ap Boolean Algebra

Ch ter
3 and
Reduction Technique

3.1 Introduction

Boolean Algebra or switching algebra was invented by the Mathematician George-

Boole. Boolean algebra suggests the economic and straight forward way of de-
scribing the circuitry used in any computer system and is very different from con-
ventional algebra.
It has its own sets of rules for logical operations where a digital circuit can
be represented by a set of input and output symbols, and the relationship between
the symbols indicate the circuit functions. As for example, in general, algebra,
x.x = x2 , but in Boolean algebra, x.x = x.
Boolean algebra is a tool to simplify the design of logic circuits. However,
it involves lengthy mathematical operations and does not give the most reduced
and unique solution. So, we go for an alternative method called Karnaugh Map
(K-map) that simplifies the Boolean equations in an easier way and gives the most
reduced solution. These minimisation techniques reduce the requirements of hard-
ware.
Note: With more than four input variables the minimisation using K-map is com-
plicated. So it is better to employ the Quine-Mccluskey method of minimisation
in this case.
3.2 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

3.2 Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra works with binary variables {0,1}. It consists of three basic
binary operations called OR, AND, NOT denoted by the symbols +, . and
prime( ). Therefore, A B and A/B are invalid boolean expressions.
Boolean algebra is unique in the way that it takes only two different values
either 0 or 1. It doesnt have negative and fractional numbers.

3.3 Basic Operations of Boolean Algebra

Logical multiplications is based on AND function

Table 3.1 Truth table

Input Output
A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Logical AND operation is same as Boolean multiplication.

Logical addition is based on OR functions

Table 3.2 Truth table

Input Output
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Logical OR operation is same as Boolean addition.

Note: In binary number system algebra, 1 + 1 = 10, but in Boolean algebra 1 + 1
= 1.
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.3

Complement is based on NOT function

Table 3.3 Truth table

Input Output
A Y=A0
0 1
1 0

Note: Symbolically NOT can be represented by bar () or prime( 0 ).

Properties of boolean algebra

(1) Commutative property
Boolean addition and multiplication are both commutative.

A+B =B+A
A.B = B.A
(2) Associative property
Boolean addition and multiplication are both associative.

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
(A.B).C = (A.C).B
(3) Distributive property
The Boolean addition is distributive over the Boolean multiplication.

A + B.C = (A + B).(A + C)

The Boolean multiplication is also distributive over Boolean addition.

A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C

(4) Absorption property
This properly helps in eliminative one or more valuable.
(i) A + AB = A
(ii) A.(A + B) = A
*(iii) A + A.B = A + B
(iv) A.(A + B) = A.B
3.4 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

This property is very important in Boolean reduction.

All the laws and properties are proved in example questions.

(5) Consensus law/Included factor law

(i) A.B + A.C + B.C = A.B + A.C

(ii) (A + B).(A + C).(B + C) = (A + B).(A + C)

(6) Transportation law

(i) A.B + A.C = (A + C).(A + B)

(ii) (A + B).(A + C) = AC + AB

(7) De-Morgans Theorem

Rules:
1. Replace the symbol + with symbol . and vice-versa given in the
expression.
2. Complement each of the terms or variables in the given expression.
(i) AB = A + B
(ii) A + B = A.B

(8) Duality Theorem

To find the dual of a given expression:
1 will be replaced by 0 and 0 will be replaced by 1.
+ will be replaced by . and . will be replaced by +.
For example,
A + 0 = A
|{z} A.1 = A
duality

A + A = A
|{z} A.A = A
duality

|{z} 0.1 = 0
1 + 0 = 1
duality

(A + B)(C + D)
|{z} (A.B) + (C.D)
duality
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.5

(9) Identity law

A.1 = A
A+1=1

(10) Complementation/ Negation Law

A+A=1
A.A = 0

(11) Null Law

A+0=A
A.0 = 0

(12) Idempotent Law

A.A = A
A+A=A
Note:
1. In Boolean algebra 1 is called multiplicative identity and 0 is called ad-
ditive identity.
2. With n-variable maximum possible Boolean expressions is 2 2 .
n

3.4 Reduction of Boolean Expression

Reduction of a Boolean expression is required to express a complicated logical
form into a more convenient and simplest form so that the expression can be im-
plemented most efficiently. A Reduced expression makes use of minimal hard-
ware.

Steps to reduce a boolean expression

(i) Solve for the parenthesis.
(ii) Perform negation operation.
(iii) Perform AND operation.
(iv) Finally perform OR operation.

