of the
segregation of the military by 1948 (via the Executive Order of President Harry S. Truman called
E.O. 9981).

The excellence of the Tuskegee Airmen will always be remembered.

Other Stories of Service

During the Battle of the Bulge (which was one of the last offensives of the Nazis and the Nazis
were defeated by the Allied forces) during December of 1944, General Eisenhower was very short
of replacement troops for existing all-white companies. So, he made the decision to allow 2,000
black servicemen volunteers to serve in segregated platoons under the command of white
lieutenants to replenish these companies. These platoons would serve with distinction and
according to an Army survey in the summer of 1945, 84% were ranked "very well" and 16% were
ranked "fairly well". No black platoon received a ranking of "poor" by those white officers or white
soldiers that fought with them. Unfortunately, these platoons were often subject to racist treatment
by white military units in occupied Germany and were quickly sent back to their old segregated
units after the end of hostilities in Germany. Despite their protests, these brave African American
soldiers ended the war in their old non-combat service units. Though largely forgotten after the war,
the temporary experiment with black combat troops proved a success - a small, but important step
toward permanent integration during the Korean War. A total of 708 African Americans were killed
in combat during World War II. There is the picture of an African American Battery A of the
452nd AAA (or Anti-Aircraft Artillery) Battalion on November 9, 1945. In 1945, Frederick C.
Branch became the first African-American United States Marine Corps officer. There is another
picture of African American soldiers in Burma reading President Truman’s Proclamation of Victory
in Europe on May 9, 1945.

In 1965, Marcelite J. Harris (who was born in Houston, Texas) became the first female African
American United States Air Force officer. On January 13, 1997, President Bill Clinton (in a White
House ceremony) awarded the nation’s highest military honor, which is the Medal of Honor, to
seven African American servicemen who had served during World War II.

Double V

The Double V campaign was one of the most important campaigns of World War II. The Double
V movement was a slogan. Its meaning was that it wanted black Americans to fight for democracy
abroad and in America in order for racism to end in the States. The V victory sign was a double
meaning. People who endorsed the Double V campaign wanted victory against the Axis Powers
(along with their evils of aggression, slavery, and tyranny) and another victory for African
Americans in America. It first appeared in the African American newspaper called the Pittsburgh
Courier on February 7, 1942. The slogan started in a response to the letter, “Should I Sacrifice to
Live 'Half American?'" written by 26-year-old reader James G. Thompson (He was from Wichita,
Kansas). Pitched as "Democracy – Double Victory, At Home - Abroad", the campaign highlighted
the risks African Americans took while they fought in the military campaign against Axis powers
while denied their rights as citizens within the United States. Victory over fascism and racism (the
double victory) was promoted by black people and many non-black people too. The campaign
wanted civil rights and to get more African Americans to be involved in the war effort too. The
Courier newspaper received massive support in dealing with the Double V movement. Telegrams
came in to promote the campaign as well. Movie starts, other celebrities, etc. in magazines,
postcards, and newspapers endorse the Double V movement. The Double V campaign was
eventually adopted by other black newspapers, including the Los Angeles Sentinel, the Washington
Tribune, and the Challenger of Columbus, Ohio. Despite the Courier’s effort, by 1943, the paper
provided less space in promoting the campaign and by September 1945 the paper stopped using
Double V. The Double V campaign gave voice to many African Americans in opposing racism and
discrimination.

The arts and the sciences excelled in African American life during that time period too. Jacob
Lawrence created artistic masterpieces. Hattie McDaniel acted and worked in charities in her life to
help people. Charles R. Drew helped to send plasma to save countless life of soldiers during World
War II. Charles R. Drew was one of the greatest doctors of the 20th century. Frederick Douglas
Patterson helped many African Americans to have greater educational opportunities.

African American Women in World War II

African American women had a huge involvement in World War II. African American women
worked in factories (like Luedell Mitchell and Lavada Cherry, who worked in the El Segundo Plant
of Douglas Aircraft Company during WWII), and shipyards nationwide when a labor shortage
existed. They were also in the armed forces too. They experienced sexism and racism (massive
segregation existed in America), but they continued to contribute their talents in making society
better for themselves and for their families. We all know that black women have made glorious
contributions since the beginning of human history. Many black people were given menial jobs.
Black women experienced lax pay in many cases and gender discrimination. Some racists walked off
jobs instead of working with black people.
These Sisters in the picture above are from the Tuskegee Air Women. This is from the 1940's. They
were assigned as weather observers and forecasters, cryptographers, radio operators, repairmen,
sheet metal workers, parachute riggers, link trainer instructors, bombsite maintenance specialists,
aerial photograph analysts and control tower operators in the Air Corps. Famous black women
pilots during this era were Janet Harmon and Willa Brown. They worked in Chicago. Both women
helped to train black pilots. Mildred Hemmons Carter also was a member of the 1st graduating class
of Tuskegee Institute's Flight School. Willa Brown Chappell was instrumental in training more than
200 students who went on to become the legendary Tuskegee Airmen. Janet Harmon was the first
black woman to receive a commercial pilot's license.
 She is Sister Gertrude Marguerite Bertram and she is a black American nurse. This picture is taken
from about 1943. She is wearing her ANC blue service uniform. The location appears to be Fort
Bragg, North Carolina.

