Health aspects

of work in
extreme climates
A guide for oil and gas industry
managers and supervisors
OGP Report Number 398

Photographs: cover: Photodisc Inc; pages 1, 3, 5 (top), 7, 13, 17 and 19 (top): Shutterstock.com; pages 5 (bottom), 9, 11 (top), 15 and 21: iStockphoto.com;
page 11 (bottom): SINTEF; page 12: BP; page 19 (bottom) Quest Technologies
Health aspects
of work in
extreme climates
A guide for oil and gas industry
managers and supervisors
IPIECA
International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association
5th Floor, 209215 Blackfriars Road, London SE1 8NL, United Kingdom
Telephone: +44 (0)20 7633 2388 Facsimile: +44 (0)20 7633 2389
E-mail: info@ipieca.org Internet: www.ipieca.org

OGP
International Association of Oil & Gas Producers
London office
5th Floor, 209215 Blackfriars Road, London SE1 8NL, United Kingdom
Telephone: +44 (0)20 7633 0272 Facsimile: +44 (0)20 7633 2350
E-mail: reception@ogp.org.uk Internet: www.ogp.org.uk
Brussels office
Boulevard du Souverain 165, 4th Floor, B-1160 Brussels, Belgium
Telephone: +32 (0)2 566 9150 Facsimile: +32 (0)2 566 9159
E-mail: reception@ogp.org.uk Internet: www.ogp.org.uk

This document was compiled on behalf of the OGP-IPIECA Health Committee by the
Extremes of Climate Task Force: Alison Martin, Martyn Carter (BP); Nigel Shanks (RasGas);
Erik Dahl-Hansen (ExxonMobil); Professor Randi Reinertsen (SINTEF Health Research); and
Frano Mika (Eni).

IPIECA/OGP 2008. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior consent of IPIECA/OGP.
Disclaimer: Information provided herein is offered in good faith as accurate, but without guarantees or
warranties of completeness or accuracy. Readers are hereby put on notice that they must rely on their own
diligence when determining how or whether to respond to the information herein. Further, this guide is not
intended to replace necessary and appropriate medical or other professional advice or attention.

This publication is printed on paper manufactured from fibre obtained from sustainably grown softwood forests and bleached
without any damage to the environment.
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS

Contents
1 Introduction

1 The basics of body temperature

2 Regulation of body temperature
2 Heat exchange

4 Effects of temperature extremes on performance

4 Heat
4 Cold

4 Health problems due to extreme heat and humidity

4 Muscle fatigue
4 Heat syncope
5 Hyperthermia
6 Dehydration
6 Skin problems

7 Health problems due to the cold

7 Chilblains
7 Trench foot
7 Fingertip fissures
7 Frost-nip
7 Frostbite
8 Cold burn
8 Skin problems
8 Snow blindness
8 Hypothermia
9 Accidents

9 Prevention and management of health problems

related to work in extreme climates
9 Health assessment for fitness to work
10 Employee training
10 Clothing
14 Environmental controls
15 Work practices
16 Acclimatization
17 Food and water
18 Waste disposal
18 Journey management
18 First aid and access to medical support

19 Appendix 1: Heat stress indices

22 Appendix 2: General recommendations for reducing

exposure to the cold

ii
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS

Introduction
These guidelines update two previous
publications, Health Aspects of Work in Extreme
Climates within the E&P IndustryThe Cold
(Report No. 6.65/270, January 1998) and
Health Aspects of Work in Extreme Climates
within the E&P IndustryThe Heat (Report
No. 6.70/279, September 1998). They were
produced by the E&P Forum which later
became OGP. Because so much of the
physiology and advice is the same for both
heat and cold, members of the current
OGP/IPIECA health committee decided to
produce a combined document.
Many oil and gas companies have
operations in extreme climates, and this work
can pose a number of hazards, including
extremes of temperature, wind and humidity.
These can lead to serious health problems in
an exposed individual.
These guidelines aim to provide practical
information to line management and health
professionals in order to protect and maintain
health and prevent accidents, illness and loss of
life. In certain situations, additional measures
may be required to ensure effective and
efficient performance.
Definition
For the purposes of this document the terms
cold and heat are not defined by temperature
alone but depend upon wind factors, humidity
and the duration of exposure. Thus, this
guidance also applies to conditions that may be
encountered on offshore rigs and seismic ships.
Health effects may be modified by differences
in work conditions, work load, individual
fitness and clothing.

The basics of body temperature

There are two major factors affecting the Figure 1 Accident risk based on temperature
bodys temperature:
Environmental factors: air temperature,

radiant heat (from the sun and other hot

surfaces), air speed and humidity.
Metabolic factors: heat generated by body

functions increases with the workload.

accident risk

Atmospheric temperatures on earth have

been recorded as low as -90C (-130F) and as
Adapted from Ramsey et al.

high as 60C (140F). Extremes in atmo-

spheric temperature may have major
consequences on the bodys thermal reaction.
The risk of accidents increases as temperatures
approach 0C (32F) and +35C (95F) unless 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
suitable precautions are taken (see Figure 1). outside temperature

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 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
The basics of body temperature
Regulation of body temperature
The body is made up of a central core
containing the vital organs (brain, heart, lungs
and kidneys) which must be protected and
maintained at a constant temperature of 37C
(98.6F), and a peripheral envelope made up of
skin, muscles, fat and bones whose temperature
can vary greatly without ill effects.
Without methods of heat control the body
temperature would depend on that of the
outside environment. Regulation of heat
transfer between the core and the peripheral
envelope, together with regulation of heat
production and sweat, allows the body to
control its core temperature.
Any deviations above (hyperthermia) and
below (hypothermia) a normal body
temperature should be counteracted by
appropriate measures in order to avoid a life-
threatening situation developing. Special
centres in the brain initiate the bodys heat
control mechanisms in response to activation
of warm and cold sensitive receptors within
the skin and central parts of the body. In warm
conditions, sweating and dilatation of blood
vessels increases heat loss, whereas in cold
conditions heat conservation (constriction of
blood vessels) and increased heat production
(shivering and physical activity) take place.
Figure 2 Heat loss and heat production: a diagrammatic representation of mans
thermal exchanges with his environment
Heat loss Heat production
evaporation
food
(sweating, perspiration, respiration)
radiation shivering
convection
conduction
muscular work
2
Heat exchange
Heat exchange between the surface of the
skin and the air occurs through convection,
radiation, evaporation and conduction depend-
ing upon air temperature, humidity, radiant
temperature and air movement (see Figure 2).
If there is a net heat gain the body temperat-
ure will rise; if there is a net heat loss the
body temperature will fall, and so the rate of
heat production and the rate of heat loss need
to be in balance over time.
The rate of body heat loss or gain is a
function of the difference in temperature and
humidity between the body and the
surrounding environment.
The body can lose or gain heat through
four different physical methods:
Convection is the transfer of heat by
movement of the air next to the skin.Where
the temperature of air is lower than skin
temperature, there is a greater cooling effect
with convection as air movement around the
body increases.The higher the wind speed,
the greater the amount of heat lost by
convection.This is known as the wind chill
factor.The wind chill index (WCI) provides
an index of the actual chilling value of the
air based on a combination of the effects of
air temperature and air velocity. As wind
speed increases at a given temperature, the
risk of frostbite on exposed skin also
increases, and exposure time should be
decreased (Table 1). This can be used as a
simple, practical index, and one should bear
in mind that it applies only for unprotected
skin surfaces.The wind chill index does not
take into account the effect of sunshine.
Bright sunshine may reduce the effect of
wind chill (making it feel warmer) by 6 to
10 units.When the air temperature is hotter
than the body temperature loss of body heat
is not possible by convection, and low speed
warm air movement over exposed skin can
be used to provide warming in cold climates.
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS

Table 1 Wind chill calculation chart (T air = air temperature in C V10 = observed wind speed at 10 m elevation, in km/h)

The Green LaneTM, Environment Canadas Website (www.msc.ec.gc.ca/education/windchill/WindChill_Calculator_e.cfm)

T air 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50
V10
5 4 -2 -7 -13 -19 -24 -30 -36 -41 -47 -53 -58
10 3 -3 -9 -15 -21 -27 -33 -39 -45 -51 -57 -63
15 2 -4 -11 -17 -23 -29 -35 -41 -48 -54 -60 -66
20 1 -5 -12 -18 -24 -30 -37 -43 -49 -56 -62 -68
25 1 -6 -12 -19 -25 -32 -38 -44 -51 -57 -64 -70
30 0 -6 -13 -20 -26 -33 -39 -46 -52 -59 -65 -72
35 0 -7 -14 -20 -27 -33 -40 -47 -53 -60 -66 -73
40 -1 -7 -14 -21 -27 -34 -41 -48 -54 -61 -68 -74
45 -1 -8 -15 -21 -28 -35 -42 -48 -55 -62 -69 -75
50 -1 -8 -15 -22 -29 -35 -42 -49 -56 -63 -69 -76
55 -2 -8 -15 -22 -29 -36 -43 -50 -57 -63 -70 -77
60 -2 -9 -16 -23 -30 -36 -43 -50 -57 -64 -71 -78
65 -2 -9 -16 -23 -30 -37 -44 -51 -58 -65 -72 -79
70 -2 -9 -16 -23 -30 -37 -44 -51 -58 -65 -72 -80
75 -3 -10 -17 -24 -31 -38 -45 -52 -59 -66 -73 -80
80 -3 -10 -17 -24 -31 -38 -45 -52 -60 -67 -74 -81
Frostbite guide:
Low risk of frostbite for most people convection or conduction. Under these con-
Increasing risk of frostbite for most people in 10 30 minutes of exposure ditions evaporation of sweat becomes the only
High risk for most people in 510 minutes of exposure effective way to cool the body.
High risk for most people in 25 minutes of exposure
Air movement increases evaporation but the
High risk for most people in 2 minutes of exposure or less
effect will decrease as the moisture level in air
Radiation is the exchange of heat, through (humidity) increases.The drier a climate the more
air, between objects that are not in direct sweat will be evaporated by the body. When
contact with each other. If the surroundings humidity is low, a large amount of evaporation
are cooler than the body, the bodys heat takes place and increased cooling results. In a very
will transfer to these surroundings and if the humid climate evaporation of body sweat is
surroundings are hotter than the body, the difficult since the surrounding air is already highly
body will absorb heat. saturated with water. This explains why hot,
Conduction is the transfer of heat between humid days produce more heat problems than
objects that are in contact with each other. hot, dry days. In extremely hot climates radiation,
The air temperature must be cooler than convection and conduction are of little value.
skin temperature for this to occur. Air is a Other factors can influence sweating:
poor conductor whereas solids and fluids Drinking hot liquids increases sweating.

conduct well. The body loses heat 20 to 30 Psychological factors such as stress can

times faster in water than in air. provoke sweating of the hands, feet, armpits
Evaporation is the transfer of moisture and forehead.
into the air. The evaporation of moisture Alcohol reduces a persons ability to cope

(sweat) from the skin cools the body.
When air temperatures are as warm as, or
warmer than the skin, blood brought to the
bodys surface cannot shed its heat by
with extremes of climate by interfering
with hormones which control body fluids
and via its direct effect on blood vessels.
For the evaluation of heat stress see Appendix 1.

