9.

3 The Acidic Environment

1. Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of
some flowers depends on soil composition
1.1 classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral
Acids

- provide hydrogen ions

- e.g. sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, acetic acid, citric acid
- conduct electricity
- blue litmus to red
- react with metals to form salts and hydrogen gas
- react with carbonates to form water and salt

Bases

- react with acids to form hydroxide ions e.g. sodium hydroxide,

- soluble metallic oxides and bases are alkalis
- glass, soap, paper and textiles
- conduct electricity in solution
- react with acids to produce salt and water

Neutral Substances

- nor acidic or basic

- do not form ions in solution
- e.g. alcohol and water and sugar
- CO N2O and NO are neutral
- Strong acids+ strong bases = neutral e.g. NaCl

1.2 identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange

and bromothymol blue can be used to determine the acidic or basic nature
of a material over a range, and that the range is identified by change in
indicator colour

Acidic Basic Use

Litmus red Blue Neutral
Phenolphthalein colourless Pink Basic substances
Bromothymol blue yellow blue Neutral
Methyl orange Red Yellow Acidic substances
1.3 identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including the
testing of soil acidity/basicity
Indicators can be used for a variety of sampling and testing measurements for pH. Soil pH for
agriculture can be measured using indicators to identify whether the soil is suitable for use and
growth.

- Barium sulfate (white powder) is sprinkled on the soil sample, universal indicator can
be used to saturate this then identify the colour and match it with the pH scale to
determine pH of the soil

Aquarium water needs to be tested to ensure water is adequate pH as fish are highly sensitive to
changes in water pH.

Swimming pools need to be tested to avoid damage to eyes and skin. Adding chlorine can can
regulate these levels and prevent algae from growing.

1A perform a first-hand investigation to prepare and test a natural

indicator
Using red cabbage

1B identify data and choose resources to gather information about the

colour changes of a range of indicators
X

1C solve problems by applying information about the colour changes of

indicators to classify some household substances as acidic, neutral or basic

Household substance Acidic, neutral or basic

Citrus fruits Acidic
Coke Acidic
Vinegar Acidic
Milk Neutral
Water Neutral
Salt Neutral
Sugar Neutral
Detergent Basic
Bleach Basic
Soap Basic

Chemicals

Chemical Nature Use

Acetic or Ethanoic Acid Acidic Preserves food, pickling
(vinegar)
Ethanol Neutral Fuels, alcohol, methyl spirits
Sodium hydrogen Basic Baking soda
carbonate
 Magnesium sulfate Slightly basic Epsom salts
Sodium hydroxide Basic Drain cleaner, detergent

2. While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the

atmosphere naturally contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and
sulfur. The concentrations of these acidic oxides have been increasing
since the Industrial Revolution

2.1 identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the
conditions under which they act as acids
Many oxides of non-metals are acidic oxides.

They react with water to form acidic solutions:

Acidic oxide + water > acid

e.g. CO2 + H2O > H2CO3 (carbonic acid) from the combustion of carbon and oxygen

They react with bases to form salts:

Acidic oxide + base > salt + water

e.g. CO2 + 2NaOH > Na2CO3 + H2O

Other non-metal oxides that form acids are:

- Sulfuric dioxide to form sulphurous acid/sulfuric acid

- Carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid
- Nitrogen dioxide to form nitric acid/nitrous acid

2.2 define Le Chateliers principle

The principle the concentration of reactants and products in a mixture at equilibrium will alter
so as to counteract any change in concentration, temperature or gas pressure.

1. equal rate of reaction is equilibrium

2. must be in an enclosed system
3. macroscopic properties remain constant
4. the rate of forward reaction equals the rate of reverse reaction
5. there will always be some reactant and product

E.g. methylated spirits evaporate in the bottle whilst particles in the air also redissolve back into
the solution forming equilibrium
2.3 identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction
1. Increasing concentration of the reactant will drive it in a forwards direction (to the right).
Increasing the concentration of the product will drive it in a reverse direction (to the left)

2. Changing the temperature can alter equilibrium by shifting to minimise the change.
Increasing temperature of endothermic reactions will cause more product to be created
whereas increasing temperature of exothermic reactions will cause more product to be created.

3. Changing gas pressure will cause a shift in equilibrium to favour the side with less particles.
Increasing pressure of a 2:1 mole gas will cause a shift to the right.

2.4 describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various

conditions as an equilibrium process and explain in terms of Le Chateliers
principle
Carbon dioxide in water is more soluble at lower temperature. Carbon dioxide is less soluble at
high temperatures. The atmosphere is the enclosed system for carbon dioxide from a gas to
aqueous solution. If pressure increases carbon dioxide will more readily dissolve in water. If
temperature increases carbon dioxide will more readily become a gas.