There was the WAC. The WAC stands for the Women’s Army Corps. By January 1941, African
American women joined the ranks of Army nurses to strengthen the war effort. Black nurses
worked hard too. Sammie Mae Rice (1913-2006) was among the first African American nurses to
serve in an overseas theater during World War II. Sammie Mae Rice (1913-2006) of Laurens, South
Carolina, enlisted in the Army Nurse Corps on 24 July 1942. She served courageous and was
discharged in March 1, 1946. In 1942, Charity Adams (Earley) became the first African-American
female commissioned officer in the WAAC (or the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps). The WAAC
was converted to the Women's Army Corps (WAC) in 1943, and recognized as an official part of
the regular army. More than 150,000 women served as WACs during the war, and thousands were
sent to the European and Pacific theaters. In 1944, WACs landed in Normandy after D-Day and
served in Australia, New Guinea, and the Philippines in the Pacific. In 1945 the 6888th Central
Postal Directory Battalion (the only all African-American, all-female battalion during World War II)
worked in England and France, making them the first black female battalion to travel overseas.

The battalion was commanded by MAJ Charity Adams Earley, and was composed of 30 officers
and 800 enlisted women. WWII black recruitment was limited to 10 percent for the
WAAC/WAC—matching the percentage of African-Americans in the US population at the time.
For the most part, Army policy reflected segregation policy. Enlisted basic training was segregated
for training, living and dining. At enlisted specialists schools and officer training living quarters were
segregated but training and dining were integrated. A total of 6,520 African-American women
served during the war. There is a picture of Major Charity E. Adams and Captain Abbie N.
Campbell inspecting WACs in England on February of 1945. Mrs. Callie O. Gentry was the
stenographer of the Tuskegee Airmen.

This picture shows African-American US Army WAC Major Charity E. Adams and Captain Abbie
N. Campbell inspecting WAC members of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion in
England, United Kingdom on February 15, 1945.

Maureen Honey (she is a Professor of English and Women’s and Gender Studies at the University
of Nebraska—Lincoln) wrote the following accurate information about African American women
in World War II in her own article entitled, “African American Women in World War II:

“…The difficulty for black women entering skilled production areas, retail and other service work,
or transportation jobs during the 1940s is mirrored in their continuing dominance of the private
market for maids. Although during the war, the proportion of African American women who were
working in domestic service fell dramatically, from 60 to 44 percent, domestic employment
remained their primary occupation category throughout the war. Even in the military, which they
did enter as a support for black male soldiers in the segregated armed forces, black women had
trouble escaping low-skilled assignments, and they were not allowed to take combat roles. Six
African American WACs, for example, were court-martialed at Fort Devens, Massachusetts, when
they refused to take custodial assignments. In her memoir of being the first African American to
join the Women’s Army Corps, Charity Adams Earley mentions the common army practice of
dividing into “white” and “colored” the jobs WACs were given, with the latter being menial and
unskilled...Lena Horne, Dorothy Dandridge, Hazel Scott, and other glamorous singers played
prominent roles in musicals or production numbers in
movies.
These images were new to the dominant popular culture,
and while many of the scenes were cut for southern
audiences, they paved the way for postwar widening of the
narrow, demeaning stereotypes in place before the
war...Most of all, World War II provided an empowering
political base for African American women that heralded
the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s. The battle
against racism undertaken during the war, known as the
Double Victory Campaign (Victory over Fascism Abroad,
Victory over Racism at Home), was fueled by organizers
such as Ella Baker, Mary Church Terrell, Mary McLeod
Bethune, and many others, including Rosa Parks, who was
already refusing to move to the back of the bus. Ending
racial segregation of the armed forces—a barrier that came In February 1945, Olivia Hooker
down in 1948—was the primary goal of the Double became one of the first African-
Victory Campaign, which was also opposed to segregation American females admitted into the
in housing, transportation, and employment practices, as United States Coast Guard when she
well as at lunch counters, theaters, bathrooms, drinking
joined the service during World War II.
fountains, swimming pools, and the multitude of venues in
American life that discriminated against black people...as a
collective force, African American women found an empowered voice in those years, one that
anticipates the fruit of their embittering but powerful wartime efforts to break silence, challenge
limits, and change forever the terms of their own lives..."
These Pictures show the “Six-Triple Eight” Central Postal Battalion. They were made up of about
1,000 women. They moved mountains of mail for millions of American service members and
civilians that clogged warehouses in England and France. Their service to their country had been
overlooked for years. They were the first all African American, all women unit to serve overseas
during World War II.
 Sister Millie Dunn Veasey recently passed away during March of 2018 and she lived to be
100 years. She worked in World War II to defeat fascism as part of the Women’s Army
Corps (WAC) and the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) from 1942 to 1945. Veasey
enlisted in the army with the “six-triple-eight” battalion, the 6888th Central Postal
Directory Battalion in December 1942. This unit was the only all-woman and all-black
battalion to serve during World War II overseas. She not only fought to defeat Nazism. She
was a diligent supporter of the civil rights movement. Millie Dunn Veasey was at the 1963
March on Washington rally and she sat next to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. She was the
President of the Raleigh-Wake Chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People (NAACP) by 1965. She was born in Raleigh, North Carolina. She had 2
children and was a community activist throughout her life.
Rest in Power Sister Millie Dunn Veasey
She was Alberta Martin. She tried to enlist in the Army Nurse Corps. In autobiographical notes, she
wrote that her application was denied because there was a quota for black nurses. In March 1945,
she finally received a commission as a lieutenant and was one of 20 black nurses to serve in an
integrated unit in Fort Meade, Maryland.