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 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Effects of temperature extremes on performance
Heat
Transient heat fatigue is a heat-related effect
that is more a behavioural than a physiological
response to working in heat, and is more likely
to occur in unacclimatized individuals. Work
performance declines especially where the task
requires coordination, alertness or vigilance,
and results in an increased risk of accidents.
Cold
By reducing comfort, cold may lead to
reduced performance as well as reduced safety
(see Figure 1). The effects of cold on mental
performance seem to be caused mainly by
distraction. Studies show a clear relationship
between skin temperature and manual
performance. As a first response to the cold,
heat loss is reduced by a reduction of blood
flow to the peripheral areas of the body,
causing discomfort in the hands and feet.
When muscles are cold they are less efficient.
Health problems due to extreme heat and humidity
Muscle fatigue
As a consequence of vasodilatation a great deal
of blood goes to the external skin surface and
less blood is supplied to the active muscles.
Strength declines and the onset of fatigue
occurs sooner than would otherwise be
expected. Reduced physical performance may
increase accident rates. These may also be
compounded by other associated factors such
as slippery palms, dizziness and the fogging of
safety glasses.
4
With progressive lowering of tissue temperat-
ure, manual dexterity is lost and numbness is
produced. The threshold temperature for
manual dexterity is 10-15C and for tactile
sensitivity <10C. This is illustrated in Table 2.
Table 2 Effects of cold on manual performance
Hand skin temperature Effect on performance
(C) (F)
3236 8997 Optimal hand and finger function
2732 8189 Effects on finger dexterity, precision and speed
2027 6881 Impaired performance in work with small
details, reduced endurance
1520 5968 Impaired performance of gross finger work
1015 5059 Reduced gross muscle strength and
coordination, pain sensation
<10 <50 Numbness, manual performance reduced to
simple gripping, pushing, etc.
Heat syncope
This is a heat-related condition, where blood
which would normally be circulated to the
heart and brain tends to pool in the leg veins,
thereby causing fainting. The veins lack tone
when initially exposed to hot climates. Heat
syncope is transient and will cease to occur
within two weeks even without any effort to
acclimatize. Walking about reduces the likeli-
hood of fainting by the muscle-pump effect
on leg veins, which discourages pooling.
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Hyperthermia
Hyperthermia covers a spectrum of conditions
from heat cramps through heat exhaustion to
heat stroke.
Heat cramp
Heat cramp occurs after prolonged vigorous
exercise in hot climates and is usually found in
people who drink extremely large quantities
of water but have some salt depletion.
Symptoms include a sudden onset of pain and
cramps in the extremities. There may be
nausea and hypotension (low blood pressure)
and in some cases hyperventilation. Treatment
involves removal to a cool environment, and
fluids with added sugar and food with
additional salt. If nausea or hypotension is
present it may be necessary to establish an
intravenous infusion.
Heat exhaustion
Heat exhaustion is a progression from heat
cramp and is more severe. It is more likely to
occur in the dehydrated, the unfit, the elderly
and those who have high blood pressure. It is
caused by both salt and water loss. Symptoms
and signs include headache, fatigue, dizziness,
confusion, nausea and abdominal cramps.There
may be syncope and collapse. Profuse sweating
and a pale and clammy skin are often observed
along with a weak and rapid pulse, hypotension
and rapid breathing.The body temperature may
be normal or elevated up to 39C.The priority
for treatment is rapid cooling by fanning and
tepid sponging in a cool environment, and
possible immersion in lukewarm water.
Copious fluids should be administered unless
nausea is present in which case an intravenous
infusion will need to be established.
Heat hyperpyrexia or heat stroke
Heat hyperpyrexia or heat stroke is caused by
exactly the same conditions as heat exhaustion.
It begins as heat exhaustion, but when the
bodys system for losing heat is overwhelmed
the core temperature rises rapidly and tissue
damage occurs. This affects mainly the brain,
kidneys and liver. The circulation collapses.
Symptoms and signs include headache and
dizziness, along with a dry mouth. The skin
may be hot and flushed and sometimes feel
dry. The body temperature may be very high,
greater than 40C. Temperature should be
taken with a rectal thermometer, preferably
electronic. The pulse is strong and bounding
initially but may then collapse. If the
condition is not correctly managed convul-
sions, coma and death may result.
Hyperpyrexia is a medical emergency and
exceedingly difficult to manage effectively in
the field. This extreme heat condition has a
mortality rate of 20 to 50 per cent depending
upon the pre-existing health status of the
victim.
Rapid cooling should be initiated as soon
as possible. The preferred method is to
moisten the skin and fan it. This is best
achieved by lying the patient on their side or
supported in the hands and knees position
while their skin is sprayed with atomized
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 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Health problems due to extreme heat and humidity
water at a temperature of approximately 15C.
The patient should also be fanned with warm
air.This method of cooling avoids the problem
of peripheral vasoconstriction which can
occur when ice or cooling baths are used.
Oral fluids should be given if the patient is
conscious but in most cases intravenous
infusion will be required. Cardiac monitoring
and additional biochemical monitoring are
required and any convulsions (epileptic
seizures) will require appropriate treatment.
Dehydration
Heat-associated dehydration is caused by the
loss of body fluids mainly through excessive
sweating. Progressively, the body loses weight.
The heart rate increases, there is reduced urine
output along with dry mucous membranes
(e.g. mouth) and increased thirst, although this
is not sensitive enough to detect early fluid
loss. Dehydration can provoke cramps in the
legs and abdomen. When fluid loss is greater
than 10 per cent of the body weight, problems
with vision and hearing occur along with
difficulty speaking. Eventually delirium,
convulsions and coma may follow.
Skin problems
Skin problems are often due to excess
sweating and salt excretion as well as irritation
and rubbing of clothing which can produce
minor cuts and abrasions.
Skin infections
Fungal infections, particularly under the arms
and around the groin, are very common. They
are due to increased sweating (pH 46.8) and
ambient humidity, and can be treated with
antifungal powders and creams.
Bacterial infections develop rapidly on
minor cuts and wounds and these should be
disinfected.
6
Keeping the skin clean and dry (particularly
feet) and washing clothes regularly to remove
sweat and salt helps to prevent skin infections.
Heat rash
Heat rash, also known as prickly heat, is likely
to occur in hot, humid environments where
sweat is not easily evaporated from the skin.
Sweat ducts become plugged, the sweat glands
inflamed and a rash appears. This rash is made
up of profuse, tiny, raised red vesicles (blisters)
on affected areas. This is accompanied by a
prickling sensation during heat exposure.
Provision of cool rest areas and sleeping
quarters between heat exposures, showers after
each work shift and avoiding tight clothes
help to prevent heat rashes. Mild drying
lotions can be used to treat them.
Sunburn
The suns radiation can penetrate through thin
clothes, clouds and even shade by reflecting on
a bright surface. Overexposure to ultraviolet
radiation (UVB) will provoke skin damage
ranging from redness and tenderness to
oedema, blistering and fever. Sun-block, a
wide-brimmed hat and sleeved garments help
protect the skin, and cool showers, calamine
lotion, non-sensitizing after-sun cream and
hydrocortisone cream help treat cases. It is
advisable to use sun-block which also protects
against UVA, as this can have a long-term
aging effect on the skin.
Windburn
Windburn provokes dry skin and can be
prevented by covering exposed parts of the
body, including the face, in windy conditions.
Moisturizers provide relief.
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Health problems due to the cold
Chilblains
This is an inflammatory condition due to
exposure to cold and moisture. The hands and
feet start to swell, itch and become painful.
These symptoms may develop some hours
after exposure to cold has ceased and may
persist for several days. In extreme cases
ulceration can occur. Chilblains can be
prevented by keeping the extremities warm
and dry, and can be treated by elevation of the
affected area to reduce swelling, gentle re-
warming, and dressings and pain killers if
appropriate. In susceptible individuals, chil-
blains are likely to recur following exposure to
further cold conditions.
Trench foot
This is caused by continuous exposure to the
cold without freezing, combined with constant
dampness or immersion in water. It is found
most often when wet socks are worn for long
periods of time resulting in inflammation,
redness, itching, severe pain, numbness and
eventually blistering and tissue death. Trench
foot can be prevented by wearing well fitting,
water-resistant footwear. First aid for early
stages involves elevation of the feet to reduce
swelling, and keeping them warm and dry.
Fingertip fissures
Deep, intractable and very painful fissuring
may occur on the fingertips when exposed to
prolonged or repeated cold, particularly in dry
conditions. The pain may restrict use of the
affected fingers. Using moisturizing cream and
keeping the hands warm can prevent fissuring,
and a medical form of superglue (the tissue
adhesive Histoacryl (butyl-2-cyanoacrylate))
can be used to treat it.
Frost-nip
This is the freezing of the skin and superficial
tissue, mostly the face (ears, nose, cheeks) and
fingers. Underlying tissue is not affected. The
first symptoms and signs include stinging,
pricking pain and skin whitening. Frost-nip is
likely to recur in susceptible individuals and
can be prevented by protective clothing,
vigilance and a buddy system. First aid takes
the form of rapid re-warming in shelter and
then protection against further cold exposure.
Re-warming should not be attempted if there
is a chance of re-exposure to cold afterwards.
Frostbite
This is the freezing of deeper, as well as
superficial, tissues. It usually affects the fingers,
toes, nose, cheeks and ears. It can provoke
various levels of tissue damage as follows:
first degree: freezing without peeling and
blistering of the skin, but the skin changes
colour;
second degree: freezing with blistering and
peeling of the skin, with pain and
increasingly violet skin colour;
third degree: freezing with blackening and
death of skin tissues, and in some cases
deeper tissues. Pain gives way to numbness.
Frostbite may occur without hypothermia.
As in the case of frost-nip, prevention takes
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 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS

Health problems due to the cold

the form of protective clothing, vigilance and
a buddy system.
First-aid treatment involves protecting the
frozen area from additional injury and transport
to a medical facility for the painful process of
thawing. Re-warming should not be attempted
if there is a chance of refreezing afterwards. In
severe cases, amputation may be necessary.
Cold burn
Cold burn is the instant, superficial freezing of
tissue when touching a very cold object or tool
(e.g. metal). Wearing gloves and avoiding skin
contact with cold surfaces prevents cold burns.
They can be treated by immersion of the
injured area in warm water (4042C) for
about 10 minutes followed by drying and
elevation of the area. Pain relief may be
necessary.
Skin problems
Sunburn
See the previous section on Health problems due
to extreme heat and humidity (page 6).
90 per cent. First-aid treatment involves rest
and protection from light with eye patches for
12 hours and pain relief.
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is defined as the chilling of the
bodys core temperature below 35C (95F).
An individuals response to increasing cold is
demonstrated in Table 3.
Table 3 The individuals response to hypothermia
Body temperature (rectal) Effects on the body
(C) (F)
37 98.6 Normal body temperature
36 97 Judgement may be affected
35 95 Definition of hypothermia threshold
DANGEROUS HYPOTHERMIA BELOW 35C
Feels cold, looks cold, uncontrollable shivering
34 93 Change of personality (usually withdrawn
switches off).
Stumbling, falling, confused
Inappropriate behaviour, e.g. sheds clothing
Lack of appreciationdoesnt care