2.5 identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen
Nitrogen oxides nitrogen monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), dinitrogen monoxide (N2O)

Natural Industrial
Oxides of nitrogen lightning strikes Car engines and
soil bacteria power stations
burning organic Combustion of fossil
matter fuels
Sulfur dioxide volcanoes smelting of ores
burning organic combustion in cars
matter fires combustion of fossil
hot springs fuels though low
decomposition amounts
manufacture of
sulfuric acid

2.6 describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release

sulfur dioxide and chemical reactions which release oxides of nitrogen
Sulfur dioxide

smelting of metal ores such as zinc > 2ZnS + O2 > 2ZnO + 2SO2
sulfur as part of compounds such as coal and combustion of these S + O2 > SO2

Oxides of nitrogen

lightning strikes on atmospheric gases nitrogen and oxygen N2 + O2 > 2NO

NO reacts with oxygen to form NO + O2 > NO2
Combustion of nitrogen from power stations and car engines N2 + O2 > NO2
2.7 assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric
concentration of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen
It is difficult to find evidence for the accumulation of nitrogen and sulfur oxides as they are
concentrated in very small amounts, 0.1 to 0.001 ppm. It is washed away easily in the air by
currents. Accuracy of instruments to measure these gases are improving and hence enabling us
to see the increase of accumulating sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. Over the last
150 years, nitrous oxide has increased by 15% while carbon dioxide by 30%.

2.8 calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substances in

reactions, and calculate masses of substances given gaseous volumes, in
reactions involving gases at 0C and 100kPa or 25C and 100kPa
In balanced equations, number of moles is equal throughout the whole equation regarding
balanced numbers.

2.9 explain the formation and effects of acid rain

Gases in the atmosphere including oxides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide readily
dissolve with water in the atmosphere in the form of water vapour. This reaction between non-
metals and water creates a weak acid. Although these fall as rain and are washed out from the
atmosphere they can be highly detrimental to the Earths surface.

Plant growth is affected due to change in soil pH, plants cannot tolerate and growth is
stunted or leaves are defoliated
Acids can react with nutrients in soils and leach of essential plant chemicals
Lakes and rivers are altered in pH and aquatic organisms, highly sensitive to these
changes, may die
Buildings, statues and structures become corroded over time due to the reaction
between calcium carbonate and acids to form carbon dioxide, water and calcium
sulphate
These acid rains can be spread by air currents and hence affect a wide range of regions
Inhalation of toxic gases may cause respiratory issues or even death (asthma, lung
cancer)

2A identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to

decarbonate soft drink and gather data to measure the mass changes
involved and calculate the volume of gas released at 25C and 100kPa
Volume of gas 4.47L/L of carbonate soft drink

2B analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the

industrial origins of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen and evaluate
reasons for concern about their release into the environment
Post industrial revolution of 19th century released great amounts of gas emissions both
carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide from burning coal and extracting metals.
This caused air pollution and consequently death rates increased
 Oxides of nitrogen did not accumulate until 20th century when power stations, use of
electricity and motor vehicles became more popular
Photochemical smog was produced
Increasing populations, use of electricity and motor vehicles has maintained levels of air
pollution
Average concentration of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are about 0.01ppm each,
10 times greater than clean air
Short term, these gas levels fluctuate and sometimes exceed safety levels and hence pose
a hazard and health risk to people
Their release into the environment creates many issues regarding people, animals and
the environment

2C analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table and

outline the relationship between position of elements in the Periodic Table
and acidity/basicity of oxides
Acid oxides are generally oxides of non-metals, to the right and top

Basic oxides are generally oxides of metals, to the left

Amphoteric oxides are generally near transitional metals and amphiprotic oxides Al2O3

3. Acids occur in many foods, drinks and even within our stomachs
3.1 define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in
water
Acids proton donors, the hydrogen ion reacts with the water molecule to form a hydronium
ion. These are ionisation reactions as the hydrogen ionises with water.

3.2 identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2- hydroxypropane-

1,2,3- tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and sulfuric acid

Acetic/ethanoic acid/vinegar

Weak acid and hence is written in equilibrium

Vinegar is 4% ethanoic acid

Citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid)

Monoprotic
Weak acid
Found in citrus fruits

Hydrochloric Acid

Monoprotic
Strong acid as it readily ionises with water
In human stomachs
 Industrial applications

Sulfuric Acid

Diprotic
Strong acid
Manufacturing for fertilisers, explosives and petroleum as well as car batteries

3.3 describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases
Acids proton donors

Bases proton acceptors

The pH scale is a standard by which the potential of hydrogen ions in the solution can be
measured by a logarithmic system. Acids have a lower pH and bases have a higher pH >7.