Bessie Stringfield was a legendary woman. She is known as the “Motorcycle Queen of Miami”. She
was the first Jamaican-American woman to ride across America solo. At the age of 16 Stringfield
taught herself to ride her first motorcycle, a 1928 Indian Scout. In 1930, at the age of 19, she
commenced traveling across the United States. She made seven more long-distance trips in the US,
and eventually rode through the 48 lower states, Europe, Brazil and Haiti. During World War II,
she served one of the few motorcycle dispatch riders for the American military. During WWII
Stringfield served as a civilian courier for the US Army, carrying documents between domestic army
bases. She completed the rigorous training and rode her own blue 61 cubic inch Harley-Davidson.
During the four years she worked for the Army, she crossed the United States eight times. She
regularly encountered racism during this time, reportedly being deliberately knocked down by a
white male in a pickup truck while traveling in the South. In the 1950's Stringfield moved to Miami,
Florida. Some police harassed her since she was a black woman riding a motorcycle. Later, the
police allowed her to ride her vehicle. She owned 27 of her own motorcycles. She broke down
barriers for women and Jamaican American motorcyclists. In fact, Stringfield was inducted into the
Motorcycle Hall of Fame. This award was bestowed by the American Motorcyclist Association
(AMA) for “Superior Achievement by a Female Motorcyclist” is named in her honor. He lived from
February 9, 1911 to February of 1993 in Opa Locka, Florida. She was born in Kingston, Jamaica.
Black women and men were about 6 percent of all employees in aircraft industries (whereas white
women made up of 40 percent of all aircraft workers). Lena Horne, Dorothy Dandridge, Hazel
Scott, and other African American women not only performed music and were in movies. They
were active to oppose fascism during World War II. They also fought for civil rights. Clara Camille
Carroll worked in Washington, D.C. in 1943. She was a black woman. She worked in a clerical job
and she was from Cleveland, Ohio. By the 1950’s, she would be the first black American woman
sailor based on Norfolk Naval base. She came into Howard University. There is a picture of Lt.
Harriet Ida Pickens and Ens. Frances Willis from 1944. Black women worked in railroads, built
planes, worked in the battlefield, and traveled across the world in fulfilling their occupations. Willa
Beatrice Brown was the first black woman to earn a pilot’s license in America. A lifelong advocate
for gender and racial equality in flight and in the military, Brown not only lobbied the U.S.
government to integrate the U.S. Army Air Corp and include African Americans in the Civilian
Pilot Training Program (CPTP), but also co-founded the Cornelius Coffey School of Aeronautics
with Cornelius Coffey, which was the first private flight training academy in the United States
owned and operated by African Americans. She trained hundreds of pilots, several of whom would
go on to become Tuskegee Airmen. She was politically and socially active in Chicago. She taught
many on how to fly. Pvt. Ruth L. James worked hard during World War II too. Frances Bates was
an US Navy WAVE Apprentice Seawoman back in 1945. The Navy did not allow women of color
until January 25, 1945. The first African-American woman sworn into the Navy was Phyllis Mae
Dailey, a nurse and Columbia University student from New York. She was the first of only four
African American women to serve in the Navy during WW2.