Windburn 33 91 Consciousness clouded

See the previous section on Health problems due Shivering stops
to extreme heat and humidity (page 6). Incoherent

32 89 Heart stoppage now very much a risk

In cold conditions, barrier creams should Heat loss will continue unless protected
be applied to exposed parts of the body (nose, Limbs stiffen
chin, upper eyelids, ears).
31 87 Moves into unconsciousness

Snow blindness 30 86 Unlikely to detect breathing or pulse

Excessive exposure to ultraviolet light 28 83 Fixed dilated pupils (no constriction to light)
reflecting off snow or ice causes sunburn to
24 75 Survival unusual if any colder
the eye, with severe pain, reddening, weeping
and swelling of the eye. Exposure to light is 18 65 Lowest temperature of accidental
extremely uncomfortable. Prevention is based hypothermia with recovery
on protective sunglasses or goggles which are
9 48 Lowest temperature of deliberate
most effective if they have side covers. They hypothermia with recovery
should reduce ultraviolet exposure by at least

8
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS

Prevention depends on adequate shelter,

correct protective clothing and a buddy
system. First aid involves removing the victim
from the snow, rain or wind, replacing wet
with dry clothing and immediate warming.
Heat loss can be reduced by providing
insulating wrapping to the victim or putting
them in a sleeping bag with another person.
They should be kept awake if possible and not
given alcohol (which gives the false impression
of warming and also increases drowsiness).
Professional medical advice is essential.

Accidents
Trauma
Snow and ice can be responsible for traumatic
accidents, slips and falls.
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas
produced by the incomplete or inefficient
combustion of natural gas, propane, coal,
wood, kerosene, charcoal, gasoline motors or
any fuel-fired engine. The risk of carbon
monoxide poisoning is high in cold climates
where heaters and motors must be kept
working constantly and where correct
ventilation is not always maintained.

Prevention and management of health problems

related to work in extreme climates
Work in extreme climates requires an Health assessment for fitness to work
approach that takes into account both the
individual and the environment: It is easier to survive in extreme heat or cold
health assessment for fitness to work; when medically fit and in good health.
employee training; Selection of people for work in extremes of
clothing; temperature requires a health assessment by a
environmental controls; doctor with knowledge of the working
work practices; conditions and requirements of the job.
food and water; The same standards as those applied to
waste disposal; work on offshore rigs or remote locations
journey management; and should be applied to determine an employees
first aid and access to medical support. fitness to work in the heat or cold. (OGP