Example 3.1 Reduce x y y z z z

3.6 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

I Solution
x y y z z z = x (y y) z (z z)
= x y(z z) {Idempotent law A A = A}
= xyz {Idempotent law A A = A}

Example 3.2 Reduce x x y y + xy z z

I Solution
x x y y + xy z z = (x x)(y y) + x y(z z)
=x0+xyz {Idempotent lawA A = A}
{Negation law A A = 0}
= 0 + xy z {Null law A 0 = 0}
= xy z {Null law A + 0 = A}

3.5 Complement of a Boolean Expression

There are two ways to determine the complement of a function.
(i) By applying De Morgans law.
(ii) By taking the duality of the function and then complementing each individ-
ual term.

Example 3.3 Find out the complement of the function.

F = x + yz

I Solution
Method - 1(Using De-Morgans law):

F = x + yz
F = (x + yz) (Taking complement of both sides)
= x yz (Applying De-Morgans law)
= x (y + z)
F = x(y + z)
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.7

Method - 2(Using duality theorem):

F = x + yz

Taking dual of F ,

Dual (F ) = x (y + z)
F = x(y + z) (complementing each variable)

Example 3.4 F = xy(z + w) + (xyz), F =?

I Solution
Method - 1(Using De-Morgans law):

F = xy(z + w) + xyz
F = xy(z + w) + xyz
= xyz + xyw + xyz (distribution law)
= xyz xyw xyz (De-Morgans law)
= 0 xyw (A A = 0)
=0 (0 A = 0)

Method-2 (using duality principle):

F = xy(z + w) + xyz
Dual (F ) = {(x + y) + (zw)} (xyz)
F = {(x + y) + (z w)} (xyz)
(complementing each variable both side)
= (x + y + z w)(xyz)
= x xyz + y xyz + z w xyz
=0+0+0 (A A = 0)
=0

Example 3.5 Prove that A + BC = (A + B) (A + C)

3.8 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

I Solution
LHS = A + BC = A 1 + BC
= A(1 + B) + BC ( A 1 = A)
= A 1 + AB + BC ( 1 + B = 1)
= A(1 + C) + AB + BC ( A(B + C) = AB + BC)
= A 1 + AC + AB + BC ( 1 + C = 1)
= A A + AC + AB + BC (A A = A)
= A(A + C) + B(A + C)
= (A + B) (A + C) = RHS (Hence proved)

We can also solve it from RHS also.

RHS = (A + B)(A + C)
=AA+AC +BA+BC
= A + AC + AB + BC (A A = A)
= A(1 + C) + AB + BC
= A + AB + BC ( 1 + C = 1)
= A(1 + B) + BC
= A + BC = LHS ( 1 + B = 1) (Hence proved)

X (Proof for distributive property)

Example 3.6 Prove that:

(i) A + AB = A
(ii) A (A + B) = A
(iii) A + AB = A + B
(iv) A (A + B) = AB
I Solution
(i) A + AB = A

LHS = A + AB
= A(1 + B)
= A = RHS ( 1 + B = 1) (Hence proved)
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.9

(ii) A (A + B) = A

LHS = A (A + B)
=AA+AB
= A + AB ( A A = A)
= A(1 + B)
= A = RHS ( 1 + B = 1) (Hence proved)

(iii) A + AB = A + B

LHS = A + AB
= (A + A) (A + B) (Distributive property)
= 1 (A + B) ( A + A = 1)
= A + B = RHS (Hence proved)

(iv) A (A + B) = AB

LHS = A A + A B (Distributive property)

= 0 + AB ( A A = 0)
= AB = RHS (Hence proved)
X (Proof of absorption property)

Example 3.7 Prove that :

(i) AB + AC + BC = AB + AC
(ii) (A + B) (A + C) (B + C) = (A + B) (A + C)

I Solution
(i) AB + AC + BC = AB + AC

LHS = AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + BC(A + A) ( (BC) 1 = BC, A + A = 1)
= AB + AC + ABC + ABC (distributive)
= AB + AC(1 + B) + ABC
= AB(1 + C) + AC
= AB + AC = RHS( 1 + C = 1) (Hence proved)
3.10 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

(ii) (A + B) (A + C) (B + C) = (A + B) (A + C)

LHS = (A + B) (A + C) (B + C)
= (A A + AC + AB + BC) (B + C) (distributive)
= ABC + ACC + ABB + ABC + BBC + BCC (distributive)
= ABC + AC + AB + ABC + BC ( A A = A)
= ABC + AC + AB(1 + C) + BC
= AC(B + 1) + AB + BC ( 1 + C = 1)
= AC + AB + BC ( 1 + B = 1)
= AC + AB + BC + A A ( A A = 0)
= C(A + B) + A(A + B)
= (A + B)(A + C)
= RHS (Hence proved)
X (Proof for consensus law)

Example 3.8 Prove that:

(i) A B + AC = (A + C) (A + B)
(ii) (A + B)(A + C) = AC + AB

I Solution
(i) LHS = AB + AC

= AB + AC + BC (Consensus law)
= AB + AA + AC + BC ( A A = 0)
= A(A + B) + C(A + B)
= (A + C) (A + B) = RHS (Hence proved)

(ii) LHS = (A + B) (A + C)

= A A + A.C + B.A + BC (Distributive)

= 0 + AC + AB + BC (A A = 0)
= AC + AB (Consensus law)
= RHS (Hence Proved)
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.11

X (Proof for transportation law)

Example 3.9 Simplify the expression: AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)

I Solution
AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)

= AB + AB + AC + BB + BC
= AB + AC + B + BC ( AB + AB = AB; B B = B)
= B(1 + A + C) + AC
= B + AC ( 1 + x = 1)

Example 3.10 Simplify : ABC + AB C + A B C + ABC + ABC

I Solution
ABC + AB C + A B C + ABC + ABC

= BC(A + A) + B C(A + A) + ABC

= BC(A + A) + B C(A + A) + ABC ( A + A = 1)
= C(B + AB) + BC
= C(B + A) + BC ( B + AB = B + A)
(absorption property)
= AC + BC + BC

Example 3.11 Simplify : AB + AC + A B C

I Solution
AB + AC + A B C

= AB AC + A B C (De Morgans law)

= (A + B) (A + C) + A B C (De Morgans law)
=AA+AC +AB+B C +AB C
= A + A C + A B + B C(1 + A) ( A A = A)
3.12 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

= A(1 + C) + A B + B C ( 1 + A = 1)
= A(1 + B) + B C
=A+B C

Example 3.12 Simplify : AB + AC + ABC(AB + C)

I Solution
AB + AC + ABC(AB + C)
= AB + AC + ABC AB + ABC C
= AB + A + C + 0 + ABC ( B B = 0; C C = C;)
(De-Morgans law AC = A + C)
= AB + A + C + ABC
= AB + A + C + A B (C + ABC = C + AB; A + A B = A + B)
= A + AB + C + AB
=A+B+C +AB (A + A B = A + B)
=A+AB+B+C
=A+B+B+C
=A+C +1 ( B + B = 1)
=1 ( 1 + x = 1)

Example 3.13 If AB + CD = 0; then prove B + AB + C(A + D) = AB +

BD + BD + A CD = 1

I Solution
LHS = B + AB + C(A + D)
= B + AB + C(A + D) + 0 ( 0 + A = A)
= AB + C(A + D) + AB + CD + B
= AB + A C + C D + AB + CD + B
= B(A + A) + D(C + C) + AC + B
= B + B + D + AC ( A + A = 1)
= 1 + D + AC ( B + B = 1)
=1 (1 + X = 1)
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.13

RHS = AB + BD + BD + A CD
= AB + BD + BD + A CD + 0
= AB + BD + B + D + A CD + AB + CD
= B(A + A) + D(1 + C) + BD + B + A CD
= B + D + BD + B + A CD ( A + A = 1; 1 + C = 1)
= B(1 + D) + D + B + A CD
= B + D + B + A CD (1 + D = 1)
= 1 + D + A CD
=1 (1 + X = 1)
L.H.S = R.H.S. (Hence Proved)

Example 3.14 Simplify: Y = A + AB + A BC + A B CD

I Solution
Y = A + AB + A BC + A B CD
= A + B + A BC + A B CD ( A + AB = A + B)
= A + A BC + B + A B CD
= A + BC + B + A B CD
= A + C + B + A B CD
=A+C +B+AC D
= A + A CD + C + B
= A + CD + C + B
= A + B + C + CD
=A+B+C +D

3.6 Standard Forms of Boolean Expression

All Boolean expression can be converted into either of the two standard forms:
Sum Of Product form (SOP)
Product Of Sum form (POS)
Standardisation makes the evaluation, simplification and implementation of Boolean
expression more systematic and easier.
3.14 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

3.6.1 The Sum Of Product form (SOP)

When two or more product terms are summed by Boolean addition, the resulting
expression is a SOP,
For example,
A + BC, AB + BC etc.

Example 3.15 Convert the following Boolean expression to SOP form.

(i) A + B(CD + DE)

(ii) AB + (B + C)D

I Solution
(i) A + B(CD + DE) = A + BCD + BDE

(ii) AB + (B + C)D

= AB + (B C)D (using De Morgans law)

= AB + B CD

3.6.2 The Product Of Sum form (POS)

When two or more sum terms are multiplied by Boolean multiplication, the re-
sulting expression is a POS.
For example,
(A + B) (C + D), (A + D) B etc.

3.7 Canonical Form

Expressing the Boolean function in Standard SOP form (SSOP) or Standard POS
form (SPOS) is called Canonical form.