The courage, excellence, and activism of black women during World War II will always be
remembered.
The Fights for Justice

Black Americans fought for justice during World War II. During the era of World War II, African
Americans grew their political power. More African Americans moved into being Democrats than
Republicans because of the administration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s claim to do something
about discrimination in the military and involving society in general. FDR said that this New Deal
would help Americans, but FDR had a mixed record on civil rights. Groups like the NAACP (or
the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), the National Urban League, and
the National Negro Congress have called for equality and justice for black Americans. The
Pittsburgh Courier was a newspaper of a large black readership. By 1938, it created the Committee
on Participation of Negroes in the National Defense Program. Many people wanted to increase the
amount of proportion of African Americans in the military. NAACP’s the Crisis magazine
published articles about wanting democracy at home. During the 1940 presidential election, both
parties courted the black vote. Incumbent President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was re-elected,
partly because substantial numbers of black voters crossed previous party lines and voted for the
Democratic Party candidate. During this time, great leaders like Ella Baker, Mary McLeod Bethune,
Rosa Parks, Mary Church Terrell, and others fought for racial justice.
By 1941, civil rights activists A. Philip Randolph, A.J. Muste, and Bayard Rustin pushed Roosevelt
to order fair employment for black people in the federal government. The activists threatened to
march on Washington, D.C. in July 1941. Roosevelt didn’t want this to happen, because he felt that
it would be a public relations disaster for his Presidency. A. Philip Randolph and others rightfully
found it appalling that the Nazis were doing injustices overseas while black people were denied
fundamental human rights in America. Back then, many black people were restricted from having
skilled jobs in war production companies. Many of these companies refused to hire African
Americans. The federal government at first refused to do anything about it. So, Randolph launched
the MOWM or the March on Washington Movement. He wanted thousands of black people to
march on Washington in 1941 to demand that Roosevelt issue an executive order to ban
discrimination in the defense industry.

Walter White of the NAACP, Lester Granger of the Urban League, and other black leaders agreed
with the plans for the march. Eleanor Roosevelt met with Randolph and White to try to convince
them to call off the march. Randolph refused. He wanted action. So, FDR had a meeting with
Randolph and other march leaders in June of 1941. Mayor Fiorello La Guardia of New York City
worked with FDR and other to form a compromise agreement with Randolph. A. Philip Randolph
agreed to call off the march and FDR issued the Executive Order 8802. This order banned
employment discrimination in the defense industry and government. He or FDR also created a
temporary Fair Employment Practices Committee to help ensure that defense manufacturers
wouldn’t advance racial discrimination. It was the first action of the federal government to address
racism nationwide since Reconstruction. Randolph called off the march and this was the first step in
a long journey. This was one foundation of the civil rights movement of the 1950’s and the 1960’s.

CORE or the Congress of Racial Equality was created in 1942. Its founders were James Farmer,
George Houser, and Bernice Fisher. It was created in Chicago and wanted to promote the
philosophy of nonviolence in order for black people and all people to have equality, freedom, and
justice. They would be involved in many efforts to fight for civil rights from the era of WWII to
decades afterwards. The Port Chicago disaster caused another fight for justice. The Port Chicago
disaster happened on July 17, 1944. It was an explosion of about 2,000 tons of ammunition. It was
loaded onto ships by black Navy sailors under pressure from their white officers to hurry. It
happened in Northern California and conditions were bad in that location. The explosion killed 320
military and civilian workers, most of them were black people who were killed. This led into the
Port Chicago Mutiny, which called for safer working conditions in the location. This was the
only case of a full military trial for mutiny in the history of the U.S. Navy against 50 African
American sailors who refused to continue loading ammunition under the same dangerous
conditions. The trial was observed by the then young lawyer Thurgood Marshall and ended in
conviction of all of the defendants. The trial was immediately and later criticized for not abiding by
the applicable laws on mutiny, and it became influential in the discussion of desegregation.

It is important to mention more information about Josephine Baker. She was born in St. Louis,
Missouri and became an international entertainer. Yet, she was more than a musician and a dancer.
She had a great deal of conscious about the world society. She dedicated her life to tolerance and
fighting Jim Crow segregation in America. She lived long enough to see legal Jim Crow segregation
to be gone by 1965 in America. She also heroically worked for the French Resistance. The French
Resistance was fighting the Nazis and the evil pro-Nazi Vichy state during World War II. After the
war, she was awarded the Croix de guerre by the French military, and was named a Chevalier of the
Légion d'honneur by General Charles de Gaulle. She loved Paris as her 2nd love. She worked in the
Civil Rights Movement and was a proponent of freedom, artistic creativity, and loyalty (or fidelity)
to justice.