9
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Prevention and management of health problems
related to work in extreme climates
report no. 343, Managing health for field
operations in oil and gas activities).
Psychological as well as physical aspects of
fitness should be considered, bearing in mind
that isolation, boredom, living together in a
camp, work/leave cycles and lack of
recreational activities may all be factors
involved with working in extreme climates.
Potential contra-indications to work in
extremes of temperature include:
respiratory or cardiovascular problems;
severe obesity (BMI1 35); this impedes
the acclimatization process;
metabolic disorders (e.g. thyroid disease);
alcohol abuse;
pregnancy; and
previous heat- or cold-related illness.
Those potential contra-indications specific
to heat include:
recurrent kidney stones.
Those potential contra-indications specific
to cold include:
Raynauds syndrome (white finger);
cold-induced asthma;
cold-induced urticaria (an itchy skin
condition); and
cryohaemoglobulinaemia (a rare blood
condition).
In all cases it is essential that an individual
risk assessment is undertaken to avoid
needlessly excluding someone from work for
which they are qualified.
Medications which may pose a problem in
extremes of temperature include:
medications which alter vigilance or
sweating (tranquillizers, sleeping pills,
antidepressants, antihistamines);
medications which act on blood circulation
(blood pressure and heart treatments);
diuretics (medications which alter body
1 BMI = Body Mass Index = weight in kg divided by height in m2.
10
fluid balance);
drugs which have antipyretic properties and
may interfere with temperature regulation
(for example many analgesics or anti-
inflammatories); and
photosensitizers (both systemic and topical),
which increase the skins reaction to
sunlight.
Employee training
This should take place at induction and then
as needed throughout employment in extreme
climates. The following subjects should be
covered:
The basics of body temperature and heat
exchange.
Hazards related to sunlight, carbon
monoxide poisoning and alcohol.
Preventive practices.
Clothing requirements.
The importance of food and water.
Recognition of temperature-related
symptoms and signs.
The potential for other illness to impact
on tolerance to extremes of heat and cold.
Clothing
Correct clothing is critical to working in
extreme climates.
Clothing for the heat
Clothing should be loose fitting, with a layer
of air between skin and clothing to aid
evaporation of perspiration. Clothes should be
light in weight and also light in colour as this
reflects heat, while dark clothes absorb the
heat.
Clothes made of thin cotton fabrics are
ideal as they help evaporate the sweat by
picking it up and bringing it to the surface.
Most synthetic fibres increase sweating,
interfere with evaporation and increase the
risk of fungal infections.
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Head protection and protection of the ears,
nose and back of the neck is recommended if
exposed to direct sunlight (e.g. wide-
brimmed hat).
Good quality sunglasses protect the eyes
from ultra-violet radiation. In desert
conditions, comfortable shoes which keep the
sand out are recommended. Walking barefoot
risks skin damage or burning as well as snake
and insect bites.
In some industrial and emergency response
settings it may be necessary for the worker to
wear special protective equipment and clothing.
Fire retardant clothing, impermeable clothing
(e.g. acid suits, chemical suits or other equipment
such as gloves, hats and respirators) prohibits or
diminishes heat loss via evaporation.The use of
impermeable clothing, while intended to reduce
the risk of injury, may in some cases increase the
risk of heat-related health problems by impeding
the bodys ability to dissipate heat through the
evaporation of sweat. Special evaluation is
required and working practices should be
adapted to apply to these employees.
Cooling devices may be recommended for
certain types of work. Jackets or vests with
refreezable gel-type packets only provide
cooling for a short period of time. Cooling
tubes using air or a liquid cooling medium
have the disadvantage of requiring tethering,
although cooling is provided for extended
periods of time. Liquids have a much greater
heat capacity than air and therefore offer
greater heat transfer efficiency.
The Helly Hansen Sea-Air offshore transport and immersion suit uses phase change
materials to reduce heat stress during helicopter transport while at the same time
providing protection against the cold in an emergency situation.
Cooling devices represent a potential safety
hazard and a proper assessment of their need
and appropriateness should be carried out
prior to their being supplied.
Clothing for the cold
Clothing in cold climates is a major factor in
survival. It may, however, be an additional
physiological load, especially if poorly designed.
Thermal clothing may add to the
encumbrance caused by other personal
protective equipment (PPE) and can also
reduce the protection offered by the PPE.The
encumbered worker will take longer to
complete work tasks and even routine activities
such as eating and going to the toilet.
The correct combination of activity and
clothing is the key to survival and depends on
an initial analysis of the job (operation, tools,
working materials) and work environment.
Clothing should be designed in a way that
ensures optimal performance of each clothing
component based upon functional require-
ments. Convection and radiation are the main
mechanisms for heat transfer between the skin
surface, through layers of clothing, and the
external environment. Heat transfer through
conduction may be significant for those parts
of the body in direct contact with cold
surfaces, particularly when seated or when
working in a bent posture.The compression of
clothing layers accelerates local heat loss.
Insulation
The insulating capacity of clothing is mainly
determined by the amount of air trapped
inside and between the surfaces of the layers.
Insulation must provide correct protection
even when work intensity, and therefore heat
production, is at its lowest levels, as in the case
of rest periods. During periods of high activity
and excess heat production, problems may
arise due to sweat production and evaporation
processes. Sweat accumulated in garments
during work may result in cold stress due to
11
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Prevention and management of health problems
related to work in extreme climates
A multi-layered clothing system is ideal when working in the cold, with each
layer serving a specific purpose (moisture absorption and transport; insulation
and moisture transport; protection against the external environment and
moisture transport).
either the reduced insulation value of damp
clothing or evaporation of the accumulated
sweat after cessation of work or exercise. In
cold conditions where accumulation of sweat
in clothing is difficult to avoid, it is preferable
that the sweat accumulates as far from the skin
as possible.
Protective clothing
Protective clothing for work in extreme cold
should be designed to prevent drops in skin
temperature below a mean of 28C (83F) or
below 15C (59F) locally at any time2.
Real-life activity in the cold implies
varying climatic conditions and activity levels
and thus varying requirements for protection.
A multi-layered clothing system is ideal, with
each layer serving a specific purpose:
Inner layer (underwear): moisture absorption
and transport.
Middle layer (shirt, sweater): insulation and
moisture transport.
Outer layer (wind breaker, arctic clothing,
rain gear): protection against the external
environment and moisture transport.
2 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has
published Standards for the evaluation of cold environments
and the determination of requisite clothing insulation:
ISO/TR 11079:1993, revised by ISO 11079:2007
12
Inner layer: In addition to its hygienic
function, the inner layer is important for the
direct cooling of the skin and for absorbing
sweat. It must be effective in transporting
moisture away from the bodys surface to the
middle layer for subsequent evaporation. The
different water-absorbing and water-transporting
properties of textiles are responsible for the
amount of sweat accumulated in the different
clothing layers. Wool is preferred due to its
efficient absorption of moisture. Modern
woollen underwear, with a knit construction
that facilitates moisture transport, should be
used for cold work. A non-absorbing
innermost layer combined with an absorbing
layer reduces discomfort caused by post-
exercise chilling. Fabrics made of continuous
polypropylene filaments are non-absorbent and
have high wicking properties that promote the
transport of sweat from the skin to the outer
surface of the underwear.
Cotton is not recommended because its
absorption of moisture results in a reduction
of the insulation value.
Middle layer: The middle layer should serve as
an insulator and provide protection against
heat loss. Thermal insulation is determined by
the thickness of still air trapped in and
between layers of fibres and fabrics. There is
no practical difference in terms of insulation
between clothing made of natural fibres and
that made of artificial fibres, once corrected
for thickness and construction. The middle
layer should be flexible. Heat load and sweat
production should be minimized during work
periods by removing or using a thin middle
layer. Heat loss during rest periods should be
reduced by adding an extra sweater or putting
on a thicker one. A middle layer made of
moisture absorbing materials (e.g. wool) will
enhance the sweat transport ability of the
clothing ensemble, resulting in sweat
accumulation as far out in the clothing system
as possible.
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Outer layer: This layer should protect against
the external environment and must therefore
be waterproof, windproof and durable.
Whenever the temperature of the inner side
of the outer garment is above 0C (32F),
garments coated with breathable membranes
(e.g. Gore-Tex, Helly-Tech) will facilitate
water vapour transport. However, at temper-
atures below 0C, the water vapour will freeze
inside the pores and, as a result, no moisture
transport will take place through the garment.
For moderate levels of work at air
temperatures below -10C (14F), breathable
and non-breathable materials will perform
identically. For warmer air temperatures,
breathable membranes will reduce water
absorption and result in a more comfortable
and lightweight garment. The outer layer
should be flexible enough to provide a wide
variation of protection levels due to the
dynamics of work and environment. This may
be accomplished by easy donning (jacket with
a zipper rather than an anorak), adjustable
openings at wrists, neck and front, and a
design that facilitates and enhances micro-
climate ventilation with movements.
SmartWear
The development of SmartWear technology
has produced materials and clothing with new
functionality providing improved solutions for
personal protective clothing. Intelligent textiles
and smart garments with instrumentation
integrated into the material first appeared in
the mid-1990s. The intelligent property may
be integrated at molecular/fibre level or in the
textile structure and can react to stimuli from
the environment (temperature, humidity) or
the wearer (temperature, humidity, heart rate,
movement). Smart protective garments can
adapt their insulation function according to
temperature changes, and can detect vital
signals from the wearers body and react to
them. Functions that may improve conditions
during work in cold environments include:
Phase change materials (PCMs) that
regulate heat transfer between body and
clothing during periods of changing work
intensities or changing environmental