3.7.1 Standard SOP form

A standard SOP expression is one, in which all the variables in the domain appear
in each product term in the expression.
For example,
ABC + ABC + A B C
Note: AB + A BC, is not a SSOP, because in the first term AB, C is missing.
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.15

Converting SOP to SSOP

To convert a SOP to SSOP, multiply each non standard product term by a term
made up of the sum of a missing variable and its complement. The example given
below will best describe the conversion procedure.

Example 3.16 Convert the SOP form, f (ABC) = (AB + A BC) into SSOP
form.

I Solution
AB + A BC = AB(C + C) + A BC
(In AB term, C is missing. So we multiply 1 = C + C to that term).
= ABC + ABC + A BC

3.7.2 Standard POS form

A standard POS expression is one in which all the variables in the domain appear
in each sum terms in the expression.
For example,
(A + B + C).(A + B + C)
Converting POS to SPOS form
To convert a POS form to SPOS form, add each non standard sum term by a term
made up of the product of a missing variable and its complement. Then apply
distributive law (A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)).

Example 3.17 Convert the following POS form of f (A, B, C) = (A + B)(B +

C).

I Solution
f = (A + B)(B + C)
The domain of this POS expression is A, B, C.
So, in the first sum term we have to introduce C and in the second sum term
we have to introduce A.

A + B + CC = (A + B + C)(A + B + C)
3.16 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

B + C + A A = (A + B + C)(A + B + C)

Hence, SPOS form of f (A, B, C)

= (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)

3.8 Boolean Expressions and Truth Table

All standard Boolean expressions can be easily converted into truth table format
using binary values for each term in the expression. The truth table is a com-
mon way of representing the logical operation of a circuit. The SSOP and SPOS
expressions can be determined from the truth table.

Determining SSOP and SPOS from truth table

In a given truth table, the combination of the input variables which produces an
output 1, gives the product term, and sum of all the product terms is called SSOP.
The combination of all the input variables which produces an output 0, gives
the sum terms, and the product of all the sum term is called SPOS.
Table 3.4 Truth table
Input Output
A B C Y Product terms Sum terms
0 0 0 0 A+B+C
0 0 1 1 A BC
0 1 0 0 A+B+C
0 1 1 1 ABC
1 0 0 0 A+B+C
1 0 1 0 A+B+C
1 1 0 0 A+B+C
1 1 1 1 ABC

Note: While forming the product terms, any input A can be taken as A when
the corresponding value is 1 and, A when its corresponding value is 0,
whereas it is just the reverse case in the formation of the sum terms.

From the above truth table,

SSOP = A BC + ABC + ABC

 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.17

which, can be represented symbolically as

X
Y (A, B, C) = m(1, 3, 7)
SPOS = (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)
which, can be symbolically represented as
Y
Y (A, B, C) = M (0, 2, 4, 5, 6)
Note: The product terms are also known as min-terms and the sum terms is also
known as max-terms.
If one canonical form is known, then it is possible to determine the other canon-
ical form. As for example if one canonical form of the equation f (x, y, z) =
Q P
M (0, 2, 6), then the other canonical form is f (x, y, z) = m(1, 3, 4, 5, 7).

Example 3.18 If the POS form of the Boolean expression

f (A, B, C) = (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)
Find the SOP form.

I Solution
f (A, B, C) = (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)
= (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)
Y
= M (0, 2, 3) for POS, A + B + C 0 0 0 0
A+B+C 0 1 0 2
A+B+C 0 1 1 3
Therefore, the SOP form is given by,
X
f (A, B, C) = m(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
= A BC + AB C + ABC + ABC + ABC
for SOP, 1 0 0 1 A BC
4 1 0 0 AB C
5 1 0 1 ABC
6 1 1 0 ABC
7 1 1 1 ABC
3.18 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

Note:
1. Sum of all the min terms of a given Boolean function is equal to 1.
For example,
X
f (A, B, C) = m(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) = 1

2. Product of all the max term of a given Boolean function is equal to 0.

For example,
Y
f (A, B, C) = M (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) = 0

2 Concept: Each max term is the complement of its corresponding min terms and vice
versa.
For example, AB is a min term, but, (AB)0 = (A0 + B 0 ) is a max term.