Rest in Power Sister Josephine Baker.

The Results of World War II

This image
shows the
Allied
liberation of
Paris, France
on the date
of late
August 1944.

The end of World War II caused the following results: The end of Nazi Germany, the
Fall of the Japanese and Italian Empires, the dissolution of the League of Nations,
and the creation of the United Nations. Also, the end of World War 2 caused the
United States and the Soviet Union to be international superpowers and the end of
the war caused the beginning of the Cold War. The war resulted in 50-85 million
causalities causing the bloodiest war in human history. World War II is always
remembered by us.
 Unsung African American Heroes during World War Two

The woman to the far left is Major Charity
Adams Early (1918-2002). She was the highest
ranking African American woman during World
War II. She was the first African American
woman commissioned as an officer in the
Women’s Army Corps.
Woody Strode (1914-1994) was in the U.S. Army
during World War II’s Pacific Theater. He was
an athlete, football player, and nominated for a
Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor
in his role of Spartacus in 1960.

They were part of the Golden Thirteen or the 13
African American enlisted men who became the
first American commissioned and warrant
officers in the United States Navy. They existed
in 1944.
Emma Dilake lived for 111 years and she was
part of the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps
during World War II. She lived from 1904 to
2015 and she met President Barack Obama
during July of 2015.

These women are African American US Navy Jim Rundles (1920-2014) was the first black
WAVE Lt. Harriet Ida Pickens and Ens. Frances Marine during World War II. He promoted civil
Willis from December 21, 1944. They are the rights throughout his life. He lived to be 94 years
first black officers to be commissioned in the old.
WAVES. They were in Northampton,
Massachusetts.
Black people and the Holocaust

There were black people in Germany back then. The Nazi Empire murdered many Afro-Germans.
Even before WWI, Afro-Germans faced racism and discrimination in Germany. Many German
racists didn’t want black people and biracial people in Germany to have equal rights. After WWI,
many African colonial troops in the Rhineland had fathered children with German women.
Newspapers in Germany called these children “Rhineland ba___.” That was wrong and evil. A very
small number of biracial children were born (only about 400-600). There was a total black
population of 20,000 to 25,000 human beings in Germany at the time. Hitler was a racist and he
believed in the lie that black people were genetically inferior to whites (when Hitler wasn’t even a
blue eyed, blonde Aryan). In Mein Kampf, he accused Jewish people of sending black people into
the Rhine to make children in order for the white race to be harmed (while Jewish people would
dominate Germany). He blamed France for this too.

Of course, Hitler was wrong and a racist plus an anti-Semite. The Nazis used a eugenics program to
sterilize biracial children born during occupation. Hitler and the Gestapo executed the sterilization
of 500 children under this program including girls as young as 11. That was heinous. One biracial
person named Hilarius Gilges (he grew up in Dusseldorf, Germany) was captured by SS officers in
June of 1933. The SS stands for Schutzstaffel or the paramilitary and the surveillance organization
formed by Hitler in 1925. Hilarius Gilges was tortured and murdered by them (the Nazis). Afro-
Germans experienced discrimination in employment, welfare, and housing in Nazi Germany. Many
of them were banned from having a higher education. There were Afro-German prisoners of war
and African American soldiers who were prisoners of war too. Many of them were executed and
many were not. Violence against black prisoners of war existed, which was against the Geneva
Convention.
The image on the right shows the brutality of the Nazis. This is why we are opposed to anti-
Semitism and racism. This is why we fight against fascism. This is why we never forget. We
never forget the Shoah and the Maafa. The image to the right shows the Lublin, Poland
Crematoria in the concentration camp, after the liberation on July 23, 1944.