thermal conditions. PCMs are characterized
by their ability to absorb energy when they
change from a solid to a liquid state, and to
release heat as they return to the solid
phase. PCMs used in clothing go through
the phase change at temperatures close to
the thermally neutral temperature of the
skin, 28-32C. During the phase change,
the temperature of the PCM does not
change, which enables the PCM to help
stabilize body temperature and reduce
thermal stress during periods of changing
work intensities.
Textile-based sensors providing monitoring
of physiological parameters together with
personal communication systems.These may
provide the wearer and line manager with
vital information about physiological strain.
Heat conducting textiles in combination
with an energy source that can provide
extra heat, thus reducing the amount of
insulation that is required.
Reflective fibres and space blankets
The introduction of reflective fibres or layers
in a fabric or garment does not improve the
level of total insulation. Due to very low
vapour permeability of such materials, the
reflective surface is rapidly covered with
condensed water. For the same reason, the use
of aluminized space blankets or bags for
conservation of body heat is questionable. The
effect on radiation heat loss is negligible. This
type of blanket mainly reduces convective heat
loss. This can be equally well achieved by the
use of windproof cotton material.
Head and neck protection
A substantial amount of heat may be lost from
the head in a cold environment. It is therefore
important to wear an adapted cap or hood. A
13
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Prevention and management of health problems
related to work in extreme climates
scarf around the neck can reduce air intruding
into the clothing. When working in cold
wind, a face mask should be used. For
extremely cold conditions, double-layered
goggles with foam padding around the edges
provide eye protection.
Anecdotal reports have described contact
lenses sticking and freezing to the eye during Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (see Appendix 1),
extreme cold conditions. However, experiment
and experience indicate that not only are
contact lenses not harmful, but wearing them in
extreme cold and windy conditions can have
advantages and protective effects.
Hand protection
Gloves and/or mittens should be worn for
maximum protection against heat loss. For
chemical handling, adapted chemical resistant
hand protection must be used. However,
manual dexterity may be reduced by gloves.
When there is no need for minute or
intricate operations requiring the fingers,
mittens are better than gloves since they
reduce the exposed skin surface and thus
decrease heat loss. If it is not possible to
combine adequate protection with manual
work, it is necessary to introduce regular
work breaks for shelter warming.
Foot protection
Total foot comfort is determined by interaction
between socks and shoes.The shoe itself should
be made of adapted material that allows
ventilation of water vapour. It should fit correctly
and be large enough to provide room for some
trapped air. The feet will swell considerably
during a working day, and a Velcro or lace
closure should allow for regulation of pressure
on the foot. The sole of the shoe should be
produced from material that allows for easy
bending and prevents sliding on a slippery
surface. Material used in socks should provide
insulation and facilitate transport of sweat as far
from the skin as possible (use wool alone or in
combination with polypropylene, not cotton).
14
Environmental controls
Continuous monitoring of environmental
parameters such as the dry air temperature and
relative humidity inform the type of control
measures required to manage work in extreme
temperatures. Several heat indices, such as the
are available to combine environmental factors
and provide a direct indication of thermal
stress; similarly, other indices, such as the
Corrected Effective Temperature can provide
an indication of comfort. The indices can also
be used in specific workplaces (for example in
a confined space environment) to adapt
controls to an individual work environment
and specific tasks. Monitoring data can be
integrated into an existing information
management system with real time stationary
information boards provided on the work site,
information posted on intranet pages or use of
an SMS alert system to communicate updated
temperature conditions and associated controls.
Controls for heat include:
Shade and shielding
Shade is one of the most important heat
controls. With low to moderate relative
humidity levels, radiant heat load can be
reduced by as much as 10C when working
in shade versus direct sunlight, and by even
more in some industrial situations. Wind
screens or barriers provide some measure of
shade but, if positioned incorrectly, can
minimize air movement and its cooling
effect. For fixed radiant sources, such as
furnaces and hot pipework, screens can be
engineered to minimize radiant heat whilst
permitting airflow.
Radiant heat sources such as hot pipes in
regular work areas should be insulated to
reduce heat load and the potential for
thermal burns. Shieldings and coatings to
reduce emissivity can also be used to
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
reduce the radiant heat flux. Re-insulation,
either temporary or permanent, should be
done as soon as possible after repairs.
For non-routine work areas without insu-
lation on heat sources, temporary insulating
blankets can be used to shield the sources
while work is being done in the area.
Area cooling
Spot cooling equipment such as misting
fans can be utilized when the work is in
one fixed location, for example at a valve
or control box. The cool air flow streams
need to be directed towards the worker and
the discharge ducts should be as close as
practical to the work area. It is essential that
this form of cooling is properly maintained
and cleaned because of the risk of
contamination with bacteria and spores
which might have adverse health effects, for
example legionella infection.
Portable trailer-mounted air-conditioning
units can be utilized for larger enclosed
areas such as confined spaces or vessels.
These units can help to significantly reduce
heat stress and greatly increase job efficiency.
Shaded break areas should be kept cooler
than work areas to facilitate quicker
recovery from the effects of heat. It is
recommended that a 1015 C difference
in temperature be maintained between
work and break areas. Where cooling of a
break area is not feasible, air circulation
with fans should be used to help with
cooling through sweat evaporation.
Ventilation
Increasing airflow through a work area, such
as with fans and air conditioning, will help
increase the evaporation rate and cooling of
the workers.This will be less effective as the
air blowing across them increases in
humidity and temperature, and if it is over
about 40C it may then actually result in
increased heat stress.
Confined spaces should be subject to full
risk assessment and strict permit to work
conditions. They should be evaluated to
ensure that proper ventilation is present
throughout the space. If needed, cool air
should be pulled in near the workers. This
may require relocation of air movers and the
opening/closing of manways as the work
progresses to ensure proper air distribution.
Controls for cold include:
Heating and shelter
General or spot heating on the work site to
increase temperature.
Shielding of the work area from the wind.
Provision of heated shelters on the work
site.
Local modifications
If bare hands need to be used for more
than 15 minutes, warm air jets, radiant
heaters or contact warm plates should be
used. In very low temperatures hands
should never be bare.
Covering metal tools with thermal
insulating material.
Protecting metal chairs.
Work practices
A buddy system is useful for work in extreme
climates so that each member of a pair can
watch out for early warning signs of excessive
heat or cold stress in the other person.
Sensible work scheduling and breaks are
essential not only for preventing ill health but
also for increasing productivity.
Entry conditions for hazardous areas, e.g.
confined spaces in the heat, should specify
frequent rest and water breaks.
Working in the heat
Where practical, mechanical assistance should
be used to reduce the physical requirements
15
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Prevention and management of health problems
related to work in extreme climates
of the job and thus reduce the metabolic
rate (internal heat generation). For example
use a cart to move material rather than make
several trips carrying heavy loads. Use a
backhoe for digging or spreading of gravel
rather than manual handwork.
Split tasks between workers rather than one
doing all the heavy work and the other the
light work.
Schedule extremely hot jobs for the cooler
part of the day, at night, or for a cooler day
if possible.
Where possible, postpone a hot job until
equipment can be taken out of service and
allowed to cool down.
Schedule additional time for hot jobs to
allow for additional cooling breaks,
especially if cooling PPE is not used.
On hot days or for hot jobs, more frequent
breaks should be planned, especially if
heavy work is involved.
Rest breaks should be taken in a cool
location and cool fluids consumed. Avoid
hot beverages and those that contain
caffeine such as tea, coffee and sodas.
Rotate two groups of workers to allow
frequent respite from the hot area and
cooling off. In particular:
tasks such as pick or shovel work should
be rotated frequently (every 1015
minutes).
workers in additional clothing or suits
should be rotated more frequently. If in
chemical protective suits or proximity
suits, additional cooling devices must be
used or workers rotated every ten minutes.
Working in the cold
Reduce individual work load by using
power tools, hoists, cranes.
Active warm-up with stretching will
enhance muscle and joint performance and
reduce the risk of injury.
Emphasize work/rest schedules to reduce
cold stress.
16
Provide relief workers and enable extra
breaks as necessary.
Ensure sufficient sleep time and good food.
Provide frequent warm, non-alcoholic
energizing drinks.
Allow extra time to complete tasks.
Plan shift patterns and work/rest schedules
in line with the additional time needs.
In exposed work sites and low ambient
temperatures thermal clothing alone may
not be sufficient to maintain body temperat-
ure at a comfortable and efficient level.
Time will be needed to allow for warming
during rest periods.
See Appendix 2 for a proposed work/
warm-up schedule based on air temperature
and wind speed.
Acclimatization
Acclimatization is a gradual physiological
adaptation that improves an individuals ability to
tolerate heat stress. Acclimatization usually takes
several days with gradual build-up to expected
heat loads, work loads and duration of the job. If
a person has not been working in a hot area, the
same level of performance should not be
expected as that of a person who has become
acclimatized to the heat. Generally, it takes about
a week to become 90 per cent acclimatized to
high heat levels. This is done by starting at a
reduced pace on the first day and gradually
increasing the amount of work and duration of
exposure in the hot area each day the first week.
Consideration should be given to workers
returning from rotation, for example from
offshore duty. If the worker has been away for
several days in a significantly cooler area
and/or has experienced a less strenuous work
or exercise setting, an acclimatization schedule
should be implemented if possible. Some
acclimatization is lost after being on vacation
for several weeks or returning from an
extended illness.Table 4 includes guidelines for
an acclimatization/re-acclimatization schedule.
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS

Table 4 Suggested acclimatization/re-acclimatization guidelines

Acclimatization
Activity (as a percentage of full work assignment)
Day
Experienced worker New worker
1 50% 20%
2 60% 40%
3 80% 60%
4 100% 80%

Data reproduced courtesy of the National Safety Council, Itasca, III

5 100% 100%
Re-acclimatization
Exposure sequence (percent of full work assignment per day)
Absence Illness (days away from heat-related jobs routine)
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4
<4 100%
45 13 R/E* 100%
612 45 80% 100%
1220 68 60% 80% 100%
>20 >8 50% 60% 80% 100%
* R/E = reduced expectations by the worker and supervision

Food and water Salt

In extremes of climate good food and water
can have a significant influence on how well
people cope with their environment. Quality
of food should be guaranteed from its source,
through transport, storage and the cooking or
preparation process. If ambient temperatures
are high, extra vigilance is necessary to avoid
deterioration or infection.
Extra calories are required while working
in extreme cold. As much as 4,000 Kcals/day
(5,000+ at 20C) may be required with an
approximate distribution of 60 per cent
carbohydrates, 2530 per cent fats and
1015 per cent proteins. Fats eaten in the
evening increase the bodys temperature at
night and improve sleep quality. Rapidly
absorbed carbohydrates, for example sugary
foods, should be eaten when working and
directly exposed to cold.
The body requires a certain amount of salt to
function correctly but the routine use of salt
tablets is not required or recommended. It is
important that employees who work in a high
heat environment or are sweating profusely be
encouraged to eat a normal diet from which
they will find all the salt they need.
Water
Heavy work, in both hot and cold areas, may
lead to dehydration due to heavy sweating
before a person even feels thirsty. In normal
conditions the body loses two and a half litres
of body fluids a day. While performing
strenuous work in the heat, the body can lose
up to 11.5 litres of sweat per hour. Cool
drinks should be readily available during breaks.
Any significant weight loss is a signal that
the individual is not drinking enough fluids, as
is the production of small quantities of dark
coloured urine. The aim is to drink enough
non-alcoholic fluids to make urine colourless.

17
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS
Prevention and management of health problems
related to work in extreme climates
Table 5 Effects of fluid loss on the body
Body weight loss (%) Effects on the body
12 Usually acceptable without any problems.
23 Reduces the volume of circulating blood, and
may result in heat strain symptoms such as
elevated body temperature and heart rate,
thirst and severe heat discomfort.
36 The loss of 36 per cent of body weight
(1.54 kg in the average 70-kg person) results in
impaired work performance; continuing to work
under these conditions may lead to heat-related
health problems.
>6 May have serious medical consequences.
Waste disposal
The disposal of sewage and rubbish must be
designed to protect the health of humans as
well as the environment. A high ambient
temperature or humidity increases the risk of
contamination from flies and other potential
infectious agents.
Journey management
This is the period of greatest risk. Weather
conditions may change rapidly (e.g. sand
storm, flash flooding, blizzard) and it is
necessary to be prepared for the worst. (See
also OGP report no. 365, Land transportation
safetyrecommended practice.)
Up-to-date information and planning is the
key together with the following basic rules:
Establish a personnel accounting system
with notification of departure and arrivals
between locations.
Obtain an up-to-date weather forecast.
Have a remote communication system
(radio, GPS).
Know the terrain.
Take plenty of water and a safe supply of
food.
Travel with two vehicles if possible, equipped
with extraction tools, survival and first-aid kits.
18
Never travel long distances alone.
Work in pairs as a minimum.
Have an emergency or evacuation plan.
Include trained first-aiders in every group.
Air-conditioning is important in the heat.
In the cold, a portable re-warming system
to deliver heated, humidified air if needed
should be considered.
First aid and access to medical support
First-aid training should be given to all people
who will be working in extreme climates,
with particular emphasis on the recognition
and management of heat and cold-related
conditions. It is advisable to have a designated
first-aider on every crew, and appropriate first
aid and medical kits at every location.
The provision of adequate medical support
relies on having:
company-approved medical professionals in
strategic locations;
effective access to outside specialists/
telemedicine to advise on difficult medical
cases, treatment and actions to be taken;
effective transport systems and management
for evacuation of casualties; and
effective communications with relevant
authorities to expedite the latter.
Further details are available in OGP report
no. 343, Managing health for field operations in oil
and gas activities.
In extreme climates, normal emergency
care procedures are usually applicable.
However, in extreme heat, issues of pressurized
gases exposed to heat, sand infiltration of
medical facilities or equipment, and
refrigeration and conservation of medication
should be considered. In extreme cold,
pressurized gases may exhibit differing physical
properties and there is the potential for fluids
to get cold (e.g. intravenous drips) or to freeze
(making ampoules difficult to open).
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS

Appendix 1: Heat stress indices

A heat stress index is a range or sequence of With direct exposure to sunlight:
single numbers that attempts to reflect the WBGTout = 0.7 NWB + 0.2 GT + 0.1 DB
effects of basic parameters in any thermal
environment. It aims to correlate each Without direct exposure to the sun:
number in the range with the degree of WBGTin = 0.7 NWB + 0.3 GT
thermal strain likely to be experienced by the
exposed person. Where:
The aim of heat stress indices is to provide NWB = Natural wet bulb temperature
an approximation of a workers physiological GT = Globe temperature
state at any time of the exposure. This will DB = Dry bulb (air) temperature
then allow assessment of the permissible
duration of the exposure and appropriate Although WBGT can be measured using
control measures required. While there has separate modified thermometers it is more
been a great deal of work done in the commonly obtained from an integrating
development of a number of indices there is meter, which conveniently combines the
no single index that has been accepted as both readings and displays the result of the
an accurate indicator of risk and universally calculation (an example is shown in Figure 3).
applicable.
The following outlines the Wet Bulb Globe
Temperature (WBGT) index, which is the Figure 3 The QUESTemp 36 a thermal environment
most commonly used index for assessing heat monitor designed for measuring WBGT
stress based on its simplicity of use. A
summary table is also included of other
indices covering both heat stress and thermal
comfort evaluation. It is important to be aware
that indices evaluating thermal comfort e.g.
effective temperature, may well not be suitable
for assessing extremes of heat exposure.

Wet Bulb Globe Temperature

The Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) is
probably the most widely accepted index and
was originally developed to reduce heat
casualties in the USA during military training.
It combines the effects of the four main
thermal components affecting heat stress: air
temperature, humidity, air velocity (<1 metre The WBGT is used to determine the
per second) and radiation as measured by the exposure limits that can be considered to be
dry bulb, natural wet bulb and globe safe for most people, and are generally
temperatures. conservative. It is normally used by
The WBGT values are calculated from one determining the WBGT and then comparing
of the following equations: the reading with a reference table. This will
then give a recommended allocation of work
in a cycle of work and recovery.