3.9 Karnaugh Map

K-Map is a technique for simplifying a Boolean expression in a simple and sys-
tematic way. It is a modified form of truth table. In this technique, the information
contained in a truth table are available in the POS or SOP form is represented on a
map which is a combination of rows and columns and the number of cells formed
by the rows and columns is determined by the number of variables in the domain.
Number of cells = 2n ; n = number of variables.
For example,
For 2-variable K-map, n = 2
Number of cells = 22 = 4
B
A 0 1
0
0 1
1 2 3

For 3-variable K-map, n = 3

Number of cells = 23 = 8.
So, 8 cells are required to draw a K-map.
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.19

BC
00 01 11 10
A
0
0 1 3 2
1 4 5 7 6

Similarly, for 4-variable K-map, n = 4

Number of cells = 24 = 16.
CD
AB 00 01 11 10

00 0 1 3 2

01 4 5 7 6

11 12 13 15 14

10 8 9 11 10

3.9.1 Rules for constructing a 2-variable K-map

B
A 0 1
0
0 1
1 2 3

3.9.2 Rules for constructing a 3-variable K-map

Variables
Column
headings
BC
A 00 01 11 10

Row 0 0 1 3 2
headings 1 4 5 7 6

Values in the circles

represent cell values

Column headings of the adjacent cells must differ only by one bit. To maintain
this, property gray codes are used.
For example, in general 2bit binary coding, the adjacent values will be as 00,
01, 10, 11. Here in between the adjacent values 01 and 10, 2bit positions are
3.20 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

changed which is overcome by the use of gray code wherein adjacent values are
00, 01, 11, 10.

3.9.3 Rules for constructing a 4-variable K-map

Variables

Column
headings
CD 00 01 11 10
AB
00 0 1 3 2

Row 01
4 5 7 6
headings
11 12 13 15 14

10 8 9 11 10

Each cell value is determined by combining the row heading and column heading
of the cell. As for example, the cell value 7 can be determined by combining
its corresponding row value (01) and column value (11); where the combination
gives ( |{z}
01 11 ) = ( |{z}
|{z} 7 )10
Row value column value cell value

3.9.4 Mapping of truth table and a standard expression in K-map

Only Standard SOP (or SPOS) forms (canonical forms) can be used to construct
a K-Map.
The non-standard form, if present, needs to be converted into its correspond-
ing SSOP or SPOS form first before representing it in a K-Map.

K-map representation for 2 - variable truth table

Truth table
Table 3.5 Truth table
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.21

K-map
By looking at the K-map, the positions of 1s gives the SOP expression and the
positions of 0s gives POS expression.
B (B B)
A 0 1
A 0 1 0 0 1

A 1 1 2 0 3

SOP expression = A B + AB
POS expression = (A + B) (A + B) [Since in POS, complements of the
input variables are taken]

K-map simplification of SOP expression

P
Let Y (A, B, C) = m(1, 2, 5, 6, 7)
Table 3.6 Truth table
Inputs Output
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

2 Concept: Redundant loop: A redundant loop is one which is completely unneces-

sary in the K-map, that is, if all the 1s in any pair, quad, or octet in a K-map are shared
in another pair, quad, or octet etc, then the loop formed by the 1s is a redundant loop.

BC BC BC BC BC
A 11 10
00 01

A 0 1 1
0 1 3 2
A 1 1 1 1
4 5 7 6

Redundant loop
3.22 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

Rules
1. To write the reduced and most simplified SOP expression, we need to loop
all the 1s.
2. To write the reduced and most simplified POS expression, we need to loop
all the 0s.
3. A loop must contain either 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16....... which are all powers of 2.
In the case of 2-variable K-map, 22 = 4 cells is the maximum loop.
4. Each cell in a loop must be adjacent to one or more cells in that same loop,
but all cells in the loop do not have to be adjacent to each other.
5. Always include the largest possible number of 1s in a loop.
6. Each 1 on the K-map, must be included in at least one loop.

Now, keeping in mind the above rules, the grouping shown above is self-explanatory.
The required SOP expression is,

BC + BC + AB + AC Redundant


Reduced SOP, = BC + BC + AB
The min term or product term is found by considering a loop formed by the
group of 1s and is represented by the input variables which remain constant across
the row and the column.
For example,
BC BC BC BC BC
A 00 01 11 10

A 0 1
0 1 3 2

A 1 4 1 5 7 6

BC is constant for the loop 1 across the column. But the row values of the
loop is different. So, the min term for the loop is BC.

P
Example 3.19 Simplify the Boolean function f (A, B, C) = m(2, 3, 4, 5)
using K-map.
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.23

I Solution
The K-map can be drawn as

BC L1
00 01 11 10
A
0 1 1
0 1 3 2
1 1 4 1 5 7 6
L2

L1 AB [The loops L1 and L2 gives the min terms]

L2 AB
So, the reduced expression is
f (A, B, C) = AB + AB

P
Example 3.20 Simplify the Boolean expression f (A, B, C) = m(3, 4, 6, 7)
using K-map.

I Solution
The K-map can be drawn as:
BC L1
A 00 01 11 10
0 1
0 1 3 2
1 1 4 5 1 7 1 6

L2

Note: The 4th and the 6th cells are adjacent cells. So, combining them as a loop
can be done.