In prisoner of war camps, black soldiers were kept segregated from white prisoners, and generally
experienced worse conditions than their white comrades, conditions that deteriorated further in the
last days of the war. Roughly half of the French colonial prisoners of war did not survive captivity.
Groups such as North Africans were sometimes treated as black, sometimes as white. Sister Valaida
 Snow was an African American woman who was a great musician. She was victim of Nazi
imprisonment in 1941 while in Denmark. She was released in May 1942 after a prisoner exchange.
She continued to make music afterwards. The story of the Liberian-German, Hans Massaquoi, who
died at age 87 in 2013 is important to know about. He was a former managing editor of the
American Ebony magazine and he wrote a memoir about his childhood in Nazi Germany. Black
soldiers of the American, French, and British armies were worked to death on construction projects
or died as a result of mistreatment in concentration or prisoner-of-war camps. Others were never
even incarcerated, but were instead immediately killed by the SS or Gestapo. Other victims of Nazis
included Jean Marcel Nicolas, Mahjub bin Adam Mohamed, the African American pilot from
Portland, Oregon Lieutenant Darwin Nichols, Gert Schramm, and others. Some African American
members of the U.S. armed forces liberated people. They saw the evil Nazi atrocities first hand. The
all African American tank unit called the 761st Tank Battalion was under the command of General
George Patton. The Battalion participated in the liberation of Gunskirchen or a subcamp of the
Mauthausen concentration camp in May of 1945.

The Major Events of the Second World War

The Battle of The Battle of The Battle of El The D-Day event opened The Manhattan Project
Midway stopped Stalingrad ended Alamein was the second front in the was about the creation
massive Japanese the Nazi advance about the Allied European theater. It of atomic technology
expansion in the in Russia. It was Powers fighting paved the way for the by the Western forces.
Pacific. It was the the beginning of the Axis Powers final defeat of Nazi
first major Allied the end of the in North Africa. Germany
victory against the eastward extent of
Japanese Navy. the Nazis.

1942 1942-1943 1942 1944 1945

Casualties during WWII
Allied Powers Axis Powers
Military dead: Military dead:
Over 16,000,000 Over 8,000,000
Civilian dead: Civilian dead:
Over 45,000,000 Over 4,000,000
Total dead: Total dead:
Over 61,000,000 Over 12,000,000
Conclusion

World War II was a long, deadly war. It involved the death of more people than any war in history.
War is filled with bloodshed and destruction. African Americans were heavily involved in WWII as
pilots, nurses, soldiers, tank operators, naval leaders, etc. They wanted the Axis Powers to be
defeated. Also, they wanted racism to be defeated domestically in America. That is the precise
meaning of the Double V movement. It wanted fascists defeated overseas and in America. The
fascists in America promoted not only Jim Crow, but discrimination, racism, lynching, and other
forms of oppression. Yet, black people never quit. We fought against injustices, stood up to the
status quo, and defeated fascists in Europe at the same time. There were riots in Detroit and
Chicago along with a rebellion in Harlem during the 1940’s. The activism of black people caused
FDR to issue the first pro-civil rights executive order from a President since Reconstruction. World
War II veterans weren’t just men. Many World War II veterans were black women too. Their
service should be acknowledged, respected, and honored. After World War II black people still
faced oppression and injustice. Many WWII veterans were murdered by racists. Many veterans
continued to form an important part of the civil rights movement too in their activism. The Allied
victory ended one chapter and started a new one in world history. America became the most
powerful military nation on Earth. It became an international military and economic force
overnight. It used capitalism to rebuilt markets in Europe and Japan. Also, the evil of Jim Crow
would continue after WWII for the next 2 decades. The Civil Rights Movement in the modern
sense would rise after the war. The next chapter of the African American History series will
describe the modern Day Civil Rights Movement from 1954 to 1968.

Yes, Our Eyes are on the Prize.

By Timothy
Appendix A: The Second Great Migration and the Korean War

One of the greatest events in human history was the Second Great Migration of African Americans.
It was the migration of more than five million African Americans. They traveled from the South to
the North, the Midwest, and the West Coast. It happened from 1941 to 1970. It was much larger
and was different from the first Great Migration (which lasted from ca. 1910-1940). The Second
Great Migration started during the era of World War II. During the Second Great Migration, people
traveled into Californian cities too like Los Angeles, Oakland, Richmond, and Long Beach. These
places offered skilled jobs in the defense industry. In the Midwest, the West, and the North,
discrimination still existed. Back then, many African Americans already had urban jobs in the South
before they relocated. Many black workers were forced to work in segregated, low skilled jobs in
many cities of the South. The Great Migration allowed African Americans to get highly skilled, well
paid jobs at California shipyards. The Second Great Migration caused many African Americans to
live in urban locations in a higher level. By the end of the Second Great Migration, 80 percent of
black people lived in cities. Fifty-three percent remained in the Southern United States, while 40
percent lived in the Northeast and North Central states and 7 percent in the West. Many black
people experienced dangerous work conditions too. There was a mention explosion at Port
Chicago, California (near San Francisco). It killed over 200 black people in 1944. Later, some
workers refused to work until conditions improved. Up to 50 were tried for mutiny and imprisoned.
Many people migrated for a diversity of reasons.