19
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS

Appendix 1: Heat stress indices

Table 6 Screening criteria for TLV, and Action Limit for heat stress exposure
TLV (WBGT values in C) Action Limit (WBGT values in C)
Allocation of work in a cycle
of work and recovery Light Moderate Heavy Very heavy Light Moderate Heavy Very heavy

75100% 31.0 28.0 28.0 25.0

5075% 31.0 29.0 27.5 28.5 26.0 24.0
2550% 32.0 30.0 29.0 28.0 29.5 27.0 25.5 24.5
025% 32.5 31.5 30.5 30.0 30.0 29.0 28.0 27.0

The American Conference of Governmental

Table 7 Adjustment factors for some clothing ensembles
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) provides detailed
Clothing type Addition to WBGT (C)
guidance on the application of the WBGT
index both in their annual Threshold Limit Work clothes (long-sleeved shirt and pants) 0
Values (TLV) publication and accompanying Cloth (woven material) coveralls 0
Documentation of Physical Agents. Double-layer woven clothing 3
The TLVs relate to conditions under which
SMS polypropylene coveralls 0.5
it is believed that nearly all heat acclimatized,
Polyolefin coveralls 1
adequately hydrated, unmedicated, healthy
workers may be repeatedly exposed without Limited use vapour barrier coveralls 11
adverse health effects. The Action Limit is
similarly protective of unacclimatized workers Table 8 Metabolic rate categories and the representative
and represents conditions for which a heat metabolic rate with example activities
stress management programme should be Category Metabolic rate (W) Examples
considered. It is very important to understand Rest 115 Sitting
that the guidance is not a distinct line
Light 180 Sitting, with light manual work with
between safe and dangerous levels. hands or hands and arms, and
Table 6 shows screening criteria for TLV driving. Standing with some light
and Action Limit for heat stress exposure. arm work and occasional walking.
Since WBGT is only an index of the Moderate 300 Sustained moderate hand and arm
environment, the screening criteria are work, moderate arm and leg work,
moderate arm and trunk work or
adjusted according to the contributions of
light pushing and pulling.
clothing and work demands as well as the Normal walking.
state of acclimatization. (See Tables 7 and 8.) Heavy 415 Intense arm and trunk work,
As metabolic rates increase, (i.e. work carrying, shovelling, manual
demands increase), the criteria and action limit sawing, pushing and pulling heavy
values in Table 6 decrease to ensure that most loads. Walking at a fast pace.

workers will not experience a core body Very heavy 520 Very intense activity at a fast to
temperature above 38C. Table 8 provides maximum pace.

broad guidance for selecting the work rate

category to be used in Table 6.

20
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS

Other heat stress/thermal comfort indices
The following tables provide a summary of
the indices most commonly referred to for
evaluating heat stress and thermal comfort.
They can be split into two categories based
on their methodology, i.e. empirical based
indices (Table 9) and theoretical or rational
indices (Table 10).
Empirical indices
Empirical indices (Table 9) are those that have
been developed by assessing the physiological
effects on a test group of people under
varying environmental test conditions, and
include the Effective Temperature (ET),
Corrected Effective Temperature (CET),
Predicted Four Hour Sweat Rate (P4SR) and
Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT).
Empirical Indices do not readily allow the
detailed consideration of the individual
components of the thermal environment, but
assess the overall effect and, being practically
derived, they are more widely used as the basis
for standards.
Theoretical/rational indices
Theoretical or rational indices (Table 10) are
those which have been derived by considera-
tion of the effects of the environment etc. on
the bodys heat balance. The Heat Stress Index
(HSI) was modelled on the heat balance
equation and is based on a comparison of
evaporation required to maintain heat balance
with the maximum evaporation that could be
achieved in that environment.

Table 9 Summary of empirical indices

Index Parameters measured Other factors taken into account Uses Additional information
Effective Temperature Dry bulb, wet bulb, air Two clothing levels, basic Thermal comfort No account of radiant heat
(ET) velocity and normal and no allowance for
metabolic rate
Corrected Effective Globe thermometer, wet Two clothing levels, basic Thermal comfort No allowance for
Temperature (CET) bulb, air velocity and normal metabolic rate
Predicted 4-hour Sweat Globe thermometer or dry Corrections applied for Heat stress Absolute max 4.5 litres,
Rate (P4SR) bulb, wet bulb, air velocity metabolic rate and clothing normal limit of 3 litres
Wet Bulb Globe Globe thermometer, wet Correction applied for Heat stressderives work- Two formulae (inside and
Temperature (WBGT) bulb, (dry bulb if outside) clothing, different metabolic rest regimes. Fairly simple outside). Two limits,
rates instruments available action levels and TLVs

Table 10 Summary of rational indices

Index Parameters measured
Heat Stress Index (HSI) Globe thermometer, dry
bulb, wet bulb, air velocity,
metabolic rate
Required Sweat Rate Globe thermometer, dry
(SWreq) bulb, wet bulb, air velocity,
metabolic rate and clothing
Predicted Heat Strain Globe thermometer, dry
(PHS) Malchaire bulb, wet bulb, air velocity,
metabolic rate and clothing
Thermal Work Limit Dry bulb, wet bulb, air
(TWL) velocity
Other factors taken into account
Limited assumptions made
for clothing levels
Acclimatized and
unacclimatized
Many other factors included
Computer program available
Acclimatized and
unacclimitized plus clothing
taken into account
Uses
Heat stressdifficult to use.
Derives allowable exposure
times
Heat stressvery complex
Heat stressvery complex.
Heat stressfairly
straightforwardcombined
instruments available
Additional information
100 max
>70 very severe heat strain
>40 severe heat strain
Can calculate allowable
exposure times (alarm and
danger)
Does not require
estimation of metabolic
rate. Workers self-pace

21
 HEALTH ASPECTS OF WORK IN EXTREME CLIMATES
A GUIDE FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS

Appendix 2: General recommendations

for reducing exposure to the cold

Table 11 Work/warm-up schedule for a four-hour shift

1. Schedule applies to moderate-to-heavy work activity with warm-up breaks of 10 minutes in a warm location.
For light to moderate work (limited physical movement) apply the schedule one step lower. For example, at
-35C (-31F) with no noticeable wind a worker at a job with little physical movement should have a maximum
work period of 40 minutes with four breaks in a four-hour period.

2. The following is suggested as a guide for estimating wind velocity if accurate information is not available:
5 mph or 8 kph = light flag moves
10 mph or 16 kph = light flag fully extended
15 mph or 24 kph = raises newspaper sheet
20 mph or 32 kph = blowing and drifting snow

Work/warm-up schedule for a four-hour shift (C/kph wind)

Air temperature No noticeable wind 8 kph wind 16 kph wind 24 kph wind 32 kph wind
C Max. work No. of Max. work No. of Max. work No. of Max. work No. of Max. work No. of
period breaks period breaks period breaks period breaks period breaks
-26 to -28 115 mins. 1 115 mins. 1 75 mins. 2 55 mins. 3 40 mins. 4
-29 to -31 115 mins. 1 75 mins. 2 55 mins. 3 40 mins. 4 30 mins. 5
-32 to -34 75 mins. 2 55 mins. 3 40 mins. 4 30 mins. 5 Non-emergency
work should cease
-35 to -37 55 mins. 3 40 mins. 4 30 mins. 5 Non-emergency
work should cease
-38 to -39 40 mins. 4 30 mins. 5 Non-emergency
work should cease
-40 to -42 30 mins. 5 Non-emergency
work should cease
-43 and below Non-emergency
work should cease

Work/warm-up schedule for a four-hour shift (F/kph wind)

Air temperature No noticeable wind 5 kph wind 10 kph wind 15 kph wind 20 kph wind
F Max. work No. of Max. work No. of Max. work No. of Max. work No. of Max. work No. of
period breaks period breaks period breaks period breaks period breaks
-15 to -18 115 mins. 1 115 mins. 1 75 mins. 2 55 mins. 3 40 mins. 4
-20 to -24 115 mins. 1 75 mins. 2 55 mins. 3 40 mins. 4 30 mins. 5
-25 to -29 75 mins. 2 55 mins. 3 40 mins. 4 30 mins. 5 Non-emergency
work should cease
-30 to -34 55 mins. 3 40 mins. 4 30 mins. 5 Non-emergency
work should cease
-35 to -39 40 mins. 4 30 mins. 5 Non-emergency
work should cease
-40 to -44 30 mins. 5 Non-emergency
work should cease
-45 and below Non-emergency
work should cease

22
The OGP/IPIECA Membership

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