L1 BC
L2 AC [The loops L1 and L2 gives the min terms]
So, the reduced expression is
f (A, B, C) = BC + AC

P
Example 3.21 Simplify the Boolean expression f (A, B, C) = m(0, 2, 4, 5, 6)
using K-map.
3.24 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

I Solution
The K-map can be drawn as
BC
A 00 01 11 10
0 1 0 1 3 1 2
1 1 4 1 5 7 1 6

L1

L2

As we know from the rules, while forming a loop, the goal is to maximise the
size of the loop and minimise the number of loops, so we always need to include
the largest possible number of 1s in a loop.
L2 has to be quad (4 cells) and not a pair (2 cells)
L1 AB
L2 C [The loops L1 and L2 gives the min terms]
So, the reduced expression is

f (A, B, C) = AB + C

Example 3.22 Simplify the following Boolean expression:

F (A, B, C) = A BC + ABC + ABC + ABC

I Solution
F (A, B, C) = A BC + ABC + ABC + ABC
001 010 110 111
(1) (2) (6) (7)
The K-map can be drawn as
BC L3 L1
A 00 01 11 10
0
0 1 1 3 1 2
1 4 5 1 7 1 6

L2
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.25

L1 BC
L2 AB
L3 A BC [The loops L1, L2 and L3 gives the min terms]
So, the reduced expression is

f (A, B, C) = BC + AB + A B C

Example 3.23 Simplify the Boolean expression, F (A, B, C) = A + AB +

ABC, using K-map.

I Solution
The expression is obviously not in standard form because each product term does
not have 3 variables.
The first term (A) misses 2 variables and the second term (AB) misses 1
variable and the third term is standard.
So, in order to map the above SOP expression we need to convert it into its
corresponding canonical (standard) form:

A + AB + ABC

Converting the above expression into canonical form:

A(B + B)(C + C) + AB(C + C) + ABC

= A B C + A BC + ABC + ABC + AB C + ABC + ABC

So, the K-map can be drawn as,

BC L3
A 00 01 11 10
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
3 2
1 1 4 1 5 7 1 6

L2
L1

L1 C
L2 B
3.26 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

L3 A [The loops L1, L2 and L3 gives the min terms]

So, the reduced expression is

f (A, B, C) = A + B + C

Example 3.24 Simplify the Boolean expression, F (A, B, C, D) =

P
m(7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) using K-map method.

I Solution
The K-map for the above function is shown below:

L1 BCD
L2 AB
L3 AD
L4 AC [The loops L1, L2 and L3 gives the min terms]
So, the reduced expression is

f (A, B, C) = BCD + AB + AD + AC

Example 3.25 Plot the logical expression ABCD + AB C D + ABC + AB

on a 4-variable K-map and obtain the simplified expression.

I Solution
ABCD + AB C D + ABC + AB
First we need to convert the SOP form into canonical SOP form, that is
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.27

F (A, B, C, D) = ABCD+AB C D+ABC(D+D)+AB(C +C)(D+D)

CD 00 01 11 10
AB
00 0 1 3 2
01
4 5 7 6

11 1 12 1 13 1 15 1 14

10 1 8 9 1 11 1 10

Loop 3 Loop 1 Loop 2

Loop1 AC
Loop2 AD
Loop3 AB [The loops L1, L2 and L3 gives the min terms]
So, the reduced expression is

F (A, B, C, D) = AC + AD + AB

Example 3.26 Simplify the boolean expression F (A, B, C, D) = m1 + m3 +

m5 + m7 + m8 + m9 + m12 + m13, using K-map.

I Solution
F (A, B, C, D) = m1 + m3 + m5 + m7 + m8 + m9 + m12 + m13
X
= m(1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13)

L1

CD
00 01 11 10
AB
00 1 1
0 1 3 2

01 1
4 1 5 7 6

11 1 12
1 13 15 14

10 1 1
8 9 11 10

L3 L2
3.28 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

If the quad loop-2 is formed, as shown by dotted lines, then it results in a

redundant expression.
F (A, B, C, D) = AD + CD + AC
But the loop-2 being redundant is completely unnecessary, as all the elements
in the loop-2 are already shared by other two loops (L1 and L3). So, the final
reduced expression is given by,
F (A, B, C, D) = AD + AC

K-map simplification of POS expression

Q
Let Y (A, B, C) = M (0, 3, 4)
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

BC L1 L2
00 01 11 10
A
0 0 0
0 1 3 2
1 0 4 5 6
7

The rules to be followed for the simplification of POS expression is similar to

the rules mentioned for SOP simplification.
L1 B + C
L2 A + B + C [The loops L1, L2 and L3 gives the max terms]
So, the reduced expression is
F (A, B, C) = (B + C) + (A + B + C)