Many wanted economic improvement in their own lives. They didn’t want economic deprivation.
African American men and women wanted skilled jobs. They wanted to support their families.
Northern employees hired African Americans from the South and whites from the South as a cheap
labor force to replace the more costly European immigrant workers. Racial violence, political
disenfranchisement, and educational opportunities were other reasons for the 2nd Great Migration
too. In cities like San Francisco, Los Angeles, Chicago, etc. de facto segregation existed. De Facto
segregation is segregation by policy not by law. Many black people were forced into low income
housing, because of racial and economic discrimination. Freeways, urban renewal, and covenant
policies in the Midwest, the West, and the North harmed black communities and advanced more
segregation. Many families were overcrowded. White flight grew during the 1960’s too. White flight
was driven in part by the process of blockbusting. White property owners, fearful of minority
groups, sold their homes to real estate agents at a low price, often due to the tactics of the real
estate companies themselves. Agents would then encourage that the vacant properties be bought by
black families seeking respite from the overcrowded neighborhoods in which they were sequestered.
When one black family moved in, the white neighbors would immediately sell their homes to the
waiting real estate companies, who would in turn sell to more black people at a significant markup.
Black people fought discriminatory housing laws too.

The 1963 Rumford Fair Housing Act banned discrimination in housing in California. Yet, right
wingers ended that law by the Proposition 14 (which harmed housing rights) in 1964. It would take
the Supreme Court to declare Prop 14 unconstitutional. Some scholars believe that Prop 14 (which
is an evil policy) contributed to the Watts rebellion of 1965. Many black Southerners brought their
culture from food to music to areas across the West Coast, the North, and the Midwest in
homogeneous communities. The Second Great Migration changed the culture of America
permanently.

After World War II, the integration of the Armed Forces existed. On July 26, 1948, President Harry
S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981. That order integrated the military and mandated equality
of treatment and opportunity. It was a historic time. It made it illegal, per military law, to make a
racist remark. It would be years later for the whole military to be desegregated. All black units were
in the Korean War. The last all-black unit was disbanded by 1954. In 1950, Lieutenant Leon Gilbert
of the still-segregated 24th Infantry Regiment was court martialed and sentenced to death for
refusing to obey the orders of a white officer while serving in the Korean War. Gilbert maintained
that the orders would have meant certain death for himself and the men in his command. The case
led to worldwide protests and increased attention to segregation and racism in the U.S. military.
Gilbert's sentence was commuted to twenty and later seventeen years of imprisonment; he served
five years and was released. Harry Truman extended his executive order to schools and
neighborhoods as well as military units.

Fifteen years after the Executive Order, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara issued
Department of Defense Directive 5120.36. "Every military commander", the Directive mandates,
"has the responsibility to oppose discriminatory practices affecting his men and their dependents
and to foster equal opportunity for them, not only in areas under his immediate control, but also in
nearby communities where they may gather in off-duty hours." While the directive was issued in
1963, it was not until 1967 that the first non-military establishment was declared off-limits. In 1970
the requirement that commanding officers first obtain permission from the Secretary of Defense
was lifted, and areas were allowed to be declared housing areas off limits to military personnel by
their commanding officer. The end of military segregation caused the increase of representation of
African Americans in the military. Now, we have an all-volunteer army.

THE KOREAN WAR: PART OF

THE COLD WAR

Facts on the Korean War

Date of its Existence
Locations of the Korean War
Result of the Conflict
Territorial changes
June 25, 1950 - July 27, 1953
The Korean peninsula, the Yellow Sea, the Sea of Japan, Korean Strait,
China-North Korea border
Military Stalemate
The Korean Demilitarized Zone created the divisions of the Korean
peninsula into the sovereign states of North Korea and South Korea. North
Korea has the city of Kaesong, but loses 1,500 square miles to South Korea.
 These are men and women from the service during the Korean War era.
The Korean War has been forgotten by many, but we will never forget. It was a war about a
dispute between North and South Korea over philosophies and territories. North Korea was a
Communist state while South Korea was a capitalist state. North Korea received military aid from
the Soviet Union and China while South Korea received military aid from America and its allies.
The war was short, but extremely bloody. Tons of people lost their lives among both sides. African
American soldiers were heavily involved in the war. Jesse L. Brown was the U.S. Navy’s first black
aviator in October 1948. He was killed when his plane was shot down during the Battle of Chosin
Reservoir in North Korea.