3.4 describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the terms
strong, weak, concentrated and dilute
Strong acids completely ionise in water for example HCl will 100% ionise in water

Weak acids only partially ionise in water for example ethanoic acid will only ionise 1% in
water

Concentrated acid refers to the amount of particles of solute dissolved in the water

Dilute acid has much more water compared to solute in the solution

3.5 identify pH as -log10 [H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means a

ten-fold change in [H+]
Each unit of the pH scale shows a ten-fold change in the concentration of hydrogen ions in the
solution. pH is dependent on concentration, strength, temperature and whether the substance is
monoprotic, diprotic or triprotic.

pH = -log10[H+]

[H+] = 10^-pH

[H+] x [OH-] = 1 x 10^-14 - ionisation constant of water

* be careful when calculating diprotic (x2) or triprotic (x3) substances

3.6 compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic

and hydrochloric acids and explain in terms of the degree of ionisation of
their molecules
The strength of an acid depends on how readily that acid can donate a proton. Degree of
ionisation = [H+] / [weak acid] x 100 %.
3.7 describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of an
equilibrium between the intact molecule and its ions
The reaction between hydrochloric acid and water is complete as the acid is strong and hence
fully ionises in water. There is very little tendency for the chloride ions to re join the H+.

Weak acids such as ethanoic acid only ionise 1% in water and hence is in equilibrium as the
hydrogen ion will continue to re-join and then release.

3A solve problems and perform a firsthand investigation to use pH

meters/probes and indicators to distinguish between acidic, basic and
neutral chemicals
C1V1 = C2V2 is only used for concentration and dilution nothing else.

3B plan and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the pH of

identical concentrations of strong and weak acids
X

3C gather and process information from secondary sources to write ionic

equations to represent the ionisation of acids
X

3D use available evidence to model the molecular nature of acids and

simulate the ionisation of strong and weak acids
X

3E gather and process information from secondary sources to explain the

use of acids as food additives
Acids are used as food additives due to its properties which inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Hence weak and dilute acids are suitable for human consumption and prevention of bacterial
growth increasing shelf life. Common acids for this use include acetic acid and citric acid.

3F identify data, gather and process information from secondary sources to

identify examples of naturally occurring acids and bases and their chemical
composition
Naturally occurring organic acids include

Citric acid
Carboxylic acid
Oxalic acid
Salicylic acid
Lactic acid
Tartaric acid

3G process information from secondary sources to calculate pH of strong

acids given appropriate hydrogen ion concentrations
4. Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have been
used and studied for hundreds of years. Over time, the definitions of
acid and base have been refined
4.1 outline the historical development of ideas about acids including those
of: Lavoisier Davy Arrhenius

Lavoisier (1780s)

All acids contain oxygen which gave rise to their acidity

Many substances with oxygen were basic not just acidic as well as some acids e.g. HCl
did not contain oxygen

Davy (1815)

Disproved Lavoisiers theory

Noticed that metals could displace hydrogen from acids hence acids contained hydrogen
English chemist

Arrhenius (1884)

Acids ionise to produce a hydrogen ion in solution

Bases ionise to produce hydroxide ions in solution
Strength of acid is dependent on degree of ionisation
Explained that neutralisation was a reaction between a hydrogen ion and a hydroxide
ion
There were some complications that he could not solve:
o Only applied to aqueous solutions
o Doesnt explain that some salts can act as acids or bases
o Does not explain amphoteric substances that act as both bases and acids

Bronsted and Lowry (1923)

Working independently arrived at a new theory

Acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors
The importance of solvent in the reaction where it is part of the ionisation process

4.2 outline the Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases

Bronsted and Lowry (1923)

Working independently arrived at a new theory

Acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors
The importance of solvent in the reaction where it is part of the ionisation process
4.3 describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a
base and its conjugate acid
Every acid has a conjugate base and every base has a conjugate acid.

A strong acid has a weak conjugate base

A strong base has a weak conjugate acid
A moderately weak acid has a moderately weak conjugate base

Acid + water > H3O+ + conjugate base

Base + water > OH- + conjugate acid

4.4 identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions
and explain their acidic, neutral or basic nature
Salt formed by the neutralisation reaction between an acid and a base and they can be acidic,
basic or neutral

Basic salt formed from the reaction between a strong base and a weak acid e.g. sodium acetate

Acidic salt formed from the reaction between a strong acid and a weak base e.g. ammonium
chloride

Neutral salt formed form the reaction between a strong acid and strong base or a weak acid
and weak base e.g. NaCl or Ammonium acetate

4.5 identify conjugate acid/base pairs

4.6 identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe
their behaviour in acidic and basic solutions
Amphiprotic can act as an acid or a base in the group of amphoteric substances

H2O > OH- or H3O

HCO3- (hydrogen carbonate ion) > H2CO3 or CO3^2-
HS-
HPO4-
HSO4-

They possess both a hydrogen or a negative charge

4.7 identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is

exothermic
Acid + base > water + salt

Neutralisation reactions are proton transfer reactions.