Example 3.27 Simplify the Boolean expression given by the function,

Q
F (A, B, C) = M (0, 1, 6, 7), using K-map.
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.29

I Solution
The K-map can be drawn as
BC L1
00 01 11 10
A
0 0 0 0 1 3 2
1 4 1 5 0 7 0 6

L2

L1 A + B
L2 A + B [The loops L1 and L2 gives the max terms]
So, the reduced POS expression is
f (A, B, C) = (A + B) + (A + B)

Example 3.28 Simplify the following Boolean expression F (A, B, C, D) =

P
m(1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)? using K-map.

I Solution
P
F (A, B, C, D) = m(1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) is in SOP form
and can be converted into POS form for easier simplification.
Q
So, F (A, B, C, D) = M (0, 4)
The K-map can be drawn as
Loop 1

CD 11
00 01 10
AB
0
00 0 1 3 2
01 0 4 5 7 6

11 12 13 15 14

10 8 9 11 10

Loop1 (A + C + D)
So, the reduced Boolean expression is
f (A, B, C, D) = (A + C + D)
3.30 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

3.10 Dont Care Condition

Dont cares in a Karnaugh map, or truth table, may be either 1s or 0s, as long as
we dont care what the output is, for a given input condition that we never expect
to see.
Dont care may also refer to an unknown value in a multi-valued logic sys-
tem, in which case it may also be called an X value.
For example, in BCD code, there are six invalid combinations. These six
invalid combinations are treated as dont care.

For these dont care terms either 1 or a 0 may be assigned to the output. It
really doesnt matter since they will never occur. Whenever a dont care condition
exists, we treat it either as a 1 or 0 in the K-map so as to maximise the size of
the loop. Hence, a most reduced expression is obtained.
If we draw a K-map for the above truth table with and without dont care
condition, we can visualise the difference easily.
CD CD
00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10
AB AB
00 0 1 3 2 00 0 1 3 2

01 1 01 1
4 5 7 6 4 5 7 6

11 X X X X 11
12 13 15 14 12 13 15 14

10 1 1 X X 10 1 1
8 9 11 10 8 9 11 10

With don't care Without don't care

F = A + BCD F = AB C + ABCD
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.31

Example 3.29 Simplify the following boolean expression, F (A, B, C, D) =

P P
m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7) + d(8, 10, 11, 15) using K-map.

I Solution
The K-map can be drawn as
CD
00 01 11 10
AB
00 1 1 1
0 1 3 2

01
4 5 1 7
1 6
L1

11 X
12 13 15 14

10 X X X L2
8 9 11 10

)
L1 AC
Represents min terms
L2 B D

Hence, the reduced expression is F (A, B, C, D) = AC + B D

3.11 Prime Implicants

A group of one or more 1s which are adjacent and can be combined on a Kar-
naugh Map is called an implicant.
The biggest group of 1s which can be circled to cover a given 1 is called a
prime implicant.
Note: All possible loops are prime implicants.
3.32 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

When looking for a minimal solution -only circle prime implicant. A minimal
solution will never contain non-prime implicants.

Essential prime implicants

A prime implicant (loop) on a Karnaugh map which covers at least one 1 which
is not covered by any other prime implicant(loop) , is called an essential prime
implicant.
The example shown above has a total of four loops (prime implicant), out of
which all the loops are not required to get the minimal solution.

So, total number of essential prime implicant is 3.

Example 3.30 For the given k-map, find the prime implicants, and essential
prime implicants.
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.33

I Solution

Total number of possible loops = 4

So, number of prime implicants = 4
Prime implicants are = B D, B C, ABD, C D
Loop no.4 is not essential as it is redundant.
So, Essential prime implicants are B D, B C, ABD.

3.12 Five Variable K-Map

DE BC DE
BC 00 01 11 10 10 11 01 00

00 00
0 1 3 2 18 19 17 16

01 01
4 5 7 6 22 23 21 20

11 11
12 13 15 14 30 31 29 28

10 10
8 9 11 10 26 27 25 24
A=0 A=1

A five variable K-map contains = 32 cells which is used to simplify any 5

25
variable logic expression. A five variable (A,B,C,D,E) K-map can be treated as
two separate 4-variable (B,C,D,E) K-maps, consisting of 16 cells each. One map
is for A = 0 and the other for A = 1 as shown.

Example 3.31 Simplify the Boolean expression:

X X
F (A, B, C, D, E) = m(1, 5, 7, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 22, 25, 29) + d(6, 9, 19, 23, 30)
3.34 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

I Solution
The K-map for the given function is shown below:

L1 can be formed by combining 8 cells together, as there is only one bit

change from column-1 to column-2. So, they are adjacent.
Column-1 001 Column-2 101

L1 DE

L2 ACD The min terms can be found by loops L1, L2 and L3.