She is 1st Lt Nancy Leftenant-Colon and she became the 1st black woman in the Army Nursing
Corps on the date of February 12, 1948. She was born in 1921. She also served as the Tuskegee
Airmen Organization’s first and only woman President, from 1989 to 1991. She was raised in New
York State. She famously said the following words: “…We aspired to be pilots, nurses,
mechanics—whatever—anything that would prove our merit amongst the fighting forces for this
country.”
He was unable to parachute from his crippled F4U Corsair and crash-landed unsuccessfully. His
injuries and damage to his aircraft prevented him from leaving the plane. A white squadron mate,
Thomas Hudner, crash-landed his F4U Corsair near Brown and attempted to extricate Brown but
could not and Brown died of his injuries. Hudner was awarded the Medal of Honor for his efforts.
The U.S. Navy honored Jesse Brown by naming a frigate after him—the USS Jesse L. Brown (FF-
1089), Two enlisted men from the 24th Infantry Regiment (still a segregated unit), Cornelius H.
Charlton and William Thompson, posthumously received the Medal of Honor for actions during
the war. African Americans served in all combat and combat service elements during the war. By
1950, about 100,000 African Americans were on active duty in the U.S. Armed Forces. That was
about 8 percent of the total manpower. By October 1951, the all black 24th Infantry Regiment was
disbanded. It was formed in 1869 and it served in the Spanish American War, WWI, WWII, and
during the beginning of the Korean War. The recapturing of Yech’on was done heavily by a
battalion combat team commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Samuel Pierce Jr. and it was made up of
3 infantry companies and an engineer company. This took place on July 21, 1950. Captain Charles
Bussey was the commander of the engineer company during that operation and he was awarded the
Silver Star for preventing a flanking operation by a North Korean battalion during the battle.

Second Lieutenant Frank E. Peterson Jr., was the first black Marine Corps pilot. Peterson flew 64
combat missions before the war ended. He earned the Distinguished Flying Cross and six Air
Medals in the final months of the Korean War. In 1950, the Air Force had 25 black pilots in
integrated fighter squadrons led by Captain Daniel "Chappie" James Jr., who was assigned to the
36th Squadron, 5th Air Force. Captain James was an exceptional fighter pilot who often flew his F-
86 Sabre jet on dangerous, unarmed reconnaissance missions behind enemy lines -- a task reserved
for a select group of the most able and trusted flyers. James flew 101 combat missions in Korea and
earned the Distinguished Flying Cross before being reassigned stateside. In July 1951, he became
the first African-American in the Air Force to command a fighter squadron.

More than 600,000 African Americans served in the armed forces during the Korean War. More
than 5,000 black people died in combat. There were African American POWs in the Korean War
too. Black women were involved in the Korean War too. The WACs started to integrate training
and living in April of 1950. By January 6, 1948, Ensign Edith De Voe was sworn into the Regular
Navy Nurse Corps and in March, First Lieutenant Nancy C. Leftenant was a part of the Regular
Army Nurse Corps. She was part of the corps’ first black members. The African American WAC
detachment at Fort Lewis, Washington was mostly black all over the Korean War. The detachment
commander was Mary Teague Smith. She fought discrimination about white women going up the
ranks faster than black women. She was reassigned to Japan by 1952. By 1952, the Secretary of the
Army did something. They told a congressional committee of the armed services of wanting African
American women to comprise only 20 percent of the unit. Army Nurse Captain Yorke in 1952 was
a black woman who was stationed in Korea for the whole Korean War. She treated the injured.
African American women in the military fought both racism and sexism in the service.

In 1952, 2 African American military women fought to end Jim Crow policies in interstate
transportation. One was Sarah Keys Evans. Sarah Evans refused to go to the back of the bus was
while in North Carolina. She was arrested, jailed overnight, and fiend. She fought in the courts.
Dovey Johnson Roundtree (she was in the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps or WAAC via the
advice of her mentor Mary McLeod Bethune. Bethune fought of the desegregation of the military)
was a former WAC officer. She was an attorney in Washington D.C. too. She took on the Keys
case. Roundtree continued to file suit and by 1955, the 11 man ICC Commission agreed with Keys.
It ended Jim Crow policy on all interstate transportation. Keys experienced unjust discrimination
and racism. She won her battle. Black women were in the Air Force by 1949. One person in the Air
Force was Helen Gentry. Women were allowed into the Navy by 1944. Freddie Mae Hopson was
enlisted in the Navy in early 1952. The first African American women in the Marines were Annie
Graham and Ann Lamb in 1949. They volunteered. Annie Grimes was the third person to enlist in
1950. The African American involvement in the Korean War was very extensive. We meditate on
this history and we recognize the value of human life.

By Timothy

To the Heroes who Defeated the Nazis and

Fought for Justice:

Thank You.