H3O+ + OH- > H2O

The hydronium ion transfers a proton to the hydroxide ion and hence a proton transfer results
in the neutralisation of acid and base to form water (+ a salt)

Neutralisation is an exothermic reaction whereby heat is released into the atmosphere and the
enthalpy change is negative (delta H). It is approximately usually -56kj/mol

4.8 describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and

preparation of standard solutions
Neutralisation reactions are used to identify the concentration of an unknown sample in a
process known as titration. A standard solution is added to the unknown solution until the
solutions are complete and neutralisation has occurred at the equivalence point.

Steps for titration

1. Clean the burette with acid solution 3 times

2. Fill the burette over the etched 0 mark and release until no air bubbles are present and
the meniscus lies on zero
3. Clean the pipette with the unknown solution 3 times
4. Fill the pipette over the etched volume and release until no air bubbles are present and
the meniscus is lying on the point
5. Add indicator to the flask
6. Slowly run the acid into the unknown solution whilst continuously swirling
7. Stop immediately when the unknown solution changes colour from the indicator
8. Record the volume on the burette
9. Repeat several times to obtain sustained results for accuracy
10. Average out results and calculate concentration of solution

Titration issues:
 - Mass change of solution and hence concentration is unreliable
- Reacts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form precipitates
- Absorbs water from the atmosphere

Indicator selection is dependent on the equivalence point of the reaction between the two.

A standard solution is one that has a known exact concentration. Common acids can react with
the atmosphere and hence form precipitates or change pH concentration and hence they are
ambiguous. A standard solution must be prepared. A primary standard (high stability and
purity) must be titrated against the acid to be the standard solution. Primary standards include

Oxalic acid
Sodium carbonate
Sodium hydrogen carbonate

4.9 qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific

example in a natural system
Buffers solution that tends to resist any change in pH when small amounts of acid or base are
added to it, it includes a weak acid and the weak acid salt or a weak base and the weak base salt.
Comparable amounts of a weak acid and its conjugate base

E.g. acetic acid and sodium acetate, ammonium chloride and ammonia, carbonic acid and
hydrogen carbonate

In the natural system buffers are used to regulate control over small changes in pH for example
carbonic acid in lakes and rivers. As carbonic acid rain falls into rivers and lakes the equilibrium
is shifted to the right, the hydrogen carbonate ions from surrounding rocks are able to balance
out the lowering pH by shifting the equilibrium back to the left and increasing pH to balanced
levels.

It also occurs in the human body by the kidneys for removal of metabolic wastes without
lowering pH and hence buffers are used. Haemoglobin is also a buffer which is a base that can
act as an acid (though amphiprotic) to neutralise the blood. HbH+ + O2 <> HbO2 + H+

Plasma builds up from respiration H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and hence drives the equilibrium to
the right to produce more hydrogen ions and hence lowering pH. The kidney then releases more
hydrogen carbonate ions to balance out the hydronium ions and hence returns equilibrium back
to the centre.

4A gather and process information from secondary sources to trace

developments in understanding and describing acid/base reactions
X

4B choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to identify the

pH of a range of salt solutions
Sodium carbonate - basic

Potassium sulfate - neutral

Ammonium chloride - acidic

Sodium chloride - neutral

Ammonium nitrate acidic

4C perform a first-hand investigation and solve problems using titrations

and including the preparation of standard solutions, and use available
evidence to quantitatively and qualitatively describe the reaction between
selected acids and bases
X

4D perform a first-hand investigation to determine the concentration of a

domestic acidic substance using computer-based technologies
X

4E analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of

neutralisation reactions as a safety measure or to minimise damage in
accidents or chemical spills
Amphiprotic substances are used for the clean-up of both acidic and basic chemical spills

- They are in a powdered form and hence do not spread instead absorb and are easy to
clean
- Non-toxic
- E.g. sodium hydrogen carbonate (bi-carb soda)
- Always add acid to a large volume of water instead of adding water to a large volume of
acid as this reaction is highly exothermic and can be dangerous (water has a high
specific heat capacity and hence absorbs heat from reaction)