L3 A B D
So, the reduced expression is

F (A, B, C, D, E) = DE + ACD + A B D

Brain teasers
1. The minimum Boolean expression for the circuit is
B

A
C

Input Output
A B

A
C
B
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.35

I Solution
Considering parallel connection of switches as OR (+) and series connec-
tion of switches as AND (.), the above circuit can be expressed as,

A(B + C) + AB + (A + BC) = AB + AC + AB + AC + BC
= B(A + A) + A(C + C) + BC
( A + A = 1)
= B + A + BC
= A + B + C ( B + BC = B + C)

2. Simplify F (A, B, C) = AB + (A + B)C

I Solution
F = AB + (A + B)C
= AB + (AB)C ( A + B = AB)
= AB + C ( A + AB = A + B)

3. In a n-variable K-map combining 16 cells at a time, the number of literals

present in the result is?

I Solution
Total combination = 2n (for n variable)
We have to combine 16 cells at a time. So, the combination with 4 literals
= 24
Number of literals present in the result is n 4.
4. How many min terms the function f (v, w, x, y, z) = x + y z contains:
(i) Including redundant
(ii) Excluding redundant

I Solution
(i) f = x + y z

= x (w + w) (v + v) (y + y) (z + z) + y z (w + w) (v + v) (x + x)
| {z } | {z }
4 3

Total number of min terms/prime implicants = 23 + 24 = 24

So, total number of min terms including redundant terms is 24
3.36 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

(ii) f = x + y z
Here in the expression of f , only w and v are absent.
So, number of redundant = 22 = 4
Total number of min terms excluding redundant = 24 4 = 20
terms

5. The K-map of 4-variable Boolean function A, B, C, D is shown in figure.

X indicates dont care combinations. The minimal SOP expression for the
function is
CD
AB 00 01 11 10

00
1 1 1 X
0 1 3 2

01 0 0 1 1
4 5 7 6

11
0 0 1 1
12 13 15 14

10 1 1 1 X
8 9 11 10

I Solution
CD
AB 00 01 11 10

00
1 1 1 X
0 1 3 2

01 0 0 1 1
4 5 7 6

11 0 0 1 1
12 13 15 14

10 1 1 1 X
8 9 11 10

As less number of zeros are present, we can form POS form easily which
gives: F = A + D
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.37

6. Find the Boolean function in SOP form whose K-map is given below as:
C
B 0 1
0 1 0 1 1
1 A 2 A 3

I Solution

If A = 0;
The K-map is modified to,
C
B 0 1
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 2 0 3

So, F = B
If A = 1;
The K-map is modified to,
C
B 0 1
0 1 0 1 1
1 1 2 1 3

So, F = 1 = A
Combining both F = A + B

Exercises
3.1 Using Boolean algebra, simplify the following expression:

a) A BC + A + B + C + A B CD
b) (B + BC)(B + BC)(D + B)

3.2 Using Boolean algebra, simplify the following expression:

a) AB + BB + C + B
b) (AB + AC)(BC + BC)(ABC)
3.38 Digital Electronics, an easy approach to learn

3.3 Find the standard SOP and POS form from the given truth table:

a) Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
b)

Input Output
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

3.4 Find the complement of the expression given below:

a) AB(CD + BC) b) AB + CD

3.5 Convert the given SOP to a standard SOP form:

a) AB + BC b) A + BCD

3.6 Convert the following to standard POS form:

a) (A + B)(B + C) b) (A + D)(B + C + D)

3.7 Use the K-map to reduce each expression to a minimum SOP form:

a) A B C + A BC + A BC + ABC
b) AB CD + ACD + BC D + A BC D
3.8 Use the K-map method to simplify the following function:
P
F (A, B, C, D) = m(1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13)
 Boolean Algebra and Reduction Technique 3.39

Answers for exercises

3.1 a) A BC + A B D b) B

3.2 a) 1 b) 0

3.3 a) A B + AB, (A + B)(A + B)

b) A BC + ABC + AB C + ABC,
(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)

3.4 a) ABD + C b) (A + B)(C + D)

3.5 a) ABC + ABC + ABC

b) ABCD + ABCD + ABCD + AB CD + ABCD + AB C D +
ABCD + A BCD + A B CD + ABC D + ABCD

3.6 a) (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)

b) (A + B + C + D)(A + B + C + D)(A + B + C + D)(A + B + C +
D)(A + B + C + D)

3.7 a) No further simplification possible

b) BCD + ACD + BCD + ACD

3.8 f = AD + AB + CD + BC